A.

Emergence of Authoritarian States

Soviet Russia

● Economic Factors

With rapid economic upheaval and significant industrial and agricultural development, Sergei
Witte adn Pyotr Stolypin attempted to test the limits of economic strategies and modernize the
Russian economy.

Sergei Witte: Minister of Finance (1893-1903)

Emphasized importance of tariffs in protecting markets and sustaining the development of
domestic industry. Could only be achieved through state capitalism (state undertakes commercial
activity, production is controlled by the state for profit).

- Increase in oil production and coal output in the Caucuses and the Ukraine
- Economic growth from oil, coal, grain production
- Raise in capital abroad to promote state-lead industrial growth
- Establisment of tariffs to protect domestic industries from foreign competition
- Increase in domestic taxes
- Russian Gold Standard in 1897
- New gold coinage, became monetary standard of nation
- Development of Trans-Siberian Railway

Pyotr Stolypin: President of the Council of Ministers after 1905 Revolution

Adopted measures for agricultural reform and promoted the establishment of a land bank -> with
funds to assist peasant purchases. This favored the growth of independent households in
Stolypin’s “wager on the strong and sober”.

-> “Wager on the strong and sober”

Stolypin believed that tying peasants to their own private land holdings was the best way to
create a productive society. Help provide the basis for successful economic revolution and assist
in rapid Russian industrialization.

Historian interpretations:
1. Historian Hugh Seton-Watson praises Witte’s programme.
2. Others claim the policies kept favoured industry, kept domestic prices high and neglected
agriculture.
Stolypin’s policies had limited success in prewar years, however with more time could have been
successful.
3. Alec Nove in An Economic History of the USSR claims that even though Russia was
under-developed compared to the rest of Europe, it was still a power.

Centralization of Russian economy due to state capitalism.

Intensified during Great War and reinvented by Bolshevikds after the October Revolution.

Practicalities of a socialist economy were never properly discussed by Marxists until the
Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. Instead, they provided analysis of capitalism:
- Das Kapital, Marx
- The Development of Capitalism in Russia, Lenin

State capitalism originally attempted to address problems: deficient economic structural plan,
limited food supplies, high inflation, shortages of raw materials, decreasing industrial
production, crippled transport systems, low grain supplies.

Solution: transition period between pre-revolutionary period and revolution -> war communism
Response to the civil war, and move towards socialism. Key traits:
- State-allocated resources
- Private enterprise was outlawed
- State requisitioned peasant produce
1921 Internal trade became key focus of Bolsheviks. Lenin launched slogan uchites’torgovat –
learn to trade.

● Social division

1905 Revolution
Consequence of government’s failure to accommodate needed changes for Russian progression
and humiliation of 1904-05 Russo-Japanese War.

Significance of Russo-Japanese War

- Despite Crimean War, Imperal Russia continued to regard itself as a major power.
However, during Congress of Berlin it was deprived to gains by European Powers so
decide to turn to far east
- Both Russia and Japan wanted part of decaying China. Russia wanted an ice-free port
(Port Arthur) but sparked conflict as Japan viewed that area as its sphere of influence
- Russo-Japanese War of 1905 proved catastrophic for Russia, both militarily and
politically.
- Peace Treaty signed in Portsmouth, Russia agreed to withdraw from Manchuria.
- War wasted precious resources and proved to be a national humiliation.

Most pressing social problems stemmed from agrarian and industrial crises.
In rural areas:
- Free serfs faced threats: owed taxations and redemption dues (for aquisition of land)
- Land Banks in 1866 and settlement of ‘virgin land’ in Sibera gave no relief.
In urban areas:
- Overcrowding: urban popualtion grew immensely in late 19th century and early 20th
century
- Poor living and working conditions
Large-scale factored employed nearly half of Russia’s industrial workforce. Strike activity in
19th century led to social legislation: female miners were banned, employment of children under
12 became illegal in 1892, 11.5 hour work days in 1986 and factory inspectors in 1903.

● Political system

Despite the Emancipation Reform of 1861, the Russian ghovernment system remained the same.

Three official bodies:

1. Imperial Council: group of advisers directly responsible to the Tsar
2. Cabniet of Ministers: ran various government departments
3. Senate: supervised the functioning of the law

The Tsar appointed the members of each body who served at his pleasure. Stark contrast to rest
of Europe, with semblance of democratic and representative governments.

System was mdoernized because of reluctance to extend rights to lower classes. The Russian
Orthodox Church was extremely conservative institution. Press heavily censored, non-existent
freedom of speech. As a result, the opposition was forced to disappear.

Impact of World War I

The war was popular in Russia despite domestic problems: weak arms industry, poor
communication, mobilization of huge army.
Patriotic bodies such as Union of Zemstva was established to provide medical facilities.
August 1914 Congress of Representatives of Industry and Trade – coordinate wartime
production
1915 Municipal organizations and zemstvo merged, becoming All-Russian Zemstva Union and
Union of the Cities (ZemGor).

Lasting consequences of war:

- Russia was cut off from allies
- 1915 Russian army retreated
- 1915 Tsar assumed control over war as Commander in cheif
- 1916 Two million casualties

1914-1917 Government spent over 1.5 million roubles on Russian war effor.
Taxes increased and 1916 sharp rise in inflation, making currency worthless.

Food crisis.
Army had priority over transport system, so grains and other foodstuff did not reach those in
need. Farmers’ access to chemical fertilizers was reduced. Transport system was eventually
destroyed from conflict.
1916 With inflation, reluctance to sell and began hoarding food.
Mass peasant conscription because of war also contributed to bad harvests and near-famine
conditions.

Isolation of Imperial family.

Grigori Rasputin’s influence over the Empress and Government increased with the Tsar on the
front lines during the war. Nicholas’ prestige decreased.
December 30, 1916 Assasination of Raputin

1916 Investigation by Duma President Rodzyanko concluded that widespread organization was
cause for ineffective functioning army
 ● Leaders and Ideology

1917 Revolutions occurred in response to longstanding grievances and conditions exacerbated by

the war. The February Revolution was a largely spontaneous brust of activism led by workers
and soldiers in Petrograd.

Lenin in exile during February Revolution. Returned in April, and his role and contributions
were crucial to Bolshevik victory in October.
Provisional Government lost power in October Revolution and opposition from right and left
was immediate. Lenin had forged an authoritarian state.

Between February and October Revolution, Bolsevik leaders unse ideological knowledge to form
strategies and tactics -> relied on persuasion, coercion, use of force and propaganda to secure
emergence of new state.

Leadership during 1917 Revolutions

February Revolution began in Petrograd.

Beginning of 1917 150,000 protestors demonstrated on the anniversary of Bloody Sunday (Jan.
22 1905, start of Russian Revolution)

In February, 80,000 demonstrated in support of the Duma and thousands more came out on
International Women’s Day -> coincided with wage strike at Putilov works.
The Putilov plant traditionally produced goods for the Russian government, then supplied
artillery for the army. Factory strikes were a contributing factor to the February Revolution.

23-25 February Food riots

Similar scenario to 1905 Revolution. Troops were ordered to shoot 40 protesters, however many
regiments joined them and marked a radical departure.
12 March 1917 Duma established Provisional Committee.

15 March 1917 Nicholas II abdicated. Provisional Committee was reconstituted as the

Provisional Government under Kadet and Octobrist leadership. Russia became a republic.
- Historians such as Tariq Ali in The Dilemmas of Lenin: Terrorism, War Empire, Love,
Revolution (2017) argue that no political group could have predicted the uprising.
Impossible to imagine that it would only take 8 days to destroy feudalism and absolutism
in Russia.

Spring 1917 Germany provided safe passage back to St. Petersburg for Lenin. Trotsky returned
soon after.
27 March Left Zurich, travelled from Switzerland to Petrograd on a sealed train. Lenin was
provided with 5 million gold marks to support revolutionary activities in Russia.
- Money financed propaganda to end Russian participation in the war and to support rival
goverment organisation Petrograd Soviet.

First political act of working class was to convene soldiers and worker Soviets.

12 March Petrograd Soviet convened -> 3,000 members from various political organisations.
14 March Soviet issued Order Number One. Extended power and influence into military. Stated
that military units must elect members to the Soviet, regain weapons and encourgae members’
political engagement. Following orders also asserted authority over civil society.

Tariq Ali (2017) -> Soviets killed possibility of “traditional post-feudal bourgeois state
emerging”.

In Lenin’s absense, Bolsheviks were commanded by Shlyapnikov. Mensheviks and Socialist

Revolutionaries won control of Petrograd Soviet, whilst still supporting Provisional government.
16 April Lenin arrived in St. Petersburg. Welcomed by Menshevik Chkheidze, Charman of
Petrograd Soviet and offered to work together, Lenin refused.

20 April April Theses, published in Pravda. Lenin’s views of situation.

- War was imperialist, must be waged across the continent
- Soviets (excluding Provisional Government) were only acceptable form of government
- All lands should be nationalized

Bolshevik responsibility to adopt programme of April Theses and educate masses. Communists
prepared for the establishment of a Third International to replace the one that collapsed in 1914.
- Soviet-controlled international organization that advocated for world communism
Lenin and Mensheviks differed politically. Mesheviks were more passive during 1905
Revolution.

5 May Alexander Kerensky appointed Minister of War. Became Prime Minister in July.

7 May Seventh Party Congress opened and Lenin’s three central April Theses were growing
support. Growing Bolshevik support.

June 1917 First Congress of Soviets met with Bolsheviks, called to overthrow government.
Demanded end to WWI.
Lenin felt that only a revolutionary communist governemnt could find non-violent peace.
Revolution had changed becuase of war and domestic developments.
February Revolution had put power in hands of the bourgeoise with Soviet support. To end this,
proletarian government on basis of Soviets had to be formed. Since bolsheviks remained a
minority in Soviets, use of propaganda and agitation to convince others of their policies.

24 August 1917 Coup against Provisional Government, led by General Kornilov.

Kerensky turned to Bolsheviks for support. Weak political system meant Provisional
Government needed Soviet support. Bolsheviks defended city against Kornilov and regained
authority.
Defeated coup allowed Bolsheviks to assert their programme.
- Demanded end to war, using Lenin’s old slogan “Peace, Land and Bread”.
- Pushed for worker control over seized factories
- Confiscation of church properties
- Social redistribution of large estate to peasants
- Increased protection of minority rights
- Equality for women

October 1917 Formation of Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC) by Trotsky.

21-23 October MRC function effectively and took following steps:

- Sent representatives combat unita and weapons to prevent counterrevolutionary members
- Dispatched commissars to replace governnment supporters in all units of garrison to
challenge authority of Kerensky (leader) and Provisional Government
- Sent representatives to General staff quarters to assert MRC’s claim to command
authority over garrison units
- Trotsky produced formal declaration that repudiated PG’s authority
- Issued order that gave commissars unlimited power to veto military orders
- Took contriol of Peter and Paul Fortress and Kronwerk Arsenal (major arms storehouse)

MRC leadership issued Directive Number One, with countermeasures to opposition:

- Sent two military units to garrison to protect progressive press
- Established contacts with postal and telegraph workers/railwaymen to insure support for
future revolutionary strikes
- Organized food supplies to avert possible food supply crisis supply in city
- Established reserve headquarters at Peter and Paul Fortress, in case Smolny fell to
loyalists.

24-25 October 1917 Bolsheviks took control of key Petrgrad centers to conduct their strategic
operations. Winter Palace was stormed, Provisional Government members were arrested.
Bolsheviks proposed new cabinet before Soviet Congress -> consisting of only Bolshevik
members. Seized power and new government was approved after all parties walked out.

25 January 1918 Russia was renamed a Soviet Republic.

Elections were held for a new Consituent Assembly, resulting in SR majority and Mensheviks
receiving double the number votes as Bolsheviks. Created crisis for Bolsheviks.

January 1918 Bolsheviks shut down Assembly after a single day. Political parties that had
participated in Revolution were marginalized and outlawed as Bolsheviks under Lenin
consolidated authority -> emergence of authoritarian state.

In place of Constituent Assembly, an All-Russian Congress of Soviets handed power over to

Soviet Council of People’s Commissars. Executive council was headed by Lenin, with members
such as Trotsky and Stalin.
1918 onwards, Lenin’s main goals:
- Achieving Bolshevik economic control with seizure of land and factories by peasants and
workers
- Withdrawing from the war
- Exporting communism abroad

After Bolshevik Revolution, division of party’s Central Committee (CC) into three factions
1. First group led by Lenin: immediate exit from war
2. Second group led by Nikolai Bukharin: revolutionary war, belief that appeal to West for
aid was betrayal of international working class
3. Third faction, represented by Trotsky: wanted neither war nor peace

Lenin’s faction won out in CC and Peace Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on 3 March 1918.
- Significant cost: one-thrid of Russia’s agricultural zone and more than half of industrial
base was lost. Poland, balkan territories and Ukraine were given nominal independence.
● Ideology
After 1905 Revolution, massive pressure on Tsar and government to initiate reform.

August 1905 Creation of Duma. However unrest forced Tsar to give new government real
legislative power.

Manifest 17 October 1905, Nicholas II sought to improve order in state: granting of fundamental
civil freedom, extended participation in Duma (classes deprived of voting rights) and that laws
have to be approved by the State Duma.
- Tone: paternalistic and enlightened.
- Government embodied enlightenment features: free speech, free assembly, no
imprisonment without trial

Duma pushed towards consitutional monarchy, never had mechanisms for democracy. Over four
Dumas, representation decreased and became conservative.

After first Duma dissolution, the Constitutional Democrats (Kadets) protested via the Vyborg
manifesto of 10 July 1906.

1907 Second Duma dissolved whne Stolypin’s government shut it down as Social Democratic
Party members were involved in attempts to provoke revolution among army. Electoral system
amendments followed:
1. 3 June 1907 Tsar Nicholas II’s Manifesto dissolving Second Duma and changing
electoral laws.

October Manifesto provided reformed State Council as the second administrative legislative
chamber. State Council consisted of 200 members–half elected and half appointed by Tsar.
- Nine-person executive Council of Ministers becamse government’s principal body
(conservative counterweight to Duma).
- Chairman directed departments. No government minister could act independently.
- All significant matters had to be brought before Council and debated. If no
conclusion, referred to Tsar for final decision.
 - Tsar has control over ministers–could appoint or dismiss whenever.

1906 Tsar issued:

1. 23 February Statute of the State council
a. Prohibited deputations to State Council, narrowed valid electoral candidates to
Russian elites
b. Provided State Countil with power to reject bills sent by Duma for approval.
2. 23 April Fundamental Laws
a. Restatemnet of Supreme Autocratic power (latest revision of Tsar Nicholas I’s
original 1832 statement)
b. Drafted in five Council of Minister sessions chaired by Sergei Witte.

For political survival, Tsar considered establishing a military-style dictatorship following 1905
Revolution. After persuasion, Tsar’s ideology expanded to include the granting of basic classical
liberal concessions.
- In response to countryside unrest: ordered relaxation of redemption dues and instructed
land Banks to increase promotion of land purchases by villagers.

Neither acts, nor rights bestowed by october Manifesto, addressed Russia’s true political and
social problems. Trotsky described the Manifesto as “the whip wrapped in the parchment of a
constitution”.
Repression increased under Pyotr Stolypin, policies never supported by Tsar and assasinated in
September 1911.

Opposing party ideologies

Main opposition intellectual traditions:

1. Strands of Russian Liberalism
2. Socialist Revolutionaries
3. Russian Marxists
Russian Liberalism
Comprised liberal politicians drawn from zemstvo seeking constitutional arrangement in
representative national body. Wanted to reform system, rather than overthrow it.
Favored modernization strategies, drew support from national minorities and arguably had
greatest degree of success in decade before WWI.
- Octobrists, led by Alexander Guchkov and Mikhail Rodzianko.
- Consitutional Democrats (Kadets), led by Paul Milyukov.

1. Octobrists
Satisfied with Tsar’s response to 1905 Revolution. Octobrist programme, issued in Nov.
1905, supported authoritative regime with input from people’s representatives in creation
of constructure legislative work.
2. Kadets
Not fully satisfied, wanted to create constitutional monarchy with restrictions upon Tsar’s
authority by a democratically elected assembly. Kadet programme embodied basic
enlightened ideas: ending censorship, equal rights, free educations, creation of All-
Russian Constituent Assembly.
- Played key role in establishing 1917 Provisional Government.

Both parties achieved some legislatiev goals. Duma made commitment to fre universal primary
education in Russia. Introduced universal health insurance for industrial workers.

Social Revolutionaries
First Duma elections, ran as ‘laborists’. Collectively captured 136 seats, second to Kadets with
186. SRs grew out of populous traditions, party programme centered on redistribution of land to
the peasantry on the basis of use.
Drew support from youth -> among them, radical strand that undertook aggressive tactics
(assasination of government officials–Mayor of St. Petersburg in 1905)
Marxism and Leninsm

Marxism was introduced and disseminated in Russia through efforts of Georgi Plekhanov, who
had joined branch of Narodniks, called Emancipation of Labour Group founded in 1883.

Plekhanov concluded that in was necessary to bring Marx’s scientific approach into the analysis
of Russian society and understanding of human relations. Published works:
- Socialism and the Political Struggle (1883)
- Our Differences (1885)
● Argued that there was no future for russian peasantry, losing out in transition from
feudalism to socialism (urban working class in capitalism -> necessary stage in transition)

Early progressives were heavily influences by N. Chernyshevsky: dedicated to advancing

socialism, democracy. Sent to St. Petersburg Peter-and-Paul Fortress for social agitation. There,
wrote political novel What is to be Done? (1863)
- Concerned with lives of ‘new men and woman’ (substitution for term ‘revolutionaries’)
- Lenin highly regarded it.

Considerable fluidity between groups, sharing and debating of ideas. First translation of Marx’s
Das Kapital was undertaken by Populist German Lopatin in Russia in 1872.

Russian Marxists formed two socialist parties in early 20th century:

1. 1898 Marxist-insipired RDSLP (Russian Socialist Democratic Labor Party)
a. Split in Second Congress in 1903 into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks
2. Paris, 1901 Socialist Revolutionary Party

Lenin accepted that under capitalism, workers were exploited by their relationship to the means
of production with private ownership. This enabled owners of capital to take advantage of
working class.
As capitalism developed, contradictions intensifies: alienation of workers, increased societal-
financial inequalities.
Marx described his ideas to be based upon the notion of class struggle, accepted as well by lenin
as were populist ideas about land redistribution.

Lenin made contributions to development of Marxism. Believed that history travelled through
historical stages–gone from nomadism, pastoralism, feudalism, capitalism.
● Each stage, human position shifts and changes in relationship to the work they undertook
and way they were compensated.
Major contribution concerned his critique of Imperialism which he called “highest stage of
capitalism”.

1902 Lenin encouraged young radicals to study his work, considered profound and original (after
reading Pyotr N. Tkachev)
- Tkachev argued that revolution would only succeed if it was a “disciplined organization”,
that seized power in name of people and than put through radical measures.

-> Christopher Hill in Lenin and The Russian Revolution (1947) stated that Lenin contributed
more than anyone in the establishment of the party. Through Lenin’s application of Tkachev, his
idea of party organization differed from Europe–devepoled Russian revolutionary tradition.

RSDLP split in 1903 was the result of ideological, strategic and tactical differences. Mensheviks
and Bolsheviks remained civil until Civil War in 1918.
- Mensheviks believed the need for bourgeois revolution in Russian after 1903 split,
Bolsheviks felt otherwise.

After revision of Theses, Lenin felt that dominant peasant class wanted ownership of land.
- Knew that once peasants obtained land, some would be bought off by the system.
- Poor majority would aso enter into coordinated struggle with urban working class.
● Populists suggested that Russian future depended on peasants in countryside
The Revolution became partially a peasant one, aimed to abolish private ownershup of land. For
Lenin, it was also a proletarian one, workers would exercise ownership over means of production
and run industry.
- Main ideological themes: lower class control and ownership.
Proposal of vanguard party, to achieve “dictatorship of the proletariat”– commitment of
educated group to lead the working class.

Lenin also viewed Russia as part of an International Revolution. Other emergent revolutionary
states would come to Russian aid if needed.

Lenin believed that revolutions sourced from opportunity, not chance. April Theses was basis on
immediate ideology, strove to encourage the overthrowing of Provisional Authority and seize
power.
- Followed by slogans such as “Peace, Land and Bread” and “All Power to the Soviets”.

Main Leninist ideas:

- State would wither away, didn’t support idea of single party state
- State would act as organ of the masses, with individuals serving in positions of authority
(not require professional bureaucracy)
- Experts could solve economic problems
- Workers’ control over economic apparatu would be achieved by greater centralization
- Support for peasant land seizures and local community control over lands with cultivation
based on family until was a good tactic.
- Bolsheviks encourganed class warfare agabist Kulaks

Ideas provided intellectual guidance for Bolshviks to move revolution.

- Beginning with return to Russia in 1917, and role in pressing Bolsheviks to adopt
strategy of pushing for early socialist revolution with April Theses.

Provided framework to move economy forwards: transforming basis of social organization.

● Strengthened support for Revolution and undercut opposition
Policies established:
1. November 1917 Decree on Land and Decree on Workers’ Control
- Abolished private ownership of land was given for use to agrarian workers.
- Transferred factories to the state and established the Veshenka (Sumpreme
Council/Soviet of the National Economy) – 5 December 1917
- Take charge of existing institutions and regulate economic activities.
- Supervise local workers councils.

Russia entered period of state capitalism.

● Persuasion, Coercion, Use of Force and Propaganda

Persuasion and Coercion

October 1917 Bolshevism, model of government implemented when Bolsheviks rose to power
after Revolution.
Leninist ideas first articulated between 1899 and 1902. Views on working class and survival
under repressive autocratic regime are central to Bolshevik coercion and persuation.

Formulation of ideas during Siberian exile (1897-1900) and published What is to be Done?
(1902) -> emphasizing importance of highly centralized party that could survive the autocracy.
- Response to decentralized and incohesive RSDLP, formed in 1989.

Lenin’s view towards party’s role:

● Disciplined group of professional revolutionaries
● Prepare for armed uprising, overthrowing state
● Foster social revolution, socialism
Party worked to divide the enemy and control alliances of discontented people. Vanguard
educated masses (working class) on their historical position in capitalist society, to understand
logic of struggle.

Preparation for Revolution:

1. Explain to proletariat through propaganda and agitation: political significance and
organizational aspect of armed uprising
2. Explain role of mass political strikes
3. Arm working class, draw up plans, provide leadership

Problems: theoretical, programmatic and organizational opposition from within the socialist
movement

-> Iskra newspapers: intellectual thinkers known as Iskaraists, debtaed efficiency of party
structures to combat the problems.

Edward Bernstein and German Social Democracy

Revisionism: gradual evolution towards socialism, rejection of violent revolution. Edward
Bernstein’s leadership in German Social Democratic movement published views in Evolutionary
Socialism (1899).
Lenin attacked german opposition in Iskra. Argued that circumstanced in Germany were
different from those in Russia. Germany has a parliamentary tradition and strong labor
representation. Russia had no democratic tradition.

Mensheviks
Tension began in 1903. Reignited in 1905 with Revolution. Continued into WWI when Second
International (organization of socialist/laborist parties, 1889-1916) failed in its attempt to unite
the two parties. Plekhanov blamed Lenin for failure.
Use of Force

Coalition government with Kadets and Mensheviks. Lenin and Trotsky felt that only a sinly
power could save Russia.

Early June 1917 First All-Russian Congress of Soviets was held, following poor Kadet showing.
Both Lenin and Trotsky spoke.
- Claimed that since moderate socialists represented the nation’s majority, the working
class would be better served by them leaving the Provisional Governemnt and forming
their own.

18 June Demonstration that turned into movement of support for Bolshevik policies.

July 3 Demonstration, population facing food shortages, depreciated currency and war
profiteering demanded the resignation of Provisinal Government.
Lenin urged calm; right-wing blamed Bolsheviks.

23 July Trotsky arrested. While in prison, he joined Bolshevik party.

24-25 October MRC attack on Provisional Government

● Propaganda

Bolshevism used propaganda as tool to support reorientation or abandonment of existing policies

and programmes and introduce and reinforce others. Propaganda was central to Bolshevik
politics and culture.

Underground printing presses: created leaflets, pamphlets, posters, newspapers and journals.
Brought out into open after the Revolution.
End of 1920’s -> radio and film employed to promote the state.
Bolshevik primary propaganda organ was Pravda. Established in Petrograd in 1912. Stalin was
appointed its editor in 1917. Others:
- Izvetizia: supreme soviet, dealt with foreign relations
- Bednota: voice of peasants and Red Army during civil war.
- Issued by Central Committee of Communist Party in Moscow.
- Reached into countryside between 1918-1931 with letters from peasants
- Trud: tarde union movement, emphasized labour and economic analysis

Lenin and Stalin speeches and ideologies were printed in Pravda.

- August-October 1917 Stalin published articles pressing Soviets to seize power.
- Published Lenin’s slogans to rally working class:
- “Land, Peace and Bread”
- “All Power to the Soviets”
- Lenin’s abandonment of War Communism in 1921
- Promote success of Stalin’s Five Year Plan

August 1917 ”The Soldiers’ Truth” Issue in Pravda: propaganda campaign to organize military
units. Unleased before October Revolution.

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

What brought about the 1905 Revolution?

Long-term factors
- Industrialization changed Russia’s social structure, increasing pressure from below
- Industrial unrest increased series of poor harvest and an economic slump with
unemployment growth
- International monetary crisis made it harder to negotiate foreign loans
- Official unions were created in an attempt to channel working class discontent. In 1904
Father Gapon organized Assembly of St Petersburg Factory Workers.
- Increased peasant literacy -> propaganda. Peasant revolts escalated
 - Local voices of authority increasingly began to take side of peasants
- Pressure for moderate liberal reforms, including State Duma.
Short-term factors
- St Petersburg dispute at the putilov metal works -> strike
- Father Gapon and Bloody Sunday
- St Petersburg Soviet creation led by Trotsky
- Spread of peasant revolts. Establishment of All-Russian Union of Peasants
- Student strikes
- Creation of Union of Unions
- National minority group strikes
- Mutinies on Potemkin
Constitutional Change
- Elected by purely consultative National Assembly. Most people didn’t trust the Tsar so
riots continued. Most military forces remained loyal by best troops has been sent to fight
in Russo-Japanese War.
- Nicholas II issued October Manifesto to split radicals from moderates. Said to provide
full civil liberties and constitutional democracy + State Duma with legislative powers
elected by universal suffrage
- Moderates embraced the announcement yet radicals, workers and peasants continued to
revolt.
- Establishment of Octobrist Party and Constitutional Party
- Fundamental Laws published.

How successful was Stolypin in bringing about change in Russia since 1906?

Stolypin Reforms Presentation

Stolypin and the Dumas

- First State Duma was moderate leftwing. Kadets dominated. Dismissed after 73 days and
Stolypin was appointed chairman of Council of Ministers
 - Second Duma has more Octobrists but also had radical left. “Duma of national Anger”.
Dissolved when didn’t ratify Stolypin’s laws
- New electoral law favoring landowners and peasantry at expense of the urban workers
and minorities
- Third Duma dominated by moderate Octobrists. Managed to work ell
- Stolypin assasinated -> end of reform, return of reaction
- Fourth Duma was similar to third one. Allowed less influence and was too divided to be
effective. Refused to disband and continued to meet as the Provisional Government
Stolypin and Peasantry
- Position of peasantry began to improve (cancellation of redemption payments, end of
corporal punishment…)
- Stolypin wanted to abandon communes and allow peasants to farm land privately, eg.
kulaks
- Reform: collective ownership abolished, request a consolidated block rather than separate
strips, land settlement commissions were established, peasant bank was set up,
government subsidies for peasants increased.
- Encouraged migration to Siberia
- Need 20 years to prosper
- Change was slow due to conservative peasantry with little education, desire for self-
improvement and landowners unwillingb to accept changes

Impact of World War I

- 1905-1914 Russian industry prospered in period of success

- Illiteracy, poverty and government ruling in a reactionary way
- Georgi Rasputin
- Historian’s opinions on Nicholas II are divided
- Bolsheviks began dominating trade unions, having newspaper Pravda, organizing strikes.
Ended when WWI began.
 - Factors pushing Russia towards war: panslavism, diverting attention from internal
troubles, outburst of patriotic enthusiasm
- Duma voted on 8 August for war credits
- Provisional Committee of Duma members, chaired by Rodzianko, also set up
- Russia winning then losing. Economy showing signs of strain
- All-Russian Union of Zemstva and Cities (ZemGor) was established, chaired by Lvov
and wanting to help with war efforst but Tsar was suspicious of them
- Progressive Bloc (Octobrists, Kadets and rightwing progressives) set up.

Factors and Causes of Revolution in February 1917

Greater detail into February and October Revolutions: Unit 2 Review

Strikes due to food shortages, poor living conditions and war.

Bread rationing rumours made women go on streets on February 23rd International Women’s
Day. Soon joined by men from the Putilov metal works, students, etc…
Female tram drivers abandoned their vehicles and blocked busy roads. Entire city in chaos and
although it was unplanned and uncoordinated, they managed to halt newspapers, force closure of
shops, tore down symbols of tsarism, released prisoners and attacked police.

Rodzianko wrote to Nicholas II as he believed that control could be maintained by means of

prompt action by Tsar trivilized it. Nonetheless, Petrograd military District commander
Khabalov was sent to regain control. Turned the demonstration into revolution.

Many soldiers were peasants or workers -> disgusted by order to massacre fellow citizens. Some
officers from middle class. Soldiers began to mutiny, even Cossacks.
28 February Petrograd garrison mutinied. Another mutinty among sailer at Kronstadt and
Petrograd Soviets decided to include soldiers in their organization -> Soviet of ‘Workers’ and
Soldiers’ Deputies and Order N.1 declared that troops obeyed the Soviet.

Rodzianko set up Provisional Committee of Duma to assume control and demand abdication.
Socialists recreated the Petrograd Soviet with representatives from factories.

Problems of interpretations
- Russia was making real progress before 1914, tehre was economic and agricultural
growth + some political modernization
- Was WWI the issue? Or Nicholas II’s character? Or due to economic forces and class
struggle, oppressed working class and Bolshevik party, who believed that the fall of
tsardom was natural progression?
- 1917 February Revolution was leaderless and spontaneous or was it? Milyukov,
Gruchkov, etc?

Factors and Causes of Second Revolution in October 1917

Bolsheviks were still a small party. Began to grow only after Lenin’s return in April as PG
became weaker.

“July Days” were riots not organized by the Bolsheviks but blamed on them. Kerensky was
showed evidence of receiving finance from Germany, which undermined their popularity.
Eventhough they were officially banned, they managed to hold secret conferences.

During Kornilov Coup, they got weapons which refused to return. In September, gained majority
of Executive Committee and won local government elections in several towns.

Trotsky became chairman of MRC to give Soviet a fighting force.

22 October Kerensky tries to present by ordering arrest of MRC and Bolshevik newspapers were
closed down. Ended up provoking coup.
25 October Coup happened but tame, non-violent. Military units surrounded Winter Palace.
Surrendered and Kerensky escaped to US.

Problems with interpretations

- Victory of workers over the bourgeoise
- October Revolution was the result of a variety of factors
- Small band of determined revolutionaries