HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

FBRC Wesleyan University Philippines College of Nursing and Allied Medical Sciences AY 2021-22
SENSES
➢ability to perceive stimuli
➢Sensation: conscious awareness of stimuli received by sensory neurons
➢Sensory receptors
a. General senses:
➢Somatic senses
➢ Visceral senses

b. Special senses
SPECIAL SENSES
➢Sight/Vision
➢Smell/Olfaction
➢Taste
➢Hearing and Balance
THE EYE: VISION
➢Eye – a sphere that measures about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter
➢Orbits – bony cavities where the eyes are housed
 Accessory Structures
➢Eyebrows
➢Eyelids
➢ Blinking

➢Conjunctiva
➢ Conjunctivitis – inflammation of the conjunctiva

➢Lacrimal Apparatus
➢ Lacrimal gland
➢ Lacrimal canaliculi
➢ Lacrimal duct

➢Extrinsic Eye Muscles: 4 rectus muscles & 2 oblique muscles

Internal Structures of the Eye
➢3 Tunics
➢Fibrous tunic – outermost layer; sclera
and cornea
➢Vascular tunic – contains most of the
blood vessels of the eye; choroid, ciliary
body, lens, iris, pupil
➢Nervous tunic – innermost tunic; retina
Fibrous Tunic
➢Outermost layer
➢Sclera – “white of the eye”; maintains the shape of the eye
➢Cornea – “window”; permits light to enter
➢The only tissue in the body that is transplanted from one person to another
without the worry of rejection.
Vascular Tunic
➢Middle layer
REGIONS:
a. Choroid – contains a dark pigment; absorbs light so that it is not
reflected inside
b. Ciliary body – responsible for accommodation
➢Lens – flexible, biconvex, transparent disc
c. Iris – colored part of the eye; regulates diameter of the pupil
➢Pupil – controls the amount of light entering the eyes
Sensory/Nervous Tunic
➢Retina – covers the posterior 5/6 of the eye
◦ Pigmented retina – keeps light from reflecting back into the eye
◦ Sensory retina – contains photoreceptors which respond to light
a. Rods
• Rhodopsin – photosensitive pigment; breaks down into opsin (colorless protein) and retinal (yellow
pigment)
b. Cones
• Red, Blue, Green – major types of color sensitive opsin
• Total Color blindness
• Partial color blindness
Lens
➢a flexible biconvex crystal-like structure
a. Anterior chamber (Aqueous)
◦ Aqueous humor – watery fluid that helps maintain pressure within the eye
b. Posterior chamber (Vitreous)
◦ Vitreous humor – transparent, jelly-like substance that helps maintain pressure within
the eye
➢Ophthalmoscope and Tonometer
➢Cataract
➢Glaucoma
Physiology of Vision
Visual
Pathways
to the
Brain
Eye Diseases and Disorders
Emmetropia – normal vision
➢Hemianopia – loss of the same side of the visual field of both eyes
➢Myopia – nearsightedness; occurs when the parallel light rays from distant
objects are focused in front of the retina
➢Hyperopia – farsightedness; occurs when the parallel light rays from distant
objects are focused behind the retina
➢Astigmatism - unequal curvatures in different parts of the cornea or lens
Eye Reflexes
➢Convergence
➢Photopupillary Reflex
➢Accomodation Pupillary Reflex

➢Eyestrain
THE EAR: HEARING AND BALANCE
➢allows us to hear an extraordinary range of sound
➢keeps our nervous system continually up to date on the position and movements
of the head
➢Hearing receptors
➢Mechanoreceptors
 Hearing
1. External Ear
➢ Auricle/Pinna
➢ External auditory canal/Acoustic meatus
➢ Ceruminous glands: cerumen (earwax)
➢ Tympanic membrane/Eardrum

2. Middle Ear
➢ Pharyngotympanic tube
➢ Auditory ossicles: malleus, incus, stapes

3. Internal Ear
➢ Bony labyrinth: cochlea, vestibule, semicircular
canals
➢ Perilymph and Endolymph
Physiology of Hearing
Equilibrium
➢Vestibular apparatus – equilibrium receptors of inner ear
1. Static Equilibrium
◦ Maculae
2. Dynamic Equilibrium
◦ Semicircular canals
Motion Sickness
Hearing and Equilibrium Deficits
➢Deafness: hearing loss of any degree
a. Conduction deafness
b. Sensorineural deafness
➢Presbycusis
➢Ménière’s syndrome
CHEMICAL SENSES: SMELL
OLFACTION
➢sense of smell
➢occurs in response to odorants
➢olfactory receptors are located in nasal cavity and hard palate
➢Olfactory epithelium: olfactory cells, olfactory hairs

➢Anosmia
CHEMICAL SENSES: TASTE
➢taxare – “to touch, estimate, or
judge”
➢Taste buds – sensory structures
that detect taste
➢Papillae – enlargements on the
surface of the tongue
• Circumvallate; Fungiform; Foliate
➢Gustatory cells
➢Gustatory hairs
➢Cranial nerves: VII, IX, X
Taste Sensations
1. Sweet – sugars, saccharine, alcohols
2. Sour – hydrogen ions
3. Salty – metal ions
4. Bitter – alkaloids
5. Umami (delicious)
• amino acids: glutamate and aspartate