Sem Notes

EE402 : SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES
(Lecture Note)
Lineesh A S
D EPARTMENT OF E LECTRICAL AND E LECTRONICS E NGINEERING
T RINITY C OLLEGE OF E NGINEERING
2019
Contents
I MODULE ONE
1 Servomotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1 Servomechanism 7
1.2 Requirement of a Good Servomotor 8
1.3 Comparison of Servomotor with Conventional motors 9
1.4 AC Servomotors 9
1.4.1 Construction of AC Servomotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.2 Principle of Operation of AC Servomotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Torque-Speed Characteristics of AC Servomotor 12
1.6 Performance Characteristics of AC Servomotor 12
1.7 Features of A.C. Servomotor 13
1.8 Damped AC Servomotor 13
1.8.1 Internal damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8.2 Viscous Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8.3 Inertial Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.9 Applications of AC Servomotor 15
1.10 DC Servomotor 15
1.11 Principle of Operation of DC Servomotor 15
1.12 Classification of DC servomotor 16
1.12.1 Field controlled d.c. servomotors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.12.2 Armature controlled d.c. servomotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Lineesh A S, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE, Trinity College of Engineering

1.12.3 Series split field d.c. servomotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.12.4 Permanent magnet armature controlled d.c. servomotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.13 Characteristics of a d.c. Servomotor 19
1.14 Performance Characteristics 20
1.15 Applications of DC Servomotor 21
1.16 Comparison Between A.C. and D.C. servomotors 21
1.17 Comparison Between armature Controlled and Field Controlled D.C. Servomo-
tors 22
II MODULE TWO
2 Stepper Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1 Stepper Motor 27
2.2 Uses of Stepper Motor 28
2.3 Advantages of Stepper Motor 28
2.4 Disadvantages of Stepper Motor 28
2.5 Types of Stepper Motor 29
2.5.1 Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5.2 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.5.3 Hybrid Stepper Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Step angle 32
2.7 Single Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor 34
2.7.1 Modes of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.8 Multi Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor 38
2.9 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor 39
2.9.1 Modes of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.10 Hybrid Stepper Motor 42
2.10.1 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.11 Monofilar and bifilar windings 44
2.11.1 Comparison of monofilar and bifilar winding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.12 Drive Circuits 45
2.12.1 Uni-polar Drive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.12.2 Bi-polar Drive Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.13 Comparison of Stepper Motors 47
2.14 Static Characteristics of Stepper Motor 48
2.15 Dynamic Characteristics of Stepper Motor 49
2.15.1 Pull-in Characteristics (Start-Stop) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.15.2 Pull-out Characteristics (Slewing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.16 Modes of Excitation 50
2.16.1 Important Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.17 Applications of Stepper Motor 53
III MODULE THREE

3 Single phase special electrical machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.1 AC Series motor (Universal Motor) 59
3.2 Drawbacks of Connecting DC series motor to AC supply 59
3.3 Modifications of DC Series motor for AC operation 60
3.4 Construction and Types of AC Series Motor (Universal Motor) 60
3.5 Universal Motor 61
3.5.1 Principle of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5.2 Advantages and disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.5.3 Applications of Universal Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.5.4 Phasor Diagram and Voltage Equation of AC Series Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.5.5 Torque-Speed Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.6 Hysteresis Motor 65
3.7 Construction of Hysteresis Motor 65
3.7.1 Stator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.7.2 Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.8 Principle of Operation of a Hysteresis Motor 67
3.9 Torque Speed characteristic of Hysteresis Motor 68
3.10 Torque Equation of Hysteresis Motor 68
3.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hysteresis Motor 69
3.12 Applications of Hysteresis Motor 70
IV MODULE FOUR
4 Reluctance Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.1 Construction 74
4.2 principle of operation 75
4.3 Torque–Slip Characteristics 76
4.4 Torque Equation of Reluctance Motor 77
4.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 78
4.6 Application 78
5 Switched Reluctance Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

5.1 Construction of SRM 81
5.1.1 Stator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.2 Principle of Operation of 8/6 SRM 82
5.3 Types of SRM 84
5.4 Linear SRM 85
5.5 Power converter circuits 87
5.5.1 Two Power Semiconductor Switching Devices per phase and two diodes . . . . . . . . 87
5.5.2 (n+1) power switching devices and (n+1) diodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.5.3 Phase winding using bifilar wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.5.4 Split – link circuit used with even phase number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.5.5 C-Dump circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.6 Torque Equation 90
5.7 Torque Speed Characteristics 92
5.8 Advantages and Disadvantages 92
5.9 Applications 93
V MODULE FIVE
6 Permanent Magnet DC Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.1 Construction 97
6.2 Types of Permanent Magnets used in Electrical Machines 99
6.3 Principle of Operation 100
6.4 Principle of Operation 100
7 Brush less DC Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

7.1 Construction of PMBLDC Motor 101
7.2 Classification 103
7.3 Principle Of Operation Of PMBLDC Motor 103
7.4 PMBLDC Square Wave Motor With 180◦ Pole Arc (120◦ Commutation Mode )105
7.5 PMBLDC Square Wave Motor With 180◦ Pole Arc (120◦ Commutation Mode )107
7.6 Sinusoidal Brushless Motor 108
7.7 Trapezoidal Brushless Motors (PMBLDC) 110
7.8 Comparison between Trapezoidal and Sinusoidal Motors 110
7.9 Electronic Commutator 110
7.10 Torque Speed Characteristics of PMBLDC Motor 113
7.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of BLDC Motors 114
7.12 Applications 114
VI MODULE SIX
8 Linear Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.1 Classification of Linear Motors 118
8.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Linear Motor 118
8.3 Applications of Linear Motors 118
8.4 Linear Induction Motor 119
8.5 Principle of Operation of Linear Induction Motor 119
8.6 Construction of Linear Induction Motor 119
8.6.1 Axial field LIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.6.2 Tubular LIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.6.3 Transverse field LIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.7 Effects in Linear Induction Motors 123
8.8 Thrust Equation of LIM 124
8.9 Goodness Factor 125
8.10 Equivalent Circuit of LIM 126
8.11 Linear Synchronous Motor 126
8.12 Classification of Linear Synchronous Motor 127
8.13 Classification of Linear Synchronous Motor Based on Excitation System 127
8.14 Advantages of LSM 131
8.15 Features of LSM 132
8.16 Applications of LSM 132
8.17 Linear Reluctance Motor 132
8.18 Construction of Linear Reluctance Motor 132
I
MODULE ONE
1 Servomotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1 Servomechanism
1.2 Requirement of a Good Servomotor
1.3 Comparison of Servomotor with Conventional
motors
1.4 AC Servomotors
1.5 Torque-Speed Characteristics of AC Servomo-
tor
1.6 Performance Characteristics of AC Servomotor
1.7 Features of A.C. Servomotor
1.8 Damped AC Servomotor
1.9 Applications of AC Servomotor
1.10 DC Servomotor
1.11 Principle of Operation of DC Servomotor
1.12 Classification of DC servomotor
1.13 Characteristics of a d.c. Servomotor
1.14 Performance Characteristics
1.15 Applications of DC Servomotor
1.16 Comparison Between A.C. and D.C. servomo-
tors
1.17 Comparison Between armature Controlled
and Field Controlled D.C. Servomotors
1. Servomotors
A servo system is one in which the output is some mechanical variable like position, velocity or
acceleration. Servo motors are commonly used in automatic control systems in which output is some
mechanical function such as controlling the position of the shaft, controlling angular speed of the shaft
etc. These motors are low power rating motors and can drive the load directly, hence these motors
are usually coupled to the load through a gear train for power matching purpose. Servomotors are
used in feedback control systems. Servomotors have low rotor inertia and high speed of response. The
servomotors are also known as a control motors. The servomotors which are used in feedback control
system should have linear relationship between electrical control signal and rotor speed, torque speed
characteristics should be linear, the response of the servomotor should be fast and inertia should be
low.
1.1 Servomechanism
Servomechanism is a feedback control system whose objective is to control the position of an object.
The motors used in such control systems are driven by the signal which is derived based on the error
information supplied to the controller. These motors used in such servo systems or servomechanism
are called as servomotors.

12 Special Electrical Machines
Figure 1.1: Servomechanism
1.2 Requirement of a Good Servomotor

The servomotors which are designed for use in feedback control systems must have following require-
ments :
• Linear relationship between electrical control signal and rotor speed, over a wide range.
• Inertia of rotor should be as small as possible. A servomotor must stop running without any time
delay, if control signal to it is removed.
• Its response should be very fast. For quickly changing error signals, it must react with good
response.
• It should be quickly reversible.
• Low-speed large torque, overload capacity.
• It should have linear torque-speed characteristics.
• The output torque at any speed should be roughly proportional to the applied control signal.
• Its operation should be stable without any oscillations or overshoots.
Note 1.2.1 For low inertia, servomotors are designed with large length to diameter ratio, for rotors.
Compared to its frame size, the rotor of a servo motor has very small diameter. From its low diameter
rotor only, the servomotor is distinguished from other motors in practice.
Note 1.2.2 The response of the servomotor should be very fast. For quickly changing error signals,
it must react with good response. This is achieved by keeping torque to weight ratio high. Hence
these motors can be started, stopped or reversed very quickly compared to normal motors.

Servomotors 13
1.3 Comparison of Servomotor with Conventional motors

Compared to conventional large industrial motors, :
• Servomotors have the ability to operate with high torque at all speed.
• High starting torque.
• Servomotor can hold the static position.
• Overheating is absent at low speed or at rest.
• It is possible to change the direction of rotation quickly.
• Quick acceleration and retardation.
• Without drift, the servomotor can return to a desired position repeatedly.
1.4 AC Servomotors
Most of the servomotors used in the low power servomechanism are a.c. servomotors. The a.c.
servomotor is basically two phase induction motor. The output power of a.c. servomotor varies from
fraction of watts to few hundred of watts. The operating frequency is 50 Hz to 400 Hz. The rotor of ac
servomotor has high resistance to obtain linear torque–speed characteristics.
For low power applications, a.c. servomotors are preferred due to the following features:
+ Simple construction
+ Low cost
+ Less maintenance.
+ Linear torque-speed characteristics.
+ Higher stability
1.4.1 Construction of AC Servomotor

Stator
AC. servomotor is basically consisting of a stator and a rotor. The stator core has a cylindrical shape
made up of steel stampings. Stampings are stalked together to the required length. The slots are
arranged in the inner periphery of the stampings.
The stator has two distributed windings, uniformly distributed and displaced by 90◦ in space,
from each other. The two windings are known as reference winding and control winding. These two
windings form the two phases of servomotor. The reference winding is excited by a constant voltage
AC supply. The control winding is excited by variable control voltage, which is obtained from a servo
amplifier. The control voltage is 90◦ out of phase with respect to the voltage applied to the reference
winding. This is necessary to obtain rotating magnetic field.
The drag cup motor has an outer stator core carrying the winding and an inner stator core. The
outer stator core is supported by the motor frame. Both inner and outer stator cores are cylindrical in
shape and made up of laminated steel sheet. The iner stator care is supported by the motor frame.

Rotor
The rotor is generally of two types. The two types of rotors are
+ Squirrel cage rotor
+ Drag cup type rotor
Squirrel cage rotor
The Squirrel cage rotor have large length and small diameter so its resistance is very high. Its air gap is
kept small. The resistance of drag type rotor is very high and hence have high starting torque. The
rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for carrying the rotor conductors. The
rotor has small number of slots than the stator and must be a non-integral multiple of stator slots, so as
to prevent magnetic locking of rotor. Each slot contains uninsulated heavy bars of copper, aluminium
or alloys. The rotor conductors are short-circuited at the end by a end-rings of copper or aluminium or
alloys. The rotor conductors and its end-rings forms a closed circuit which resembles a squirrel cage.
Thus induction motor with this kind of rotor construction is known as squirrel-cage induction motor
Figure 1.2: Rotor of Induction Motor
As explained above, the rotor bars are permanently short-circuited on themselves, hence the rotor
resistance is very small and it is not possible to add any external resistance in series with the rotor
circuit for starting purposes and improving the torque. The slots on the rotor is not always parallel
to the shaft but are usually skewed. Squirrel cage rotor can also be designed with solid cylinder of
steel without any conductors or slots at all. The motor operation depends upon the production of eddy
currents in the steel rotor.
Drag Cup rotor
To reduce the inertia, a drag cup type of rotor construction is used. It is in the form of a hollow cylinder
with one end open. As it is very thin and light, it has very small inertia, and considerable torque can be
obtained. There are two air gaps in this construction. Compared to squirrel cage rotor, drag cup rotor

Servomotors 15
has higher effective airgap. A stationary iron core is placed between the conducting cups to complete
the magnetic circuit. The drag cup is made up of non-magnetic material like copper, aluminium or an
alloy. The slotted rotor laminations in this construction. These are wound for as many number of poles
as possible so that operating speed of motor is very low. Such a construction is used in very low power
applications. The resistance of drag type rotor is very high and hence have high starting torque. A drag
cup type rotor construction is shown in the Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: Dragcup Rotor
1.4.2 Principle of Operation of AC Servomotor
Figure 1.4: Schematic Diagram of AC Servomotor
The operating principle of two phase a.c. servomotor is same as that of normal three phase induction
motor. The control voltage applied to the control winding and the voltage applied to the reference
winding are 90◦ out of phase. Hence the flux produces by current through control winding is also
90◦ out of phase with respect to the flux produced by the current through the reference winding. The
resultant flux in the air gap is hence rotating flux sweeps over the rotor, the e.m.f. gets induced in the
rotor. This e.m.f. circulates the current through the rotor. The rotor current produces its own flux called
as rotor flux. This flux interacts with the rotating magnetic field, producing a torque on the rotor and

rotor starts rotating. In the two phase a.c. servomotors, the polarity of the control voltage determines
the direction of rotation. A change in the sign of the control voltage reverses the direction of rotation
of the motor. Since the reference voltage is constant, the torque and the angular speed are the functions
of the control voltage.
1.5 Torque-Speed Characteristics of AC Servomotor

The usual torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor with high inductance to resistance ratio
are not suitable for the servomotor.
A servomotor must have
• Linear torque-speed characteristics
• Slope of the torque-speed characteristics must be negative.
• The characteristics must be parallel to one another for various values of the control voltages.
In practice, the design of ac servo motor is designed to get almost linear torque-speed characteristics.
A servomotor rotates only when a detectable error occurs at low voltage and it rarely operates at high
speeds. Hence for a given value of control voltage, torque-speed characteristics are almost linear.
Figure 1.5 shows the torque-speed characteristics for various control voltages.
1.6 Performance Characteristics of AC Servomotor

The performance characteristics other than the torque-speed characteristics of a two phase a.c. servo-
motor are shown in the Figure 1.6.

Servomotors 17
As torque developed increases, current drawn and the power input increases. Power factors also
improves upto certain limit. While the efficiency increases upto certain limit and then starts decreasing.
1.7 Features of A.C. Servomotor

The various features of a.c. servomotor are:
• Light in weight for quick response.
• Robust in construction.
• It is reliable and its operation is stable in nature.
• Smooth and noise free operation.
• Large torque to weight ratio.
• Large resistance to reactance ratio.
• No brushes or slip rings are required. Hence maintenance free.
• Driving circuits are simple to design.
• The negative slope of the torque-slip characteristics adds more friction improving the damping.
This improves the stability of the motor. This features is called internal electric damping of two
phase a.c. servomotor.
1.8 Damped AC Servomotor

Servomotors are electrical actuators used in feedback control system, which directly or indirectly,
actuate something that influences the output being regulated by the system. The servomotor must
respond rapidly to the change in control voltage. The motor must be stable, it must not oscillate or
overshoot. Rapid response is obtained by having high torque to inertia ratio in order to have an initial
rapid acceleration. Overshoot is minimized and stability is achieved using a damping or retarding
torque that increases with rotational speed. Different types of damping employed in ac servomotor are:

1.8.1 Internal damping

Suppose the motor develops the same torque at all speeds as shown by curve a of Figure 1.7 In this
case, when the motor is given a starting signal, it starts at very high speed that would carry away the
motor and its connected load. So the system has to reduce the control voltage to zero to prevent the
motor from running away.
Figure 1.7: Internal Damping
Suppose the speed-torque characteristics of the servomotor is as shown by curve b Figure 1.7. In
this case, the machine starts with a speed in a safe limit. This is due to internal or inherent damping.
1.8.2 Viscous Damping

In this method of damping, a viscous damper is used. The viscous damper is usually a drag cup
generator, operating in a constant field by a permanent magnet. In this, voltage induced in the drag cup
is directly proportional to speed. Thus the retarding torque developed is directly proportional to speed
and energy absorbed by the damper is directly proportional to square of speed. This kind of damping is
called viscous damping as it is like damping effect of a viscous liquid. Though it improves the stability
of the system, the speed and efficiency at all output torques are reduced, directly proportional to as the
damper absorbs energy.
1.8.3 Inertial Damping

In this type, a high inertia permanent magnet flywheel is mounted on its own bearings on the shaft,
coupled to the shaft through the drag cup and the drag cup is positioned in the field of the permanent
magnet on the flywheel. When the rotor is excited by the control voltage, the rotor senses an external
viscous damper. The direction of the damping torque will always be in a direction that opposes the
change in rotor speed. The magnitude of this torque will be directly proportional to the relative speed
of the rotor w.r.t. the flywheel.

Servomotors 19
1.9 Applications of AC Servomotor

• Position control
• Instrument servos
• Process controllers
• Robotics
• Self balancing recorders
• Machine tools
1.10 DC Servomotor
Servomotors are d.c. motors which are controlled by means of servomechanism. The d.c. servomotors
is more or less same as normal d.c. motor. There is some minor constructional difference between
the two. All d.c. servomotors are essentially separately excited type. This ensures the linear nature of
torque-speed characteristics.
In many industries, d.c. servomotors are preferred due to the following features:
+ Ease of speed control
+ High torque to inertia ratio
+ Capability to deliver more than three times of their rated torque
+ Linear torque-speed characteristics.
1.11 Principle of Operation of DC Servomotor

DC servomotor is basically a torque transducer which converts electrical energy into the mechanical
energy. It works on the basic principle that "whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force. The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left
hand rule and it’s magnitude is given by F = BIl Newton where, B is the magnetic flux density, I is the
current and l is the length of the conductor in magnetic field.
The torque developed on the motor shaft is directly proportional to the field flux and the armature
current.
Tm = Km ΦIa (1.1)
where
Tm = Motor Torque
Km = Proportionally torque constant
Φ = Field flux
and Ia = Armature current

In addition to the torque developed, when armature conductors rotate in the field flux, they cut the flux
and e.m.f. gets induced in the armature. This e.m.f. is called as back e.m.f. in case of d.c. motors. It is
directly proportional to the shaft velocity ωm rad/sec
Eb = Kb Φωm (1.2)
where
Eb = Back e.m.f.
and, Kb = Back e.m.f. constant
ωm = Motor angular speed in rad/sec
As back e.m.f. opposes the supply voltage, the voltage equation of the d.c. motor is given by
V = Eb + Ia Ra (1.3)
where
V = Supply voltage
Ra = Armature resistance (1.4)
The equations 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3) form the basis of d.c. servomotor operation.
1.12 Classification of DC servomotor

The d.c. servomotors are classified as
• Field controlled d.c. servomotors.
• Armature controlled d.c. servomotors.
• Series split field d.c. servomotors
• Permanent magnet armature controlled d.c. servomotors
1.12.1 Field controlled d.c. servomotors.

In a field controlled d.c. servomotor, the electrical signal is externally applied to the field winding.
Hence current through the field winding is controlled, inturn controlling the flux. This motor is also
known as separately excited motor or variable magnetic flux motor. In a control system, the control
signal is generated by a controller by comparing the actual output with the reference input. Such an
signal is not enough to drive the d.c. motor. Hence it is amplified by an amplifier called servoamplifier.
Such a signal obtained from a servoamplifier is applied to the field winding. With the help of constant
current source, the armature current is maintained constant. The schematic diagram of armature
controlled d.c. servomotor is shown in figure 1.12.1

Servomotors 21
Figure 1.8: Field controlled d.c. servomotors
When there is change in the voltage applied to the field winding V f , the current through field
winding changes. This changes the flux produced by the field winding responsible for the change in
L
the motor characteristics. The motor has large R ff ratio where L f is the field inductance and R f is and
is the field resistance. Due to this the time constant of the motor is high. Control signals hence field
controlled d.c. servomotor is uncommon in practice.
Features of Field Controlled d.c. Servomotor are:
1. It is preferred for small rated motors
2. It has large field inductance to resistance ratio. The ratio of inductance to resistances determines
the time constant and hence the time constant of field controlled d.c. servomotor is large.
3. The overall operation is an open loop system.
4. The control circuit is simple to design
1.12.2 Armature controlled d.c. servomotors

In a armature controlled d.c. servomotor, the control signal available from the servoamplifier is applied
to the armature of the motor. The field winding is supplied with constant current hence the flux remains
constant. So these motors are also called as constant magnetic flux motors. It is easy to keep field
current constant rather than armature current. This is because presence of back e.m.f. in the armature.
The schematic diagram of armature controlled d.c. servomotor is shown in figure 1.12.2

In some case constant field is obtained with the help of permanent magnets. A control signal Va (t)
available from the servoamplifier, is applied to the armature. This signal is based on the feedback
information, supplied to the controller. Due to this, armature current Ia changes which inturn changes
the torque produced. This changes the output of the motor as per the requirement. As flux is kept
constant, the torque developed is proportional to the armature current. The L f and R f are the resistance
and inductive values of the armature, respectively. The inductance is usually small and can be neglected.
Features of Armature Controlled d.c. motor are:
1. It is suitable for large rated motors.
2. The value of armature inductance is small. Hence its time constant is small. Hence motor can
give quick response to the changes in the control signal.
3. The overall operation is a closed loop system.
4. The back e.m.f. provides internal damping which makes the motor operation more stable.
5. The efficiency and overall performance is better than field controlled motor.
1.12.3 Series split field d.c. servomotors

The direction of rotation can also be altered by using split field DC motor. where the field winding
is divided into two parts, one half of the winding is wound in clockwise direction and other half in
wound in anticlockwise direction.
The amplified error signal is fed to the junction point of these two halves of the field. The magnetic
field of both halves of the field winding opposes each other. During operation of the motor, magnetic
field strength of one half dominates other depending upon the value of amplified error signal fed
between these halves. Based on that,the motor rotates in either clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
1.12.4 Permanent magnet armature controlled d.c. servomotors

Permanent magnet armature controlled d.c. servomotor is also an armature controlled motor in which
field is supplied by permanent magnets. Field control is not possible in the case of permanent magnet
DC motor as the field is a permanent magnet here.

Servomotors 23
1.13 Characteristics of a d.c. Servomotor
The torque-speed characteristics of a d.c. motor basically describes the static torque producing
capability of the motor with respect to applied voltage and motor speed. The effect of armature
inductance is negligible in the steady state and hence the torque equation for a d.c. servomotor can be
written as:
Tm = Km Ia (1.5)
where flux is a constant
Va − Eb
But Ia = (1.6)
Ra
Va − Eb
∴ Tm = Km (1.7)
Ra
But Eb = Kb ωm (1.8)
Va − Kb ωm
∴ Tm = Km (1.9)
Ra
where
Km = Motor constant (1.10)

ωm = Speed in rad/sec (1.11)
Va = Applied armature voltage (1.12)

Figure 1.12: Torque-speed characteristics of d.c. servomotor
From the equation 1.9, it can be seen that the graph of Tm against ωm is a straight line which is
dropping in nature, for constant value of Va . This line represents torque-speed characteristics of a
d.c. servomotor, for constant Va . Figure 1.12 shows a typical set of torque-speed characteristics for
various values of applied voltage. The slope of such characteristics is negative. The torque-speed
characteristics of d.c. servomotors are determined experimentally, by conducting various tests on the
servomotor.
1.14 Performance Characteristics

The performance characteristics other than the torque-speed characteristics of a d.c. servomotor are
shown in the Figure 1.13.
Figure 1.13: Torque-speed characteristics of d.c. servomotor

Servomotors 25
As torque developed increases, the current and power input increases while the efficiency increases
upto certain limit and then starts decreasing.
1.15 Applications of DC Servomotor

• Position control
• Air craft control systems
• Process controllers
• Electromechanical actuators
• Robotics
• Machine tools
1.16 Comparison Between A.C. and D.C. servomotors

1.17 Comparison Between armature Controlled and Field Controlled D.C.

Servomotors
EXERCISE
1. What are servomotors ?
2. Mention different types ofservomotors ?
3. Explain the characteristic difference between ac and dc servomotors ?
4. Give the applications of servomotor ?
5. Explain servomechanism?
6. Compare servomotor with conventional motors ?
7. What are the desired qualities of a servomotor ?
8. Explain the construction of an ac servomotor ?
9. Explain the principle of operation an ac servomotor ?
10. Draw and explain the torque–speed characteristics of ac servomotor ?
11. Draw and explain the performance characteristics of ac servomotor ?

Servomotors 27
12. Explain the working and applications of dragcup servomotor ?
13. Explain damped ac servomotor ?
14. Compare cage rotor and dragcup rotor ?
15. Give the applications of ac servomotor ?
16. Explain the construction of an dc servomotor ?
17. Explain the principle of operation an dc servomotor ?
18. Explain different types of operation an dc servomotor ?
19. Give the applications of dc servomotor ?
20. Draw and explain the torque–speed characteristics of ac servomotor ?
21. Draw and explain the performance characteristics of ac servomotor ?
22. With the help of schematic diagram, explain the working of field controlled d.c. servomotor
?
23. Explain the working of armature controlled d.c. servomotors ?
24. What are the advantages and disadvantages of armature controlled d.c. servomotors ?
25. Explain the working of Series split field d.c. servomotors ?
26. Explain the working of Permanent magnet armature controlled d.c. servomotors ?

II
MODULE TWO
2 Stepper Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1 Stepper Motor
2.2 Uses of Stepper Motor
2.3 Advantages of Stepper Motor
2.4 Disadvantages of Stepper Motor
2.5 Types of Stepper Motor
2.6 Step angle
2.7 Single Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Mo-
tor
2.8 Multi Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
2.9 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor
2.10 Hybrid Stepper Motor
2.11 Monofilar and bifilar windings
2.12 Drive Circuits
2.13 Comparison of Stepper Motors
2.14 Static Characteristics of Stepper Motor
2.15 Dynamic Characteristics of Stepper Motor
2.16 Modes of Excitation
2.17 Applications of Stepper Motor
2. Stepper Machines
Special electrical machines are another category of electrical machines which are designed for specific
applications. It gained much popularity and its applications are increasing day by day. Special electrical
machines include stepper motors, reluctance motors, permanent magnet motors, brush less DC motors,
linear motors, etc. Although special electrical machines were invented along with conventional
electrical machines, their application were limited due to the unavailability of proper control strategies.
Now due to the advancement of power electronics and control system they are now commonly seen in
many domestic and industrial applications.
2.1 Stepper Motor

Stepper motors is a special electrical machines which rotates in discrete angular steps in response to
each input current pulse received by its controller. Each step moves the shaft in a fixed angle. It is also
called stepping motors or step motors. Stator has multiple coils that are organized in groups called
phases which are energised using
current pulses. Rotor has no electrical connection, but has

salient poles which may or may not have permanent magnet.
When each phase is energised in sequence using current pulse,
the motor will rotate, one step at a time. So a stepper motor
converts a train of input pulses to a train of step movements.
The angle through which the the motor shaft rotates for each
current pulse is called the step angle.
Due to the advancement of computers, there have been wide spread demand of stepper motors.
Using a computer controlled stepping you can achieve very precise position control and speed control
without using closed loop control. They can also be controlled directly by microprocessors and
programmable controllers. Stepper motors are ideally suited for applications where either precise

positioning or precise speed control or both are required in automation systems. It has the ability
to control an open loop system. So it requires no feedback connection and expensive sensing and
feedback devices such as optical encoders.
2.2 Uses of Stepper Motor

1. Position Control : Stepper motor can be used in applications requiring precise position control
such as 3D printers, office machines, X-ray machine, CNC machines, Camera platforms and
X,Y Plotters. Some disk drives also use stepper motors for positioning the read/write head.
2. Speed Control : It can also be used for precise speed control applications such as process
automation and robotics.
3. Low Speed Torque : Stepper motors, with their ability to produce high torque at a low speed
while minimizing vibration, are ideal for applications requiring quick positioning over a short
distance.
2.3 Advantages of Stepper Motor

1. Construction is simple.
2. Less expensive
3. It operates at full torque at standstill.
4. Less maintenance is required
5. Higher accuracy in position control
6. A wide range of rotational speeds can be achieved
7. It uses open-loop control which makes it simpler and less costly to control.
8. Rapid response to start, stop and reverse.
9. Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor.
2.4 Disadvantages of Stepper Motor

1. It draws more current as compared to the DC motor.
2. Torque decreases when the speed increases
3. Less efficiency.
4. The Resonance condition arises if not controlled properly and requires micro stepping.
5. Control is difficult at higher speed
6. They do not have integral feedback for position.

Stepper Machines 33
2.5 Types of Stepper Motor

Stepper motor can be classified into several types according to the machine structure and principle of
operation. There are three main types of stepper motors, they are:
1. Variable Reluctance stepper Motor
2. Permanent Magnet stepper Motor
3. Hybrid Stepper Motor
2.5.1 Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

Figure 2.1 shows variable reluctance stepper motor. It consists of a soft iron multi-toothed rotor and a
wound stator. The stator windings are energized with DC current. Direction of rotation of motor is
independent of the polarity of the stator. .
It can be classified into single stack type multi-stack type.
Stator has salient poles. Rotor rotates when the rotor teeth
are attracted to the energized stator poles. A rotor step takes
place when one stator phase is de-energized and the next
phase in sequence is energized, thus creating a new position
of minimum reluctance for the rotor. So the electrical pulses
applied to the stator windings produce alternating magnetic
fluxes over the rotor teeth which causes a twisting effect. The
reluctance of the magnetic circuit of rotor and stator teeth
varies with respect to the angular position of the rotor. It is
rarely used in industry due to less detent torque.
Figure 2.1:
Advantages
1. High torque to inertia ratio
2. Robust
3. Higher acceleration.
4. Fast dynamic response

5. High stepping rate and speed slewing capability.
6. Efficient cooling possible
Disadvantages
1. Vibrations
2. Complex control circuit
3. No smaller step angle
4. No detent torque.
2.5.2 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

Figure 2.2 shows permanent magnet stepper motor. It consists of a permanent magnet in the rotor and
a wound stator. The stator windings are energized with DC current but its rotor poles are permanently
magnetized. Direction of rotation depends .
upon the polarity of the stator current. Stator has salient poles.
The rotor no longer has teeth like variable reluctance stepper
motor. Rotor has alternate north and south poles situated in a
straight line parallel to the rotor shaft. The electrical pulses
applied to the stator windings produce alternating magnetic
field which interact with the permanent magnets of the rotor.
This results in high torque level which makes it more efficient.
Since the rotor consists of permanent magnet, it provide an
improved magnetic flux intensity which helps it to exhibits
improved torque-speed characteristics when compared with
the variable reluctance motor. This motor is an ideal choice
for application requires very low speed such as line printer.
Figure 2.2:
Advantages
1. Simple construction
2. Produce Detent torque
3. Higher holding torque
4. Better damping
5. Less maintenance required
Disadvantages
1. High inertia
2. More weight

Stepper Machines 35
3. Bigger step angle
4. Fixed rated torque.
5. Limited power output and size
6. Possibility of reduction in magnetic strength which affects the performance of motor.
2.5.3 Hybrid Stepper Motor

Hybrid stepper motor is an improved version of single stack variable reluctance stepper motor. It
combines the best properties of variable reluctance and permanent magnet stepper motors to achieve
maximum performance. The hybrid stepper motor
is more expensive than the permanent magnet stepper motor

but shows better performance with respect to step resolution,
torque, and speed. Typical step angles for the hybrid stepper
motor ranges from 3.6◦ to 90◦ . The rotor of a hybrid stepper is
multi-toothed which provides better path for the distribution
of magnetic field in the air gap. This further increases the
detent, holding and dynamic torque characteristics of the
motor when compared with both the variable reluctance and
permanent magnet stepper motors. This motor type has some
advantages such as low inertia. The direction of rotation of
hybrid stepper motor depends on the polarity of the stator
current. The most commonly
Figure 2.3: •
used types of stepper motors are the hybrid and permanent magnet stepper motors. For low cost ap-
plication permanent magnet is a good choice but for precise control hybrid stepper motor is the best
choice.
Advantages
1. Step angle error is very small and non-cumulative.
2. Excellent response to starting, stopping and reversing.
3. produce detent torque
4. Less tendency to resonate
5. Small step angle possible
6. High torque per package size.
7. Holding torque at standstill.

Disadvantages
1. High inertia
2. More weight
3. Possibility of resonance
4. Possibility of vibration
2.6 Step angle

Step angle is defined as the angle through which the rotor of a stepper motor moves when one command
pulse is received at the input of the stator. It is denoted by β . The angular position of a stepper motor
is decided by the step angle and is expressed in degrees. When the step angle is small, the number of
steps per revolution becomes large and the resolution or accuracy of positioning obtained. A standard
motor will have a step angle of 1.8 degrees with 200 steps per revolution. The various step angles like
90◦ , 45◦ , 15◦ , 1.8◦ , 2.5◦ , 7.5◦ are common in simple motors.
If the rotor and stator poles are Nr and Ns respectively, then the step angle is given by the expression:
(Ns − Nr )
Step angle, β = × 360◦ (2.1)
Ns .Nr
The step angle can also be determined using the number of stator phases (m) and the number of rotor
teeth (Nr ) by the expression
360
Step angle, β = (2.2)
m.Nr
The accuracy of positioning by stepper motor depends on the resolution. Higher the resolution greater
will be the accuracy. Resolution is the number of steps required to complete one revolution of the rotor
shaft.
Number of steps
Resolution, =
Number of revolutions of rotor
360◦
= (2.3)
β
Example 2.1 A stepper motor has a step angle of 2.4◦ . Find the resolution and the number of steps
required to cause 100 revolutions. Also find the shaft speed, if the stepping frequency is 1800 pulse/sec.


Stepper Machines 37
Solution:
Step angle, β = 2.4◦

360◦
Resolution, =
β
360◦
=
2.4◦
= 150 steps/rev
Number of steps for 100 revolutions, = 150 × 100
= 15000
β×f
Shaft speed, n =
360◦
2.4 × 1800
=
360◦
= 12 r.p.s = 720 r.p.m.
Example 2.2 A stepper motor is designed to have three phase and six poles. If it has 10 rotor teeth.
Find its resolution.
Solution:
Number of stator phases, m = 3

Number of rotor teeth, Nr = 10
360◦
Step angle, β =
m × Nr
360◦
=
3 × 10
= 12◦
360◦
Resolution =
β
360◦
=
12◦
= 30 steps/rev
Example 2.3 If a stepper motor has 6 stator poles and having 30 stator teeth. If rotor has 20 teeth,
calculate the stepping angle and resolution.

Solution:
Number of stator teeth, Ns = 30

Number of rotor teeth, Nr = 20
(Ns − Nr )
Step angle, β = × 360◦
Ns .Nr
(30 − 20)
= × 360◦
30 × 20
= 6◦
360◦
Resolution =
β
360◦
= ◦
6
= 60 steps/rev
2.7 Single Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

Single stack variable reluctance stepper motor has a laminated silicon steel stator. It has projecting
poles. Stator poles carries a concentric windings. The field windings of opposite poles are connected
in series. The two coils are connected in such a way that their magnetic flux gets added, then the two
coils form a phase. Both stator and rotor is made up of materials having high permeability. The rotor
also consists of laminated projecting poles. Rotor has no winding and there is no electrical connection
in rotor. In order to have self-starting capability and bi-directional rotation, the number of stator and
rotor poles are not equal.
Figure 2.4: • Figure 2.5: •

Figure 2.4 shows a three phase, six pole variable reluctance stepper motor. It consists of three
phases, A, B and C and each phase is energised by passing electric pulse. Electrical connection of
variable reluctance stepper motor as shown figure 2.5. Coil A and A0 are connected in series forms a
phase winding. Similarly, coil B and B0 are connected in series and coils C and C0 series form phase
windings. When current passed through the phase, one pole becomes a N-pole and the other one
becomes a S-pole. These phases are energised using a DC source. The DC source is connected to
phase A , phase B and phase C through switches S1 , S2 and S3 respectively.

Stepper Machines 39
2.7.1 Modes of Operation

It works on the principle of variable reluctance. The principle of operation of VR stepper motor
explained by referring the various modes of operation given below:
MODE 1 : Full step operation
In this mode of operation, only one phase of stepper motor is energized at any time. When the switch
S1 is on, current is applied to the phase A and the coils of phase 1 and 4 are excited, the reluctance
torque causes the rotor to align with the axis of phase A. The rotor teeth 1 and 3 are attracted to the
stator teeth 1 and 4 respectively as shown in Figure 2.6(a). Then angle θ = 0◦ and the rotor cannot
move until another phase is energized.
Next, the switch S2 is turned on and switch S1 is turned off. Now the phase A is de-energised and
the phase B is energised so that the stator teeth 3 and 6 are energised. The stator teeth 2 and 4 would
align with rotor teeth 3 and 6 respectively as shown in Figure 2.6(b). The rotor rotates in the clockwise
(CW) direction and makes an angular displacement of 30◦ . The rotor gets attracted to the stator poles
until the switch S2 is turned off. Table 2.1 shows the truth table of full step operation.
Figure 2.6: •

Table 2.1: Truth Table
Phase A Phase B Phase C θ

+ 0 0 0◦
0 + 0 30◦
0 0 + 60◦
+ 0 0 90◦
Next, the phase C is energised by turning on S3 and the phase B is de-energised by turning off S2 .
Now the stator teeth 2 and 5 are energised. The stator teeth 2 and 5 would align with rotor teeth 1 and
3 respectively as shown in Figure 2.6(c). The rotor rotates in the clockwise (CW) direction and makes
an angle of 30◦ . So a total angular displacement of 60◦ is obtained in the clockwise direction.
Now again the switch S1 is turned on and the switch S3 is turned off. Now the stator teeth 1 and
4 are energised. The stator teeth 1 and 4 would align with rotor teeth 4 and 2 respectively as shown
in Figure 2.6(d). So if we continuously closing the switches in the sequence S1 -S2 -S3 -S1 and thus
energizing stator phases in sequence A-B-C-A , the rotor will rotate in the clockwise direction with a
step angle of 30◦ . Also if we continuously closing the switches in the sequence S3 -S2 -S1 -S3 and thus
energizing stator phases in sequence C-B-A-C , the rotor will rotate in the anti-clockwise direction
with a step angle of 30◦ . This operation of stepper motor is called full step operation.
MODE 2 : Two-phase-ON Mode
In this mode of operation, two stator phases are energised simultaneously. The main advantage of
this type of operation is that the holding torque developed by the stepper motor is more and better
damped response is obtained compared to full step operation. Table 2.2 gives the truth table. When the
switches S1 and S2 , the phases A and B are energized together and the rotor experiences attraction
from both phases. Due to the torque from phase A and phase B, the rotor comes to rest in a point
mid-way between the two adjacent full step position. The rotor will rotate in the clockwise direction
with an angle of 15◦

+ + 0 15◦
0 + + 45◦
+ 0 + 75◦
+ + 0 105◦
0 + + 135◦
+ 0 + 165◦
+ + 0 195◦
If the stator phases are switched in the sequence AB-BC-CA-AB etc., the motor will take full steps
of 30◦ each in the clockwise direction. If the stator phases are switched in the sequence AC-CB-BA-AC
etc., the motor will take full steps of 30◦ each in the anti-clockwise direction.

Stepper Machines 41
MODE 3 : Half-step Operation
This method is the combination of one phase ON and two phase ON mode of operations. In this mode
of operation, the step angle obtained is half of the full step angle. Half-step operation is obtained by
exciting the three phases in the sequence A-AB-B-BC-C-CA etc. So method uses 1-phase-ON and
2-phase-ON modes alternately.

+ 0 0 0◦
+ + 0 15◦
0 + 0 30◦
0 + + 45◦
0 0 + 60◦
+ 0 + 75◦
+ 0 0 90◦
This method is also known as wave excitation and it causes the rotor to advance in steps of 15◦ .
The truth table for the phase pulsing sequence in half-stepping is shown in Table 2.3.
MODE 4 : Micro stepping
In Micro stepping, the currents in the stator windings are continuously varied to break up one full step
into many smaller discrete steps. It is also known as mini-stepping. In this method, two phases are
energised simultaneously as in 2-phase-ON mode but with the two currents deliberately made unequal.
The current in one phase is held constant while the current in the other phase is increased in very small
increments upto the maximum current. After that the current in the first phase is reduced to zero using
the same very small increments. The advantages of microstepping in stepper motor are Improvement in
resolution, DC motor like performance, elimination of resonance and Rapid motion at micro stepping
rate.

2.8 Multi Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

The multi-stack variable reluctance stepper motors are used to obtain smaller step angles, typically in
the range of 2◦ to 15◦ . Although three stacks are common, a multi stack motor may employ as many
as seven stacks. It has higher torque to volume ratio and efficiency compared to single stack motor.
The stator and rotor of multi-stack motor is divided along its axial length into a number of sections
or stacks. All the stacks are magnetically isolated from others. Each phase has separate stator and rotor
stacks. All the coils of stator stacks are connected in series and it can be excited to make north and
south poles. Both stator and rotor have the same number of poles. Usually stator poles have sub teeth.
Figure 2.7: Multi Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
Figure 2.7 shows a three stack variable reluctance stepper motor. The stators and rotors have the
same number of poles and therefore same pole pitch. For a multi stack motor with m number of phases,
the stator poles in all m stacks are aligned, but the rotor poles are displaced by 1/m of the pole pitch.
All the stator pole windings in a given stack are exited simultaneously and, therefore the stator winding
of each stack forms one phase. So the motor has the same number of phases as number of stacks.
If there are 12 stator and rotor poles in each stack. The pole pitch for the 12 pole rotor is 30, and
the step angle or the rotor pole teeth are displaced by 10◦ from each other.
360◦
Step angle = = 30◦ (2.4)
3 × 12
Figure 2.8: •

Stepper Machines 43
When the phase winding A is energised, the rotor pole of stack A are aligned with the stator poles
as shown in the Figure 2.8. When phase A is de-energized, and phase B is energised, rotor teeth of the
stack B are aligned with the stator poles as shown in Figure 2.9 and the rotor rotates at an angle 10◦ in
the anticlockwise direction.
Figure 2.9: •
Similarly when phase B is de-energized, and phase C is energised, rotor poles of the stack C are
aligned with the stator poles and the rotor moves another 10◦ in the anti-clockwise direction. Again,
another change in the excitation of the rotor takes place, and the stator and rotor teeth align it with
stack A. If we energise the stator in the order A-B-C-A etc. we will get a continuous rotation in the
anti-clockwise direction.
2.9 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

The stator construction of Permanent magnet stepper motor is similar to VR stepper motor. The rotor
is made of a permanent-magnet. As shown in the Figure 2.10 the stator has salient poles but the rotor
is cylindrical and has radially magnetized permanent magnets. Since the rode is made of permanent
magnet, it has detent torque.
Figure 2.10: PM Stepper Motor
Figure 2.10 shows PM stepper motor with the rotor has two poles and the stator has four poles.
Since two stator poles are energized by a single winding, the motor has two phases marked A and B.
2.9.1 Modes of Operation

Consider a PM stepper motor having four stator poles and two rotor poles. When a particular stator
phase is energized, the rotor magnetic poles move into alignment with the excited stator poles. The

principle of operation of PM stepper motor explained by referring the various modes of operation
given below:
MODE 1 : Single Phase ON Mode
The stator windings A and B can be excited with either positive or negative current. Initially phase A
is energised using a positive current. Here, the S pole formed by the stator phase A and the N pole of
the rotor gets locked and angle θ = 90◦ as shown in Figure 2.11 (a).
Figure 2.11: PM Stepper Motor
If positive current is given to phase B as in Figure 2.11 (b), the rotor rotates by a full step of 90◦ in
the clockwise direction. Next, when phase A is excited with negative current, the rotor turns through
another 90◦ in CW direction as shown in Figure 2.11 (c).
Similarly, if phase B is excited with a negative current, the rotor moves again by 90◦ further turns
the rotor through another 90o in the same direction as shown in Figure 2.11 (d). Next, if the phase A
is excited again with a positive current, makes the rotor turn through another 90◦ . The truth table is
shown in Table 2.4

Stepper Machines 45
Phase A Phase B θ
+ 0 0◦
0 + 90◦
- 0 180◦
0 - 270◦
+ 0 360◦ or 0◦
MODE 2 : Two Phase ON Mode
In this mode of operation, two stator phases are energised simultaneously. If positive current is given
to both phase A and phase B, the rotor rotates by a full step of 45◦ in the clockwise direction. Next,
when phase A is excited with negative current and phase B is excited with positive current, the rotor
turns through another 90◦ in CW direction and total 135◦ is obtained. Similarly, if both phase A and
phase B are excited with negative current, the rotor turns through another 90◦ in CW direction. Again
if phase A is excited with positive current and phase B is excited with negative current, the rotor turns
through another 90◦ in CW direction is obtained. Next, both phase A and phase B are excited with
positive current, the rotor turn through another 90◦ . Truth table for different possible current sequences
for producing clockwise rotation are given in Table 2.5
Phase A Phase B θ
+ + 45◦
- + 135◦
- - 225◦
+ - 315◦
+ + 45◦
MODE 3 : Alternate One Phase and Two Phase ON Mode
This method is the combination of one phase ON and two phase ON mode of operations. In this mode
of operation, the step angle 45◦ obtained. Truth table for different possible current sequences for
producing clockwise rotation are given in Table 2.6

Phase A Phase B θ
+ 0 0◦
+ + 45◦
0 + 90◦
- + 135◦
- 0 180◦
- - 225◦
0 - 270◦
+ - 315◦
+ 0 360◦
2.10 Hybrid Stepper Motor

It combines the features of the variable reluctance and permanent-magnet stepper motors. Hybrid
stepper motors have similar stator construction to that of variable reluctance stepper motors. However,
their rotors constructions combine both variable reluctance and permanent magnet constructions. The
rotors are made of an axial permanent magnet at the middle and two identical stacks of soft iron poles
at the outer ends attached to the north and south poles of the permanent magnet.
The rotor consists of a permanent magnet that is magnetized axially to create a pair of poles marked
N and S in Figure 2.12 (b). Two end-caps are fitted at both ends of this axial magnet. These end-caps
consist of equal number of teeth which are magnetized by the respective polarities of the axial magnet.
The rotor teeth of one end-cap are offset by a half tooth pitch so that a tooth at one end-cap coincides
with a slot at the other. The cross sectional views perpendicular to the shaft along X − X 0 and Y −Y 0
axes are shown in Figure 2.12 (a) and (c) respectively. As seen, the stator consists of four stator poles
which are excited by two stator windings in pairs. The rotor has five N-poles at one end and five S-poles
at the other end of the axial magnet. The step angle of such a motor is =(5 − 4) × 360◦ /(5 × 4) = 18◦ .
Figure 2.12:

Stepper Machines 47
2.10.1 Operation
In Table 2.7, phase A is shown excited such that the top stator pole is a S-pole so that it attracts the top
N-pole of the rotor and brings it in line with the A − A0 axis. To turn the rotor, phase A is denergized
and phase B is excited positively. The rotor will turn in the CCW direction by a full step of 18◦ . Next,
phase A and B are energized negatively one after the other to produce further rotations of 18◦ each in
the same direction. The truth table is shown in Table 2.7. For producing clockwise rotation, the phase
sequence should be A+ ; B− ; A− ; B+ ; A+ etc.
Figure 2.13:
Practical hybrid stepping motors are built with more rotor poles than shown in Figure 2.13 in order
to give higher angular resolution. Hence, the stator poles are often slotted or castleated to increase
the number of stator teeth. As shown in Figure 2.13, each of the eight stator poles has been alloted
or castleated into five smaller poles making Ns = 8 × 5 = 40◦ . If rotor has 50 teeth, then step angle
=(50 − 40) × 360◦ /50 × 40 = 1.8◦ . Step angle can also be decreased (and hence resolution increased)
by having more than two stacks on the rotor.
Phase A Phase B θ
+ 0 0◦
0 + 18◦
- 0 36◦
0 - 54◦
+ 0 72◦
This motor achieves small step sizes easily and with a simpler magnet structure whereas a purely
PM motor requires a multiple permanent-magnet. As compared to VR motor, hybrid motor requires
less excitation to achieve a given torque. However, like a PM motor, this motor also develops good

detent torque provided by the permanent-magnet flux. This torque holds the rotor stationary while the
power is switched off. This fact is quite helpful because the motor can be left overnight without fear of
its being accidentally moved to a new position.
2.11 Monofilar and bifilar windings

A bidirectional current flowing in the hybrid motor windings produces a bidirectional field in the stator
poles. With a bifilar winding the same results is achieved by two pole windings in opposite senses,
as illustrated for one pole in Fig.. Depending on the field direction, one of the windings is excited
by a unidirectional current; in Figure 2.14the field produced by a positive current in the conventional
arrangement is available by exciting the bifilar +winding with positive current. The effect of negative
current in the conventional winding is then achieved by positive excitation of the bifilar winding.
Figure 2.14: Monofilar and bifilar windings
Each of the bifilar pole windings must have as many turns as the original winding and the same
rated current, so a bifilar winding has twice the volume of a conventional winding. This additional
volume does, of course, increase the manufacturing costs but for small size of hybrid motor this is
outweighed by resultant reduction in drive costs.
2.11.1 Comparison of monofilar and bifilar winding

+ Simple ON/OFF switching is adequate for bifilar winding while current reversal circuitry is
required for unifilar winding
+ Since current reversal is absent in bifilar winding, there are smaller levels of induced voltages by
self induction and mutual induction. For this reason, the dynamic torque at a given stepping rate
is usually larger for bifilar stepper motors, particularly at higher speed.
+ Bifilar motors produce large torque compared to monofilar motors.
+ Bifilar wound hybrid motors, can be operated more efficiently with a unipolar drive.

Stepper Machines 49
2.12 Drive Circuits

There are two main drive circuits for stepper motors, namely; Uni-polar and Bi-polar drive circuits
2.12.1 Uni-polar Drive Circuit

Figure 2.15 shows the schematic diagram for a uni-polar drive circuit. This circuit is suitable for three
phase variable reluctance stepper motors. Each phase winding of the motor is controlled by a separate
drive circuit with a transistor as its controllable power switch. All drive circuits are energized by the
same DC source.
Figure 2.15: Unipolar drive circuit
The transistor (power switch) of each winding has two modes of operation as follows:
On Mode:
When sufficiently high base current flow through the transistor base it turn ON and acts ideally like
a short circuit. Consequently, the supply voltage will be applied across the phase winding and the
external resistor (Rext) connected in series with the phase winding. The DC source magnitude is
adjusted to produces the rated phase current when the switch is turned ON. Therefore,
Vs = I(R ph + Rext ) (2.5)
Where Vs is the DC source voltage in V, I is the phase winding rated current in A, R ph is the phase
winding resistance in Ω, and Rext is the external resistance connected in series to the phase winding in
Ω.
The phase winding inductance is very large and consequently results in slow rate of building the
phase winding current that might result in unsatisfactory operation of the stepper motor at high stepping
rates. Therefore, the external resistance is connected in series with the phase winding to
L ph
τON = (2.6)
R ph + Rext
Where L ph is the phase winding average inductance in H

OFF Mode:
In this mode, the base drive current of the transistor is removed and the switch is turned OFF and acts
as an open circuit. The phase winding current will continue to flow through the freewheeling path
formed by the freewheeling diode (Df) and the freewheeling resistance (R f ). The maximum OFF state
voltage appears across the transistor (switch) (VCEmax ) can be expressed by,
VCEmax = Vs + IR f (2.7)
During this mode of operation, phase current decays in the OFF mode circuit with a net OFF Mode
circuit time constant that can be expressed by,
L ph
τOFF = (2.8)
R ph + Rext + R f
The energy stored in the phase inductance during the ON mode is dissipated in the OFF mode circuit
resistances during the switch turn OFF period.
2.12.2 Bi-polar Drive Circuit

Figure 2.16 presents a schematic diagram for one phase of a bi-polar drive circuit. This circuit is
suitable for permanent magnet or hybrid stepper motors. Each phase winding of the motor is controlled
by a separate drive circuit with a transistor as its controllable power switch. All drive circuits are
energized by the same DC source. Each two transistors (power switches) of each phase winding are
turned ON simultaneously.
Figure 2.16: Unipolar drive circuit
Two modes of operation occur as follows:

Stepper Machines 51
T1 and T2 are in the On Mode:
This is done by injecting sufficiently high base current through their bases simultaneously. Each
transistor acts ideally like a short circuit. Consequently, the current will flow as indicated by the solid
line in Figure 2.16. The inductor is then energized.
D3 and D4 are in the On Mode:
This mode follows the switching OFF of T1 and T2. In this mode, the phase winding current cannot
change its direction or decay to zero instantaneously after turning OFF of T1 and T2 because of the
phase winding inductances. Thus the current continue to flow through of D3 and D4 as indicated by
the dotted line in Figure 2.16. The inductor discharges and the energy is returned back to the DC
source. A reverse flow of current in the phase windings and hence a reverse direction of rotation of the
motor can be achieved by activating T3 and T4. When T3 and T4 are turned OFF the freewheeling
path will provided through D1 and D2.
The bi-polar circuit is characterized by,
• Higher efficiency than the uni-polar drive circuit as part of the stored energy in the phase winding
returns back to the DC source during the power switches turn OFF mode.
• Fast decaying of the freewheeling current as the inductor discharge through the phase winding
resistance, phase external resistance and the DC source.
• No freewheeling resistance is required. More power switches (devices) than the uni-polar drive
circuit.
• More expensive than the uni-polar drive circuit.
• Most of the large stepper motors types (> 1 kW) are driven by the bi-polar drive circuit including
variable reluctance types.
2.13 Comparison of Stepper Motors

So far we have discussed about different types of stepper motors.. For the selection stepper motor for a
particular application, we need to consider various characteristics of each motor like step size detent
torque, and the rotor inertia and cost.
- Cost of hybrid stepper motor is high compared to variable reluctance and permanent magnet
stepper motors. Permanent magnet stepper motor is least expensive.
- Construction of hybrid stepper motor is complex but the construction of variable reluctance
motor is simple. Complexity of construction is moderate in the case of permanent magnet stepper
motor.
- Variable reluctance stepper motors has less weight compared to hybrid motors which makes it
quick response to command signal.
- Due to low inertia, variable reluctance motor has higher allowable frequency of operation.

- No matter what kind of excitation is, the operation of variable reluctance stepper motor is noisy
compared to permanent magnet and hybrid stepper motors.
- Hybrid stepper motors are available with smaller step sizes than variable reluctance motors. The
larger step size of variable-reluctance motors, is more suited to high speed applications.
- Hybrid stepper motor is subjected to mechanical resonance of the drive
- Hybrid motor will produce a continuous detent torque and there is no cumulative position error.
So it is more suitable for open loop operations.
- Variable reluctance stepper motor is less pronounced to torque drop at high speed.
- While a linear motion can be obtained by the combination of a ball screw with any type of stepper
motor, giving a low cost linear actuator, the linear stepper motor has a number of performance
advantages. However, it should be noted that as with any linear motor, vertical operation can
prove problematic.
2.14 Static Characteristics of Stepper Motor

The stepper motor is excited and brought into rest or equilibrium position by supplying a current. If
an external torque is applied to the shaft, an angular displacement will occur. The relation between
the external torque and the displacement is shown in Figure 2.17. This curve is called Torque-Angle
characteristics and the maximum of static torque is termed the holding torque which occurs at θ = θm .
The holding torque is defined as the maximum static torque that can be applied to the shaft of an
excited motor without causing continuous motion.
Figure 2.17: Torque-Angle Characteristics
A typical torque- current characteristics for variable reluctance and hybrid stepper motors is shown
in Figure 2.18. It is seen the curve is initially linear. Torque constant of the stepper is defined as the
initial slope of the torque-current curve of the stepper motor. It is also known as torque sensitivity.

Stepper Machines 53
Figure 2.18: Torque-Current Characteristics
The maximum static torque appearing in the hybrid motor with no current is the detent torque,
which is defined as the maximum static torque that can be applied to the shaft of an unexcited motor
without causing continuous rotation. Detent torque is due to magnetism, and is therefore available only
in permanent magnet and hybrid stepper motor.
2.15 Dynamic Characteristics of Stepper Motor

The characteristics relating to motors which are in motion or about to start are called dynamic charac-
teristics. Pull-in torque and Pull-out characteristics of a stepper motor is called dynamic characteristics
or torque-speed characteristics. The area between pull-in torque and pull-out torque represents those
values of torque and stepping rate which the motor follows without loosing synchronism provided that
it has already started and synchronised. This area is known as slew range.
Figure 2.19: Torque-Speed Characteristics
2.15.1 Pull-in Characteristics (Start-Stop)

It is also known as starting characteristics of a stepper motor. It shows the range of frictional load torque
at which the motor can start and stop without losing any steps. It is also know as the characteristics of
start-stop mode of operation. In start-stop mode of operation, at any operating point, the motor can

start and stop without losing synchronism. In this mode, the second pulse is given to the stepper motor
only after the rotor attained a steady or rest position due to first pulse. The region of start-stop mode of
operation depends on the operation depends on the torque developed and the stepping rate or stepping
frequency of stepper motor.
2.15.2 Pull-out Characteristics (Slewing)
This is also known as the slewing characteristic. It gives the relation between the frictional load torque
and the maximum pulse frequency with which the stepper motor can synchronized. From Pull-out
characteristics, the maximum torque that can be developed at any speed can be obtained. If the load
torque is more than the motor torque, the motor will pull out of synchronism with the magnetic field,
and it will stop.
In slewing mode of operation, to attain an operating point in the slewing mode without losing
synchronism, at first the motor is to operate at a point in the start-stop mode and then stepping rate is
increased to operate in slewing mode. Similarly to stop the motor operating in slewing mode, first the
motor is to be brought to the start stop mode and then stop.
2.16 Modes of Excitation

Though the principle of stepper motor is being explained by single phase excitation which is the
most basic excitation method and often used for analysing fundamental theoretical problems, several
different methods are in practice.
Single Phase Excitation

In this mode of operation only one phase is excited at any time so it is called single-phase-on operation.
The below table shows the sequences of a single phase excitation mode for three and four-phase motors.
In the table the shaded parts represent the excited state and white the blanks show the un-excited state.
R represents reset.

Stepper Machines 55
To rotate a motor into clockwise direction, the excitation sequence is ph 1 , ph 2, ph 3,... for counter
clockwise rotation the excitation sequence is ph 3 , ph 2, ph 1,... It is also known as ‘one-phase-on
drive’.
Two Phase Excitation

In this mode of operation two phases are always in excited condition so it is called “two-phase-on
operation”. The below table shows the sequences of a two phase excitation mode for three and
four-phase motors. It is seen in these tables that when an excitation current is switched from one phase
to another (e.g. as shown by the arrow in table Ph2 is turned off and Ph1 is turned on) the third phase
(Ph3 in the above example) remains excited. It is also known as “Twophase-on drive" In two-phase-on
drive the oscillation damps more quickly than the case of the onephase-on drive mode
Half Step Excitation

This excitation scheme is a combination of single phase and two phase excitation. The sequence for
three phase is given below
2.16.1 Important Terms

Positional error
It is the total percentage error during one complete rotation of the rotor of a stepper motor.

Stepping rate
The number of steps completed per second by the rotor of a stepper motor is called stepping rate or
stepping frequency.
Detent position
It is the position of the rotor of an unexcited stepper motor
Hold position
It is the resting position of the rotor of an excited stepper motor
Pull in torque
It is the maximum torque developed by the stepper motor for a given stepping rate in the start-stop
mode of operation without losing synchronism. It is also known as limiting torque.
Pull out torque
It is the maximum torque developed by the stepper motor for a given stepping rate in the slewing mode
without losing synchronism. It is also known as critical torque.
Pull in range
It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor can operate in start-stop mode developing
a specific torque without losing synchronism
Pull out range
It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor can operate in slewing mode developing a
specified torque without losing synchronism.
Pull in rate
It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor will start or stop without losing synchronism
against a given load torque T.
Pull out rate
It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor will slew, without missing steps, against
load torque T.
Synchronism
This term means one to one correspondence between the number of pulses applied to the stepper motor
and the number of steps through which the motor has actually moved.

Stepper Machines 57
Slewing
A stepping motor has the extraordinary ability to operate at very high stepping rates upto 20,000 steps
per second. When the pulse rate is high, the shaft rotation seems rotating continuously. The operation
of stepper motor at high speed is called slewing.
Holding Torque
It is the maximum load torque which can be applied to the shaft of the energized stepper motor without
causing continuous rotation. If the holding torque is exceeded, the motor suddenly slips from the
present equilibrium position and it will move one full step when the windings are energized.
Detent torque
It is the maximum load torque which the un-energized stepper motor can withstand without causing
rotation. Detent torque is due to magnetism, and is therefore available only in permanent magnet
and hybrid stepper motor. It is about 5-10 % of holding torque. Under this torque, even though the
excitation increases, the rotor comes back to normal rest position. This position is the detent position.
2.17 Applications of Stepper Motor

Computer-controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning systems. They
can be used as part of an open loop system which are simpler and more rugged than closed loop servo
systems. Other applications are given below.
Automobile applications
1. Air control valves
2. Throttle body motors
3. Idle air control valves
4. wiper motors
Industrial applications
1. Process control.
2. Machines Tools.
3. Pick and drop equipment
4. CNC machines
5. Packaging machinery
Medical applications
1. Scanners
2. Digital dental photography,

3. Fluid pumps
4. Blood analysis machinery.
5. Respiratory machines
Office equipments
1. Fax
2. Xerox machine
3. Printer
4. Scanners
Electronics
1. Camera
2. Robotics
3. Computer perpherals
4. Graph plotters

Stepper Machines 59
EXERCISE
1. What is a stepper motor. Compare it with conventional motors ?
2. How do you classify stepper motors ?
3. Explain the principle of operation of stepper motor ?
4. What are the advantages, disadvantages and applications of step motror ?
5. Define the terms step angle and resolution.
6. Explain the working of a variable reluctance stepper motor ?
7. Explain the construction and working of a multi-stack variable reluctance stepper motor ?
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a variable reluctance stepper motor ?
9. Describe various modes of operation of a variable reluctance stepper motor ?
10. What is meant by microstepping in stepper motors. What are its advantages ?
11. Compare variable reluctance, permanent magnet and hybrid stepper motors ?
12. Define holding torque and detent torque of a stepper motor ?
13. Explain the open loop and closed loop control of stepper motor ?
14. Explain the static and dynamic characteristics of a stepper motor ?
15. Explain monofilar and bifilar winding ?
16. Compare monofilar and bifilar winding ?
17. Draw and explain the torque-speed characteristics ofa stepper motor ?
18. Explain start-stop and slewing modes of operation of stepper motor ?
19. Explain the construction and working of a linear stepper motor ?
20. What are the applications of linear stepper motor ?
21. If a stepper motor has 8 stator poles and having 20 stator teeth. If rotor has 16 teeth,
calculate the stepping angle and resolution ?
22. What is resonance in stepper motor ?
23. Explain pull-in torque and pull-out torque of a stepper motor ?

III
MODULE THREE
3 Single phase special electrical ma-

chines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.1 AC Series motor (Universal Motor)
3.2 Drawbacks of Connecting DC series motor to
AC supply
3.3 Modifications of DC Series motor for AC opera-
tion
3.4 Construction and Types of AC Series Motor (Uni-
versal Motor)
3.5 Universal Motor
3.6 Hysteresis Motor
3.7 Construction of Hysteresis Motor
3.8 Principle of Operation of a Hysteresis Motor
3.9 Torque Speed characteristic of Hysteresis Motor
3.10 Torque Equation of Hysteresis Motor
3.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hysteresis
Motor
3.12 Applications of Hysteresis Motor
3. Single phase special electrical machines
3.1 AC Series motor (Universal Motor)

The single-phase ac series motor is a commutator-type motor. If the polarity of the line terminals of a
dc series motor is reversed, the motor will continue to run in the same direction. Thus, it might be
expected that a dc series motor would operate on alternating current also. The direction of the torque
developed in a dc series motor is determined by both field polarity and the direction of current through
the armature (T α ΦIa )
Let a dc series motor be connected across a single-phase ac supply. Since the same current flows
through the field winding and the armature, it follows that ac reversals from positive to negative, or
from negative to positive, will simultaneously affect both the field flux polarity and the current direction
through the armature. This means that the direction of the developed torque will remain positive, and
rotation will continue in the same direction. Thus, a series motor can run both on dc and ac. However,
the series motor develops less torque when operating from an a.c. supply than when working from an
equivalent d.c. supply. The direction of rotation can be changed by interchanging connections to the
field with respect to the armature as in d.c. series motor.
3.2 Drawbacks of Connecting DC series motor to AC supply

If an ordinary dc series motor is connected to an ac supply, it will rotate and exert unidirectional
torque, because the current flowing both in the armature and field reverses at the same time. But the
performance of such a motor will not be satisfactory for the following reasons:
1. The alternating flux would cause excessive eddy current loss and hysteresis loss in the yoke and
field cores which will cause overheating.
2. Its efficiency is low due to hysteresis and eddy-current losses.
3. Excessive sparking will occur at brushes.

4. power factor is low because of high inductance of the field and armature circuits.
3.3 Modifications of DC Series motor for AC operation

1. The field core is constructed of a material having low hysteresis loss. It is laminated to reduce
eddy-current loss. The field winding is provided with small number of turns.
2. The field-pole areas is increased so that the flux density is reduced. This reduces the iron loss
and the reactive voltage drop.
3. The number of armature conductors is increased in order to get the required torque with the low
flux.
4. In order to reduce the effect of armature reaction, thereby improving commutation and reducing
armature reactance, a compensating winding is used. The compensating winding is put in the
stator slots. The axis of the compensating winding is 90 (electrical) with the main field axis.
5. The armature of universal motor is of the same construction as ordinary series motor. In order to
minimize commutation problems, high resistance brushes with increased brush area are used.
3.4 Construction and Types of AC Series Motor (Universal Motor)

The stator is made up of laminations and has salient pole structure. Two or four pole structure is used
to reduce winding reactance. Machine wound field coils are provided on the stator poles. The rotor
is laminated and has slots to accommodate armature windings. The slots are skewed by one pole
pitch. Commutator and armature mounted on the shaft. Armature coils are connected the commutator
segments which are insulated from each other. High resistance brushes and leads are used. Armature
and field windings are connected in series through these brushes. Compensating windings is distributed
over the stator bore and connected in series with the armature winding.
Figure 3.1: Universal Motor
Construction of a universal motor is very similar to the construction of a DC series motor. There
are two types of Universal Motor:

Single phase special electrical machines 65
(i) Non-compensated Type with Concentrated Field.
(ii) Compensated Type with Distributed Field.
Figure 3.1 shows a non-compensated universal motor. It has two salient poles and the poles are
laminated. It has a concentrated field winding. The stator is laminated in order to reduce eddy current
loss due to alternating flux, when motor is operated from AC supply. It has a wound type armature
with laminated core having either straight or skewed slots. The armature winding is connected to the
commutator.
The compensated type universal motor consists of distributed field winding. The construction of
stator core is similar to that of split-phase motor. It has a wound armature similar to that of a DC
motor. Similar to split phase motor which has an auxiliary winding in addition to main winding,
compensated type universal motor consists of an additional winding called compensating winding.
The compensating winding is provided in order to reduce the reactance voltage which is caused due to
alternating flux, when the motor runs with the AC supply. The compensated type motors are commonly
used for applications which require large power output at high speed.
Figure 3.2: Conductively and Inductively Compensated Motor
In conductively compensated motors, the compensating winding is connected in series with

the armature winding, as shown in Figure ??(a) whereas in inductively compensated motors, the
compensating winding is short circuited and has no interconnection with the motor circuit as shown in
Figure ??(b). The compensating winding acts as a short-circuited secondary of a transformer, for which
the armature winding acts as a primary. The current in the compensating winding will be proportional
to the armature current and 180◦ out of phase with it.
3.5 Universal Motor

Universal motor is a specially designed motor which can run on either DC or single phase AC supply
at approximately the same speed. Universal motor is a commutator type motor. It is a series-wound
motor similar to DC series motor where the stator field windings are connected in series with the rotor
(armature) windings. If the polarity of the line terminals of a universal motor is reversed, the motor
will continue to run in the same direction. So it develops unidirectional torque on both AC and DC.

It is often referred to as an AC series motor. Similar to DC
series motor, it has a high starting torque and a variable speed
characteristics. When operating from an AC supply, the series
motor develops less torque. By interchanging connections of
the fields winding with respect to the armature, the direction
of rotation can be changed. This motor runs at dangerously
high speed without a load, and due to this, they are usually
built into the device they are meant to drive. They run at
lower speed on AC supply than they run on DC supply of
same voltage, due to the reactance voltage drop which is
present in AC and not in DC.
The Universal motor is used for the applications where high values of the speed with good speed
control are necessary. This motor is used on household appliances such as vacuum cleaners, hair
dryers,blenders, food mixers, drills, washing machine, sewing machines etc.
3.5.1 Principle of Operation

The principle of operation of universal motor is same as a DC motor. When a current carrying armature
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force due to which the armature
rotates. This is true regardless of whether the current is alternating or direct. Universal motors develop
unidirectional torque both on DC or AC supply. When it is connected to a DC supply, it works as a
DC series motor. When current flows in the field winding, it produces a magnetic field. Since the
field windings and armature winding are connected in series, the same current will flow through the
armature and we will get a unidirectional torque.
If the supply is AC, the polarity changes between +ve and -ve. Figure 3.3 shows the production
of unidirectional torque, when the motor connected to an AC supply. During positive half cycle, the
terminal L1 becomes positive and L2 becomes negative as shown in Figure 3.3(a) . The direction of
current through the armature and field windings are same. During negative half cycle, the terminal L1
becomes -ve and L2 becomes +ve. In that case too the direction of current through the armature and
field windings are same as shown in Figure 3.3(b). Since the current through the armature and the field
windings are in the same direction on both half cycles, the resultant torque would be an unidirectional
torque.
Figure 3.3: Two Pole Universal Motor

3.5.2 Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of universal motors are
1. It can run on AC or DC supply
2. It Is a cheap motor
3. It has good torque at low speeds
4. High starting torque
5. High speed operation with speed control is possible
Disadvantages of universal motors are
1. Noisy operation at high speed
2. Gear mechanism is required for portable tool operations
3. Regular maintenance is required for commutator and brushes
4. Brushes and commutator wear out, create sparking which can cause electromagnetic interference
3.5.3 Applications of Universal Motor

Universal motors are used in
1. Electric saw and drill
2. Vacuum cleaners
3. Blenders and food mixers
4. Washing machines
5. Sewing machines
6. Centrifugal blowers
7. Locomotives
8. Kitchen appliances like grinders
9. Hair dryers

3.5.4 Phasor Diagram and Voltage Equation of AC Series Motor
Figure 3.4: Phasor Diagram of AC Series Motor
The Figure 3.4 shows the phasor diagram of ac series motor. The resistance drops Ia Rse , Ia Ri , Ia Rc
and Ia Ra is due to the resistances of series field, interpole winding, compensating winding and of
armature respectively are in phase with armature current Ia . The reactance drops Ia Xse , Ia Xi , Ia Xc and
Ia Xa are due to the reactance of series field, interpole winding compensating winding and of armature
respectively lead current Ia by 90◦ . The generated armature counter emf is Eg . the terminal phase
voltage Vp is equal to the phasor sum of Eg and all the impedance drops in series. The power factor
angle between Vp and Ia is φ .
Vp = Eg + Ia Zse + Ia Zi + Ia Zc + Ia Za
3.5.5 Torque-Speed Characteristics
Figure 3.5: Torque-Speed Characteristics of Universal Motor
Torque-Speed characteristics of a universal motor is similar to that of DC series motor. The speed of a
universal motor is low at full load and very high at no load. (T α ΦIa ), if phase angle between flux and

current is neglected, (T α Ia2 ). The mechanical power output produced is given by the product of counter
emfand armature current. Though counter emf slightly decreases with increase in armature current, it
can be neglected, hence mechanical power developed increases in proportion with armature current.
The reactance drops are lowest and counter emf is highest light loads, and hence pf is high(nearly unity)
at light loads and falls with increase in currents. Speed is proportional to counter emf or proportional to
supply voltage minus voltage drops. The current causes resistive drops in series field and armature (in
dc) and large reactance drops in series field, armature, compensating and interpole winding (ac). Hence
with ac operation counter emf is less with dc operation .Hence speed characteristics are drooping, with
large drooping for ac series motor as compared dc series motor operation.
Figure 3.6: Performance Characteristics of Universal Motor
3.6 Hysteresis Motor

Hysteresis motor is defined as a synchronous motor that is having cylindrical rotor and works on
hysteresis losses induced in the rotor of hardened steel with high retentivity. It is a single phase motor
and its rotor is made of ferromagnetic material with non magnetic support over the shaft.
The working of the motor depends on the working of the continuously revolving magnetic flux.
For the split phase operation, the stator winding of the motor has two single phase supply. This stator
winding remains continuously connected to the single phase supply both at the starting as well as the
running of the motor.
The rotor of the motor is made up of smooth chrome steel cylinder and it has no winding. It has
high retentivity and because of this, it is very difficult to change the magnetic polarities once they
are caused by the revolving flux of the rotor. The rotor of the hysteresis motor moves synchronously
because the pole of the motor magnetically locks with the stator which has opposite polarities. The
operation of hysteresis motor depends upon effect of hysteresis. It is a type of single phase motor. The
rotor magnetic field lags behind by the stator magnetizing force in this motor.
3.7 Construction of Hysteresis Motor

It consists of stator and rotor

3.7.1 Stator
The stator of the hysteresis motor produces a rotating magnetic field and is almost similar to the stator
of the induction motor. The stator slots consists of main winding and auxiliary winding. These two
winding generate rotating magnetic field due to single phase supply. This type of construction is called
as Split phase construction as shown in Figure 3.7(a). The stator winding of the single-phase hysteresis
motor is made of permanent split capacitor type or shaded pole type as shown in Figure 3.7(b). The
capacitor is used with an auxiliary winding in order to produce a uniform field.
Figure 3.7: Hysteresis Motor: (a)Split Phase (b)Shaded pole
3.7.2 Rotor
The rotor of hysteresis motors are made with magnetic material of high hysteresis losses. i.e. whose
hysteresis loop area is very large as shown in figure 3.8. The rotor is a smooth cylinder, and it does not
carry any winding or teeth. The outer layer has a number of thin rings forming a laminated rotor. The
ring is made of hard chrome or cobalt steel having a large hysteresis loop as shown in the figure 3.8.
The resistivity of rotor material is kept high in order to reduce eddy current in the rotor. The output of
the motor reduces as the thickness of the ring increases.

Figure 3.8: Hysteresis loop of the rotor material
One type of rotor, invented by H. E. Warren and used in the Warren Telechron electric clock, is
as shown in Figure 3.7(b). It consists of two or more outer rings and crossbars, all made of specially
selected heat-treated hard steel. Steel that has a very large hysteresis loop is chosen. When a rotating
filed moves past the rotor, this hysteresis effect causes a torque to be developed and the motor starts
to run. As synchronous speed is approached, the crossbars presents a low reluctance path to the
flux thereby setting up permanent pole in the rotor and causing the motor to continue to rotate at
synchronous speed. The Telechron motor has a shaded-pole stator as shown in Figure 3.7(b).
Another type of rotor is smooth cylindrical type. Hysteresis rings of special magnetic material like
chrome , cobalt steel or alnico or alloy are carried on supporting arbor made of a nonmagnetic material
such as brass; the assembly is carried out on the shaft. The rotor is also design to obtain high resistivity
to reduce eddy-current loss. The hysteresis ring is affected by the rotational hysteresis causes by the
stator windings and the direction of the magnetization of each element of the ring is different from that
of the magnetic field or magnetic flux density. That is to say, the thicker the hysteresis ring becomes
the larger the rotational hysteresis increases and to make matters worse, the output of the thicker ring
motor becomes less than that of thin rotor motor.
3.8 Principle of Operation of a Hysteresis Motor
Figure 3.9: Principle of Operation of a Hysteresis Motor

When supply is given applied to the stator, a rotating magnetic field is produced. The rotor, initially,
starts to rotate due to eddy-current torque and hysteresis torque developed on the rotor. Once the speed
is near about the synchronous, the stator pulls rotor into synchronism.
When the rotor is rotating in the synchronous speed, the stator revolving field flux produces poles
on the rotor. Due to the hysteresis effect, rotor pole axis lags behind the axis of rotating magnetic field.
The angle δ between the stator magnetic field BS and the rotor magnetic field BR is responsible for
the production of the torque. The angle δ depends on the shape of the hysteresis loop and not on the
frequency.Thus rotor gets subjected to torque called hysteresis torque. This torque is constant at all
speeds. When the stator field moved forward, due to high residual magnetism (i.e. retentivity) the
rotor pole strength remains maintained. So higher the retentivity, higher is the hysteresis torque. The
hyteresis torque is independent of the rotor speed.
3.9 Torque Speed characteristic of Hysteresis Motor

The starting and running torque is almost equal in hysteresis motor. As stator carries mainly the
two-windings, it’s direction can be reversed by interchanging the terminals of either main winding
or auxiliary winding. The torque-speed characteristics is as shown in Figure 3.10. As seen from the
characteristics torque at start is almost same throughout the operation of the motor Curve 1 is the ideal
curve, and the curve 2 is the practical hysteresis motor curve. The torque-speed characteristic of the
hysteresis motor is different from an induction motor. Since, at the synchronous speed, the torque
developed by an induction motor becomes zero, whereas in the hysteresis motor the torque is constant
at all the speed even at the synchronous speed. Thus, from the curve, it is seen that the locked rotor,
starting and pull out torque is equal.
Figure 3.10: Torque Speed characteristic of Hysteresis Motor
3.10 Torque Equation of Hysteresis Motor

When supply is given applied to the stator, a rotating magnetic field is produced. The stator magnetic
field produces eddy currents in the rotor. As a result, they produce their own magnetic field. The eddy
current loss is given by the equation shown below.
Pe = Ke f22 B (3.1)
where, Ke is a constant f2 is the eddy current frequency and B is the flux density
We know that, f2 = s f1

Where s is the slip and f1 are the frequency of the stator

∴ Pe = Ke s2 f12 B (3.2)
The torque is given by the equation
Pe
Te = (3.3)
sωs
Ke s2 f12 B
=
sωs
0
=K s (3.4)
Ke f12 B
Where K 0 =
ωs
Now, the hysteresis loss is given by the equation
Pe = Kh f2 B1.6 (3.5)
The Torque due to hysteresis is given as
Ph
Th = (3.6)
sωs
Kh s f1 B1.6
=
sωs
00
=K (3.7)
Kh f1 B1.6
Where K 00 =
ωs
From the equation 3.4 it is clear that the torque due to eddy current is proportional to the slip.
Therefore, as the speed of the rotor increases the value of Te decreases. As the speed of the motor
reaches synchronous speed, the slip becomes zero and torque also becomes zero. As the electromagnet
torque is developed by the motor is because of the hysteresis loss and remains constant at all rotor
speed until the breakdown torque. At the synchronous speed, the eddy current torque is zero and only
torque due to hysteresis loss is present.
3.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hysteresis Motor

Advantages are
1. No mechanical vibration due to absence of teeth and winding in the rotor
2. Noiseless operation due to no vibration
3. Multi speed operation possible due to gear train
Disadvantages are
1. Low efficiency
2. Low power factor
3. Low torque
4. The output of the hysteresis motor is one fourth that of induction motor of same size.

3.12 Applications of Hysteresis Motor

1. Record player
2. The noise level of the hysteresis motor is very low as compared to the induction motor because
it operates at a constant speed and its rotor is smooth. This type of motor is smoothest running,
quietest single phase motor and is used for quality sound reproduction equipment like record
players, tape recorders, etc
3. Instruments which are used for sound generating
4. Sound recording instruments
5. Electrical clock

IV
MODULE FOUR
4 Reluctance Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.1 Construction
4.2 principle of operation
4.3 Torque–Slip Characteristics
4.4 Torque Equation of Reluctance Motor
4.5 Advantages and Disadvantages
4.6 Application
5 Switched Reluctance Motor . . . . 81

5.1 Construction of SRM
5.2 Principle of Operation of 8/6 SRM
5.3 Types of SRM
5.4 Linear SRM
5.5 Power converter circuits
5.6 Torque Equation
5.7 Torque Speed Characteristics
5.9 Applications
4. Reluctance Motor
It is a motor which depends on reluctance torque for its operation. Reluctance torque is the torque
induced in an iron object in the presence of external magnetic field. An induction motor with a modified
rotor. Rotor turns in synchronism with the rotating magnetic flux. It has no starting torque and will not
start by itself. It start like an induction motor and for better starting torque we use auxiliary windings.
Reluctance motor is a split phase induction motor with salient poles. Stator of the motor has both main
winding and auxiliary winding. For three phase motor, auxiliary winding is not required. The rotor of
the reluctance motor is squirrel cage with some rotor teeth removed in certain places to provide desired
number of salient rotor poles. So the airgap between stator and rotor is not uniform. No dc supply is
given to the rotor. There are different types of reluctance motor. Different types of reluctance motor
are:
• Synchronous reluctance motor
• Split phase Variable reluctance motor
• Switched reluctance motor
• Variable reluctance stepping motor
A reluctance motor is a type of electric motor that induces non-permanent magnetic poles on the
ferromagnetic rotor. The rotor does not have any windings. It generates torque through magnetic
reluctance. It has the following characteristics
• Simple and Robust construction
• No copper loss
• No requirement of permanent magnet
• Less initial cost
• Stator can be easily cooled

4.1 Construction
Construction of single phase induction motor with a modified squirrel-cage rotor is shown in Figure
4.1. Reluctance motor is actually a split phase induction motor with salient pole.
Figure 4.1: Reluctance Motor
Stator
Stator is made up of laminations of ferromagnetic steel sheets. Slots for housing armature conductors
are provided along the inner periphery of the armature. The stator has three phase distributed winding
which creates rotating magnetic field in the air gap.
The stator of the single phase reluctance motor is similar to that of stator of the single phase
induction motor. It consists of starting (auxiliary winding) and running winding (main winding) in
the stator slots. This type of motor is also called as Split phase reluctance motor. There is a phase
difference between the current and the corresponding fluxes in the starting and running winding. The
interaction between these two fluxes produce rotating magnetic field.
Rotor
The rotor of the reluctance motor is of salient or projecting poles. No dc supply is provided to the rotor.
The rotor of the reluctance motor is squirrel cage with some rotor teeth removed in certain places to
provide desired number of salient rotor poles. In Figure 4.2 rotor teeths are removed in four places to
produce four pole rotor structure.
So the airgap is not uniform. The reluctance depends on the air gap length. More the airgap, more
is the reluctance. When the rotator rotates, due to the non-uniform air gap, reluctance also changes.
In a synchronous reluctance motor, the stator and rotor should be constructed in such a way that the
armature inductance varies sinusoidally.

Reluctance Motor 79
Figure 4.2: Rotor of Reluctance Motor
4.2 principle of operation

Whenever a piece of ferromagnetic material is located in a magnetic field, a force is exerted upon the
material, tending to bring it into the position of the densest portion of the field. Therefore tends to align
the specimen of the material so that the reluctance of the magnetic path passing through the material
will be at a minimum.
Figure 4.3: Rotor at Diffrent Load Conditions
When the stator of the reluctance motor is supplied with a single phase ac supply the motor starts
as an induction motor (single phase). The centrifugal switch disconnects the axillary winding of the

motor at a speed of about 75% of synchronous speed. Now the motor operates with its main winding
in operation. Gradually it accelerates and attains speed very close to synchronous speed. When the
reluctance motor starts to run at a speed close to synchronous speed (critical speed), a reluctance torque
is produced. The rotor aligns itself in minimum reluctance position. The rotor pulls into synchronism.
After pulling into synchronism, the induction torque disappears but the rotor remains in synchronism
due to synchronous reluctance torque alone. The motor adjusts its torque angle for change in load as in
3-phase synchronous motor. Figure 4.3(a) shows the rotor synchronized at no load.
A step increase in load slows the rotor down, and the rotor poles lag the stator poles as shown in
Figure 4.3(b). The angle of lag,δ is called the torque angle. The motor adjusts its torque angle for
change in load as in the case of a 3-phase synchronous motor.
Load is maximum when the torque angle δ = 0 as shown in Figure 4.3(c). If load increases so that
δ > 45◦ , the flux path is “over stretched” and the rotor falls out of synchronism and then the motor
runs at slip speed only.
4.3 Torque–Slip Characteristics

The torque speed characteristics of a synchronous reluctance motor is shown in Figure 4.4. The value
of the starting torque is between 300% to 400% percent of its full-load torque. The starting torque is
highly dependent on the position of the rotor. During starting, main winding and auxiliary winding is
there. When the motor attains 75% of synchronous speed,auxiliary winding is disconnected and the
rotor continues to rotate at synchronous speed with the main winding only. When the speed is close
to synchronous speed, the reluctance torque developed as a synchronous motor pulls the rotor into
synchronism and the rotor continues to rotate at synchronous speed. The motor operates at a constant
speed up to a little over 200 % of its full-load torque. If the loading is increased beyond the value of the
pull-out torque (maximum torque), the motor loses synchronism but continues to run as a single-phase
induction motor up to over 500 percent of its rated torque.
Figure 4.4: Torque–Slip Characteristics of Reluctance Motor

Reluctance Motor 81
4.4 Torque Equation of Reluctance Motor

The phasor diagram of synchronous reluctance motor neglecting armature resistance is shown in Figure
4.5
Figure 4.5: Rotor at Diffrent Load Conditions
Let,
V = Terminal voltage/phase
I = Armature current
Xsd = Direct axis synchronous reactance/phase
Xsq = Quadrature axis synchronous reactance/phase
Id = Direct axis component of current
Iq = Quadrature axis component of current
ωs = Synchronous speed
Neglecting the losses the power developed by the motor is given by
P = V I cos φ (4.1)
From the phasor diagram shown in Figure
V sin δ = Iq Xsq
V cos δ = Id Xsd
V cos δ
∴ Id = (4.2)
Xsd
V sin δ
Iq = (4.3)
Xsq
Also we know that, I cos φ = Iq cos δ − Id sin δ (4.4)

Substituting the value of Id and Iq in 4.4
V sin δ V cos δ
I cos φ = . cos δ − . sin δ
Xsq Xsd

V sin 2δ sin 2δ
= −
2 Xsq Xsd
V Xsd − Xsq
= . . sin 2δ (4.5)
2 Xsd .Xsq
But, P = V I cos phi
V Xsd − Xsq
= V. . . sin 2δ (4.6)
2 Xsd .Xsq
3 Xsd − Xsq
For three phase, total power = V 2 . sin 2δ
2 Xsd .Xsq
3 Xsd − Xsq
∴ Torque developed, T = V 2 . sin 2δ (4.7)
ωs 2Xsd .Xsq

Advantages
• There is no concern with demagnetization; hence synchronous reluctance machines are inherently
more reliable than PM machines.
• There need not be any exciting field as torque is zero, thus eliminating electromagnetic spinning
losses.
• Synchronous reluctance machine rotors can be constructed entirely from high strength, low cost
materials.
Disadvantages
• High cost than induction Motor.
• Need Speed synchronization to invertor output frequency by using rotor position sensor and
sensor less control.
• Compared to induction motor it is slightly heavier and has low power factor. By increasing the
Lds
saliency ratio , the power factor can be improved
Lqs
4.6 Application
• Metering Pumps.
• Auxiliary time Mechanism.
• Wrapping and folding Machines.
• Proportioning Devices on Pumps or conveyors.

Reluctance Motor 83
• Synthetic fibre manufacturing equipment.
• Processing continuous sheet or film material.

5. Switched Reluctance Motor
Switched reluctance motor is similar to variable reluctance stepper motor in closed loop operation.
It is commonly used for variable speed operation. A switched reluctance motor (SRM) is a rotating
electric machine where both stator and rotor have salient poles. The torque is produced by the
movement of the rotor to a position where the inductance of the stator winding is maximized. SRM has
several advantages like high efficiency, good performance in terms of torque to inertia ratio, maximum
operating speed and simple construction. The electromagnetic torque is produced on variable reluctance
principle. SRM makes use of
• Power semiconductor switching circuitry
• Rotor position sensor.
SRM is singly excited and doubly salient electrical motor. This means that it has salient poles
on both the rotor and the stator but the only one member carries winding. The rotor has no winding,
magnets and cage winding but it is build from a stack of salient pole laminations.
• construction is simple and robust
• It requires less maintenance
• Its overall efficiency is better
• It is flexible control driving motor as motoring mode generating mode of operations of the
machine can be easily achieved, In the light of above it is a competitive motor variable speed dc
motor and variable speed 3 phase cage induction motor.
5.1 Construction of SRM

Several combinations of stator and rotor poles are possible, such as 6/4 (6 stator poles and 4 rotor
poles), 8/4, 10/6 etc. The configurations with higher number of stator/rotor pole combinations have
less torque ripple.

5.1.1 Stator
Built by stacking suitably punched silicon laminations to the appropriate length. Each salient poles
carry concentric windings. Stator windings on diametrically opposite poles are connected in series to
form one phase of the motor. The overlapping of coils is avoided to minimize the mutual inductance
between the phases.
Rotor
Has no winding or permanent magnets on its rotor. It is built up of steel laminations.The laminations
are stacked to the shaft.
Figure 5.1: Different Configurations of SRM
5.2 Principle of Operation of 8/6 SRM

The operation principle is based on the variation in magnetic reluctance. The rotor always try to align
with low reluctance path. When a stator coil is excited, the rotor experiences a force which will pull
the rotor to the aligned position. 8/6 SRM has 4 phases A-A’, B-B’, C-C’ and D-D’. These phases are
excited by DC supply through switches S1 , S2 , S3 and S4 as shown in Figure 5.2. When a stator coil is
excited, the rotor experiences a force which will pull the rotor to the aligned position.
When phase A-A’ is energised, the rotor comes to the maximum inductance (minimum reluctance)
position as in the first case. . The rotor teeth 1 and 4 are attracted to the stator teeth A and A’
respectively as shown in Figure (a).Theyare in the minimum reluctance position as far as phase
dLA
windings is concerned. Then = 0 . At this position inductance of B windings is neither
dθ
maximum nor minimum.

Switched Reluctance Motor 87
Figure 5.2: Working of 8/6 SRM
Next, the switch S2 , is turned ON and switch S1 , is turned OFF. Now the phase A is de-energised
and the phase B is energised so that the stator teeth 3 and 6 are energised. The stator teeth of B and
B’ would align with rotor teeth 2 and 5 respectively as shown in Figure (b). The rotor rotates in the
counter clockwise ◦
(CCW)
direction and makes an angular displacement of 15 . The torque developed
1 dLA
is equal to i2B . If this torque is more than the opposing load torque and frictional torque the
2 dθ
rotor starts rotating.
Figure 5.3: Excitation of 8/6 SRM
Now phase winding B is switched OFF

and phase winding C is turned ON to DC supply. Then
dLB
the rotor experiences a torque as exists. The rotor continues to rotate. When the rotor rotates
dθ
further 15◦ , the torque developed due to winding C is shown in Figure (c) Then the phase winding C is
switched off and phase winding D is energized. Then rotor experiences a torque and rotates further
step 15◦ . This is a continuous and cyclic process. Thus the rotor starts. It is a self-starting motor. If the
switching sequence is changed to S1 , S4 , S3 , S2 , S1 , S4 . . . ., then the direction of rotation is reversed.
+ Refer Solved Previous Question for 6/4

SRM
5.3 Types of SRM

Initial classification is made on the basis of the nature of the motion (i.e., rotating or linear). The rotary
machine-based SRM is further classified by the nature of the magnetic field path as to its direction
with respect to the axial length of the machine.
• Radial field SRM
• Axial field SRM.
Radial Field SRM

Radial field Switched Reluctance Motors are most commonly used The magnetic field path is perpen-
dicular to the shaft or along the radius of the cylindrical stator and rotor. Based on how a phase coil is
placed, they can be further classified into:
• long flux path machine
• Short flux path machine
Long flux path SRM
The conventional one is the long flux path SRM. Doubly Salient with concentric windings. Diametri-
cally opposite windings are in series to form a phase
Figure 5.4: Long flux path SRM

Short flux path machine
The phase coils are placed in the slots adjacent to each other Advantage of this construction is low
core losses due to the fact that the flux reversals do not occur in stator back iron in addition to having
short flux paths. Disadvantage is a slightly higher mutual inductance and a possible higher uneven
magnetic pull on the rotor.
Figure 5.5: Short flux path machine
Axial field SRM
The magnetic field path is along the axial direction. This type of Switched Reluctance Motors is ideal
for applications where the total length may be constrained, such as in a ceiling fan or in a propulsion
application.
Figure 5.6: Axial Field SRM
5.4 Linear SRM

The motion of the motor is linear. LSRM produces a linear force due to the tendency of moving part to
move towards the separate stationary points where the inductance of the excited winding is maximized.
This force can be used as levitation force. A Linear SRM may have windings either on the stator or
translator (the moving part). Fixed part is called track and Moving part is called translator. Ideal for
machine tool drives.

Figure 5.7: Linear SRM
Based on the direction of the flux path with respect to the axial length of the machine the Linear
Switched Reluctance Motors are further differentiated:
• Longitudinal flux LSRM
• Transverse flux LSRM
The flux path in the longitudinal machine is in the direction of the translator motion. This machine is
simpler to manufacture, mechanically robust and has lower eddy current losses, as the flux is in the
same direction as the translator movement. The transverse flux design has the flux path perpendicular
to the direction of the translator motion. It allows a simple track consisting of individually mounted
transverse bars. As the flux is perpendicular to the direction of motion, an electro motive force (EMF)
is induced in the core resulting in high eddy current losses
Longitudinal flux LSRM

The flux path in the longitudinal machine is in the direction of the translator motion. So referred to as
a conventional linear switched reluctance machine (CLSRM). This machine is simpler to manufacture,
mechanically robust and has lower eddy current losses, as the flux is in the same direction as the
translator movement.
Figure 5.8: Longitudinal flux LSRM

A phase constitutes a pair of opposite poles that will have its windings excited at the same time.
With an 8/6 design, there are four phases. In Figure 5.8, poles T1 and T5 represent the first phase (phase
‘a’), poles T2 and T6 the second phase (phase ‘b’), poles T3 and T7 the third phase (phase ‘c’), and poles
T14 and T8 the fourth phase (phase‘d’). By having a phase switched ON, the generated fluxes become
additive and form a complete flux loop. When a phase is said to be in an aligned position, the translator
poles of that phase are perfectly aligned with the stator poles. The translator poles of phase ‘a’ (T1 and
T5 ) are fully aligned with the stator poles S1 and S4 . In the aligned position, the inductance is at its
maximum because the magnetic reluctance of the flux is at its lowest. On the other hand, the minimum
inductance position is known as unaligned position. In Figure 5.8, phase ‘c’ is at unaligned position.
If the windings of phase ‘c’ were to be excited at the current state, the translator will develop the
tendency to move towards the right until its poles reach an aligned state. That is, T3 and T7 become
aligned with S3 and S6 , respectively. For the translator to be in continual motion, the windings of each
phase must be switched on and off at the correct intervals.
Assuming the translator is currently situated as shown in Figure 5.8 and moving to the right, the
correct order of phase excitation is phases c, d, a, b and repeat. Once phase ‘c’ becomes fully aligned,
its windings get switched off, and phase ‘d’ gets switched on. Phase ‘d’ will then move towards the
right to achieve maximum inductance and then get switched off, which prompts phase ‘a’ to switch on.
The whole switching mechanism gets repeated until the translator is at its desired position.
Transverse flux LSRM

The transverse flux SRM has the flux path perpendicular the direction of translator motion. It allows a
simple track consisting of individually mounted transverse bars. As the flux is perpendicular to the
direction of motion, an electro-motive force is induced in the core resulting in high eddy current loss.
The driving force of transverse flux LSRM is a little greater than the driving force of longitudinal flux
LSRM
Figure 5.9: Transverse flux LSRM
5.5 Power converter circuits

The selection of controller (converter) depends upon the application. One of the main aspects of
the research in SRM drives has been the converter design. The main objectives of the design of the
converter are performance of the drive and cost of the drive.
5.5.1 Two Power Semiconductor Switching Devices per phase and two diodes
As shown in Figure 5.10 phase winding A is connected to the dc supply through power semiconductor
devices T1 and T2. Depending upon the rotor position, when the phase winding A is to be energized
the devices T1 and T2 are turned ON. When the phase winding is to be disconnected from the supply
(this instant is also dependent on the position of the shaft) the devices T1 and T2 are turned off .The

stored energy in the phase winding A tends to maintain the current in the same direction. This current
passes from the winding through D1 and D2 to the supply. Thus the stored energy is fed back to the
mains.
Figure 5.10: Two Power Semiconductor Switching Devices per phase and two diodes
Similarly phase winding B & C are also switched on to the supply and switched off from the
supply in a cyclic manner. This circuit requires 2 power switching devices and 2 diodes for each phase
winding. For high speed operation it is required to see that the stored energy can be fed back to the
mains within the available period.
Usually the upper devices T1, T3 and T5 are turned on and off from the signals obtained from
the rotor position sensor .The duration of conduction or angle of conduction θ can be controlled by
using suitable control circuitry .The lower devices T2, T4, T6 are controlled from signals obtained
by chopping frequency signal. The current in the phase winding is the result of logical AND ing of
the rotor position sensor and chopping frequency .As a result it is possible to vary the effective phase
current from a very low value to a high value .
5.5.2 (n+1) power switching devices and (n+1) diodes
Figure 5.11: (n+1) power switching devices and (n+1) diodes

This circuit makes use of less number of power switching devices and diodes as shown in Figure 5.11.
When the (SCRs) switching devices T and T1 are turned on phase winding A is energized from the
dc supply. When these devices are turned off the stored energy in the phase winding is fed back to
the mains through diodes D and D1. When devices T and T2 are turned on the phase winding B is
energized .When they are turned off,the stored energy in B phase winding C is switched on and off
from the mains. The cycle gets repeated. This circuit makes use of (n+1) power switching devices and
(n+1) diodes where n is equal to the number of phases
5.5.3 Phase winding using bifilar wires
Each phase winding has two exactly similar phase windings as shown in Figure 5.12. For this bifilar
wires are used .Each phase consists of two identical windings and are magnetically coupled when one
of them are excited. In stepper motor, the purpose of bifilar winding is for bipolar excitation with a
reduced number of switching elements. When T1 is turned on the dc current passes through the phase
winding A. when the devices T1 is turned off the stored energy in the magnetic field is fed back to the
dc source through the winding A’ and D1 to the supply. The three devices operate in a sequential way
depending upon the signals obtained from the rotor position sensor and the chopping signals for PWM
technique obtained from the controller.
Figure 5.12: Phase winding using bifilar wires
5.5.4 Split – link circuit used with even phase number
The circuit shown in Figure 5.13 is used in a range of highly efficient drives (from 4-80kw). The main
power supply is split into two halves using split capacitors. During conduction, energy is supplied to
the phases by one half the power supply. During commutation period, the phases demagnetize into
other half of the power supply. When switch T1 is turned on, phase winding 1 is energized by capacitor
c1. When switch T2 is turned off, the stored energy in the phase winding 1 is fed back to the capacitor
c2 through diode D4. When T4 is turned on by capacitor C2 and phase winding 4 is energized. When
switch T4 is turned off, stored energy in the winding 4 is feedback to the capacitor C1 through diode
D1. The similar operation takes place in the remaining winding also.

Figure 5.13: Two Power Semiconductor Switching Devices per phase and two diodes
5.5.5 C-Dump circuit

In the C dump circuit shown in Figure 5.14 the device count is reduced to ’n’ plus one additional
devices to bleed the stored energy from the dump capacitor C back to supply via the step down chopper
circuit. The mean capacitor voltage is maintained well above the supply to permit rapid defluxing after
commutation. A control failure in the energy-recovery circuit would result in the rapid build-up of
charge on the capacitor and if protective measures were not taken the entire converter could fail from
over voltage.
Figure 5.14: C-Dump circuit
5.6 Torque Equation

Torque is due to variable reluctance principle.
The flux linkage Ψ due to the excitation of winding is given by,
Ψ = Li (5.1)

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the emf induced is given by
dΨ
e=− (5.2)
dt
Substituting the value of Ψ
dLi
Magnitude of emf, e = (5.3)
dt
di dL
= L +i (5.4)
dt dt
di dL dθ
= L +i .
dt dt dθ
di dL dθ
= L +i .
dt dθ dt
di dL
= L + iω
dt dθ
di 2 dL
Power received from supply, ei = Li + i ω
dt dθ
Energy stored in magnetic field is diven by,
1
We = Li2 (5.5)
2
Power due to variation of magnetic field is
dWe 1 di 1 dL
= L . 2i + i2 (5.6)
dt 2 dt 2 dt
di 1 2 dL dθ
= Li + i .
dt 2 dθ dt
di 1 dL
= Li + ω i2
dt 2 dθ
Mechanica power developed is given by,
Pm =Power received from supply-Power due to variation of magnetic field
(5.7)

di 2 dL di 1 2 dL
Pm = Li + ω i − Li + ω i (5.8)
dt dθ dt 2 dθ
1 dL
∴ Pm = ω i2
2 dθ
Torque developed is given by,
Pm
T= (5.9)
ω
1 2 dL
T= i (5.10)
2 dθ

5.7 Torque Speed Characteristics

The generic form of the torque/speed capability curve is shown in Figure. For speeds below ωb the
torque is limited by the motor current. Up to the ’base speed’ ωb it is possible, by means of the
regulators, to get any value of current into the motor, up to the maximum. The precise value of current
at a given operating point depends on the load characteristics, the speed, and the regulator and control
strategy. In the speed range below ωb the firing angles can be chosen to optimize efficiency or minimize
torque ripple.
The corner point or base speed ωb is the highest speed at which maximum current can be supplied
at rated voltage, with fixed firing angles. If these angles are still kept fixed, the maximum torque at
rated voltage decreases with speed squared. However, if the conduction angle is increased (mainly
by advancing the turn-on angle) there is a considerable speed range over which maximum current
can still be forced into the motor, and this sustains the torque at a level high enough to maintain a
constant-power characteristic, even though the core losses and windage losses increase quite rapidly
with speed. This is shown in Figure between points B and D

Advantages
1. Construction is simple and robust, as there is no brush.
2. Rotor carries no windings, no slip rings and brush-less maintenance.
3. No permanent magnet, neither in the stator nor in the rotor.
4. Ventilating system is simpler as losses takes place mostly in stator.
5. Power semiconductor switching circuitry is simpler.
6. No shoot-through fault is likely to happen in power semiconductor circuits.
7. Torque developed does not depend upon the polarity of the current in the phase winding.
8. The operation of the machine can be easily changed from motoring mode to generating mode by
varying the region of conduction.
9. It is impossible to have very high speeds.

10. Depending upon the requirement, the desired torque speed characteristics can be tailor made.
11. It is a self-starting machine.
12. Starting torque can be very high without excessive inrush currents.
Disadvantages
1. Stator phase winding should be capable of carrying the magnetizing current also, for setting up
the flux in the air gap.
2. For high speed operations, the developed torque has undesirable ripples. As a result it develops
undesirable acoustic losses (noise).
3. For high speeds, current waveform also has undesirable harmonics. To suppress this effect large
size capacitor is to be connected.
4. The air gap at the aligned axis should be very small while the air gap at the inter-polar axis
should be very large. It is difficult to achieve. No standardized practice is available.
5. The size of the motor is comparable with the size of variable speed induction motor drive.
6. Number of power wires between power semiconductor circuitry and the motor and the number
of control cables from one controller to the power semiconductor circuitry are more and all to be
properly connected.
7. It requires a position sensor.
5.9 Applications
1. Pumps
2. Wrapping or folding machines
3. For processing of continuous sheet or film material
4. recording instruments
5. synthetic fibre manufacturing industries

V
MODULE FIVE
6 Permanent Magnet DC Motor . . 97

6.1 Construction
6.2 Types of Permanent Magnets used in Electrical
Machines
6.3 Principle of Operation
7 Brush less DC Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

7.1 Construction of PMBLDC Motor
7.2 Classification
7.3 Principle Of Operation Of PMBLDC Motor
7.4 PMBLDC Square Wave Motor With 180◦ Pole
Arc (120◦ Commutation Mode )
7.5 PMBLDC Square Wave Motor With 180◦ Pole
Arc (120◦ Commutation Mode )
7.6 Sinusoidal Brushless Motor
7.7 Trapezoidal Brushless Motors (PMBLDC)
7.8 Comparison between Trapezoidal and Sinu-
soidal Motors
7.9 Electronic Commutator
7.10 Torque Speed Characteristics of PMBLDC Mo-
tor
7.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of BLDC Mo-
tors
7.12 Applications
6. Permanent Magnet DC Motor
When permanent magnet is used to create magnetic field in a DC motor, the motor is referred as
permanent magnet DC motor or PMDC motor. We can replace electromagnet with permanent magnet,
which result in higher efficiency, less space requirement and better cooling. PMDC are best solutions to
motion control and power transmission applications where compact size, wide operating speed range,
ability to adapt to a range of power sources or the safety considerations of low voltage are important.
The magnets are radially magnetized and are mounted on the inner periphery of the cylindrical steel
stator. Similar to DC motor, it has a commutator segments and brushes.
6.1 Construction
Figure 6.1: Construction of PMDC Motor

The field poles of this motor are essentially made of permanent magnet. A PMDC motor mainly
consists of two parts.
• Stator
• Rotor
Stator
Stator is a steel cylinder and the magnets are mounted in the inner periphery of this cylinder. The
steel cylindrical stator also serves as low reluctance return path for the magnetic flux. The permanent
magnets are mounted in such a way that the N-pole and S-pole of each magnet are alternatively faced
towards armature. Although field coil is not required in permanent magnet dc motor, sometimes they
are used along with permanent magnet. This is because if permanent magnets lose their strength, these
lost magnetic strengths can be compensated by field excitation through these field coils.
Rotor
The rotor of pmdc motor is similar to the armature other DC Motors. It is made of number of silicon
steel sheets to reduce eddy current loss. Consists of core, windings, commutator and brushes. There
are three types of armature structures available:
1. Slotted Armature
2. Slotless Armature
3. Moving Coil
Slotted armature
Slotted armature is madeup of silicon sheet steel or carbon sheet steel which are punched together or
mounted on the shaft. The armature has slots on its periphery Armature conductors are placed on this
slots and properly connected to form armature windings. A core having many slots is usually desirable,
because the greater the number of slots, the less the cogging torque and electromagnetic noise. Cores
having even numbers of slots are usually used due to ease of production. But core with odd numbers
of slots are preferred due to low cogging torque (torque ripples).
Slotless armature
In this type of construction, the conductors are fixed on the outer periphery of the core. Slots are absent
Advantage of this construction is the reduction in torque ripples. In this case the torque is exerted
on the conductors uniformly distributed on the rotor surface. Due to larger air gap, flux decreases.
Therefore, larger volume of PMs must be used to get sufficient magnetic flux.
Moving coil Armature

In this type of construction, the iron core is replaced by non-magnetic core which is usually made of
glass fibre. This has the advantage of low inertia and no irn los in the armature. The commutator and
brushes are very small and made of metals like gold, silver platinum etc. Small sized commutator and
brushes helps in stabe commutation.

Permanent Magnet DC Motor 103
6.2 Types of Permanent Magnets used in Electrical Machines

Alnico
Commonly used in high temperature applications because of higher thermal stability. Alnicos has a
low coercive magnetizing intensity and high residual flux density. Demagnetization is high. It is used
where low current and high voltage is required.
Ceramic or Ferrite
It is the cheapest possible permanent magnet that can be use in PMDC motor. It is suitable for moderate
temperature. They have linear demagnetization characteristics in the second quadrant of BH curve. It’s
performance is good upto 100◦C .
Somarium Cobalt (Sn2Co17 )

They are suitable for operation upto 200◦C . They have large remanence and high coersive force. It has
high energy density and linear demagnetization characteristics. But it is expensive due to an inadequate
supply of samarium.
Neodymium Iron Boron

They are comparatively the latest member in the family of permanent magnets.It has the highest
energy density, highest remanence and very good coercivity. The Neodymium iron boron is cheaper as
compared to Samarium cobalt. They can withstand higher temperature. They have the highest (BH)max
product.


7. Brush less DC Motor
Main problem associated with PMDC motor is the commutation with the help of brushes. BLDC motor
eliminates this problem. There is no commutator and brushes. Since the commutator and brushes are
absent, maintenance is no longer required, and many problems associated with brushes are removed.
The armature is stationary and PM field system is mounted on the rotating shaft. The commutation is
achieved by using semi-conductor switches instead of mechanical commutator. Compared with PMDC
motors, BLDC motors have higher efficiency, smaller size and better cooling.
7.1 Construction of PMBLDC Motor
Figure 7.1: Construction Details of BLDC Motor
The field poles of this motor are essentially made of permanent magnet. Which is the rotor. A BLDC
motor mainly consists of two parts:

• Stator
• Rotor
Stator
Stator of a BLDC motor made up of stacked steel laminations to carry the windings. These windings
are placed in slots which are axially cut along the inner periphery of the stator. These windings can be
arranged in either star or delta. However, most BLDC motors have three phase star connected stator.
Each winding is constructed with numerous interconnected coils, where one or more coils are placed
in each slot. In order to form an even number of poles, each of these windings is distributed over the
stator periphery.
Rotor
BLDC motor incorporate a permanent magnet in the rotor. Its function is to produce the required
magnetic field. In order to achieve maximum torque in the motor, the flux density of the magnet should
be high. Permanent magnets offer very high flux density. Ferrite magnets are traditionally used to make
permanent magnets. Here permanent magnet rotates and the armature remains static. The number of
poles in the rotor can vary from 2 to 8 pole pairs with alternate south and north poles depending on the
application requirement. More poles give smaller steps and less torque ripple.
Figure 7.2: Construction Details of Rotor
Position Sensor
Brushless DC motor requires an electronic commutator to rotate the rotor. In order to rotate the motor,
the windings of the stator must be energized in a sequence. The position of the rotor (i.e. the North and
South poles of the rotor) must be known to precisely energize a particular set of stator windings. This
hall effect sensor provides information about the position of the rotor at any instant to the controller
which sends suitable signals to the electronic commutator. For the estimation of the rotor position,
the motor is equipped with three hall sensors. These hall sensors are placed every 120◦C Each sensor
generates Low and High signals whenever the rotor poles passes near to it. The exact commutation
sequence to the stator windings, can be determined based on the combination of these three sensor
responses

Brush less DC Motor 107
7.2 Classification
7.3 Principle Of Operation Of PMBLDC Motor
Figure 7.3: Drive Circuit of PMBLDC
In the case of a BLDC motor, the armature is stationary and the permanent magnet is rotating. Stator
windings of a BLDC motor are connected to a voltage fed inverter circuit as shown in Figure 7.3. The
inverter converts DC voltage into variable frequency voltage. The motor is provided with a position
sensor, which provided necessary signals for switching the appropriate power switches of the inverter.

The switching is done in such a way that all the three phases conduct at all time. It is required for 180◦
conduction. The switching interval is 60◦ .
Figure 7.4: Rotor Movement with S1 , S5 and S6 ON
When switches S1 , S5 and S6 are turned ON, the current flows through phase R and divides into
equal amounts and completes its path through phase Y, phase B, S6 and S5 . This current produces
mmfs which can be represented by stator north pole and south pole as shown in Figure 7.4(a). due to
these stator poles, the rotor poles experience and move in clockwise direction. When the rotor moves
by 60◦ and occupies the position shown in Figure 7.4(b) switches S2 is turned ON and S5 is turned
OFF keeping S1 and S6 ON.
When switches S1 , S2 and S6 are conducting with R and Y connected to positive and B to negative
of power supply, the stator poles are shifted by 60◦ as shown in Figure 7.5(a). This will cause the
movement of rotor by 60◦ in clockwise direction and its position is shown in Figure 7.5(b).
When the rotor attains the position shown in Figure 7.5(b) , S1 is switched OFF and S4 is switched
ON. This operation results the position shown in Figure 7.6(a). This will produce torque on the rotor
and hence it rotates by 60◦ when the next switching operation is done. This is shown in Figure 7.6(b)

7.4 PMBLDC Square Wave Motor With 180◦ Pole Arc (120◦ Commutation
Mode )
Figure 7.7: Three Phase BLDC Motor
Consider a three phase BLDC motor with two rotor poles and having an arc length of 180◦ . The
number of slot per pole per phase is two. Two adjacent coils in the armature forms a phase. The coils
are assumed to be full pitched and has N turns each The slot pitch is 30◦ and single layer winding is
used. The switching interval is 60◦ .

Figure 7.8: Power Converter Circuit
When ωt = 0◦ the phase Y is conducting positive current and phase B is conducting negative
current. For that, the switches S2 and S6 are turned ON. The polarity of mmf distribution is same as
that of the flux density distribution of rotor. So positive torque is produced. At ωt = 60◦ the switch S6
is switched OFF and S4 is turned ON. Now the torque remains unaffected. So the rotor continuous to
rotate. For achieving the phase current pattern in the Table, the semiconductor switches are turned ON
in the sequence S2 , S6 ; S2 , S4 ; S3 , S4 ; S3 , S5 ; S1 , S5 ; S1 , S6 . . . , while all other switches are in OFF
position. The current waveforms are shown in Figure
Figure 7.9: Current Waveforms

7.5 PMBLDC Square Wave Motor With 180◦ Pole Arc (120◦ Commutation
Mode )
Consider a three phase BLDC motor with two rotor poles. The number of slot per pole per phase is
two. Two adjacent coils in the armature forms a phase. In this configuration, current flows through all
the phases at all instants. The motor should be delta connected. The phase currents are of 180◦ square
waveforms.
In this configuration, current flows through all the phases at all the instants. The motor should be
delta connected. The phase currents are of 180◦ square wave form.

The 120◦ magnetic arc motor uses 180◦ mode of inverter operation. The commutation circuit
requires six switches. Two switches should be ON at any instant. Inverter circuit for star connected
BLDC is shown in figure. The converter is implemented using power transistors. The coils are assumed
to be full pitched and has N turns each. The slot pitch is 30◦ and single layer winding is used. The
switching interval is 60◦ .
When ωt = 0◦ the phase Y and B are conducting positive current and phase Y is conducting negative
current. For that, the switches T1 and T6 are turned ON. The polarity of mmf distribution is same as
that of the flux density distribution of rotor. So positive torque is produced. At ωt = 60◦ the switches
T6 is switched OFF and T1 is turned ON. Now the torque remains unaffected. So the rotor continuous
to rotate.
Figure 7.12: Current Waveforms
For achieving this,the transistors should be switched ON in the sequence T1 ,T6 ;T1 ,T2 ;T2 ,T3 ;T3 ,T4 ;T4 ,T5 ;
T5 ,T6 ;T1 ,T6 ; with all others in OFF state.
7.6 Sinusoidal Brushless Motor

It is commonly known as Permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) The armature winding and
the shape of the permanent magnet are so designed that the flux density in the airgap is sinusoidal.

Figure 7.13: Construction
It has distributed and fractional slot winding for sinusoidal back emf and smooth operation. The
armature windings are generally double layer and lap wound. Shaft encoder (expensive) is used to
control the current.
Figure 7.14: Sinusoidal Back emf
The rotor poles are shaped that the back emf induced in the stator is sinusoidal. In addition to the
back emf, the phase current also has sinusoidal variations. This makes the torque output by a sinusoidal
motor smoother than that of a trapezoidal motor. The rotor is made up of permanent magnet.

7.7 Trapezoidal Brushless Motors (PMBLDC)

It is commonly known as Permanent Magnet Brushless DC motor (PMBLDC) Most BLDC motors
have three phase stator windings connected in star fashion. The rotor poles are shaped such that the
back emf induced in the stator is trapezoidal. It has concentrated and full pitched winding It has higher
power density Hall effect sensors is used to detect the correct current switching position.
Figure 7.15: Trapezoidal Back emf
7.8 Comparison between Trapezoidal and Sinusoidal Motors
7.9 Electronic Commutator

The most important advantage of BLDC motor is the use of electronic commutator in the place of
mechanical commutator. The electronic commutator is used in PMBLDC, to transfer current to the
armature. In PMBLDC motor, the function of commutator and brushes are performed by, power
semiconductor switches. The phase windings of PMBLDC motors are energized using these power
semiconductor switches. So it is also called electronically commutated motor. It is necessary to
have stationary armature and rotating field system for implementing electronic commutator. As the
field winding is rotating it is necessary to supply DC voltage to the tapping points of the armature
winding. To accomplish this, each tapping on the armature winding is connected to the junction of two
semiconducting switches in such a way that one conducts in one direction and other is OFF and then
the latter one conducts in opposite direction with former in OFF state.

Figure 7.16: Electronic Commutator
Figure 7.17: Switching Circuit of Electronic Commutator
Each tapping is connected to the positive of the DC supply through switches S1 , S2 , S3 . . . S12 and
negative of the supply through S10 , S20 , S30 . . . S12
0 .


7.10 Torque Speed Characteristics of PMBLDC Motor
There are two torque parameters used to define a BLDC motor, peak torque and rated torque. During
continuous operations, the motor can be loaded up to rated torque. This requirement comes for brief
period, especially when the motor starts from stand still and during acceleration. During this period,
extra torque is required to overcome the inertia of load and the rotor itself. The motor can deliver a
higher torque up to maximum peak torque, as long as it follows the speed torque curve. Figure shows
the torque speed characteristics of a BLDC motor. As the speed increases to a maximum value of
torque of the motor, continuous torque zone is maintained up to the rated speed after exceeding the
rated speed the torque of the motor decreases. The stall torque represents the point on the graph at
which the torque is maximum, but the shaft is not rotating. The no load speed, ωn , is the maximum

output speed of the motor (when no torque is applied to the output shaft). If the phase resistance is
small, as it should be in an efficient design, then the characteristic is similar to that of a shunt DC motor
7.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of BLDC Motors

Advantages
1. Maintenance is less due to the absence of brushes and commutator
2. Sparking associated with brushes are eliminated
3. Higher reliability
4. Low weight
5. Long life
6. Reduction in noise
7. Low radio frequency interference
8. Low inertia and friction
9. Faster acceleration and can run in higher speed
10. Higher efficiency
Disadvantages
1. High cost
2. Low starting torque
3. No flexibility in control due to the absence in field winding
7.12 Applications
1. Electric vehicles (around 15% longer driving range is possible compared to induction motors)
2. Spindle drives (Hard disk drives) of computers
3. Variable speed fans.
4. Robotics.
5. Record players
6. Used as drives of cooling fans for electronic circuits and heat sinks.
7. Used in portable electric tools such as drills saber saws etc.
8. High speed aerospace drives and gyroscopes in the field of aerospace.
9. In the field of biomedical engineering (Cryogenic coolers, artificial heart pumps) Used in food
mixers, ice crushers snd portable vacuum cleaners.

VI
MODULE SIX
8 Linear Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

8.1 Classification of Linear Motors
8.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Linear Mo-
tor
8.3 Applications of Linear Motors
8.4 Linear Induction Motor
8.5 Principle of Operation of Linear Induction Mo-
tor
8.6 Construction of Linear Induction Motor
8.7 Effects in Linear Induction Motors
8.8 Thrust Equation of LIM
8.9 Goodness Factor
8.10 Equivalent Circuit of LIM
8.11 Linear Synchronous Motor
8.12 Classification of Linear Synchronous Motor
Based on Excitation System
8.14 Advantages of LSM
8.15 Features of LSM
8.16 Applications of LSM
8.17 Linear Reluctance Motor
8.18 Construction of Linear Reluctance Motor
8. Linear Motors
Linear motors are electric motors that produce motion in a straight line rather than rotational motion.
Recently linear electric motors have gained considerable attention requiring linear motion such as
robotic assembly system. Compared with conventional motor drive system coupled with toothed belt
or lead screws, linear motors have several advantages. The electromagnetic thrust developed by the
motor can be directly applied to the load with out any mechanical conversion. Systems incorporating
linear motors can be operated with higher velocity and acceleration.
In a linear motor, the stator is unwrapped and laid out flat as shown in Figure, it forms the primary
(field system). The “rotor" moves past it in a straight line forms the secondary.
Basically linear motors can be classified into three based on the applications for which they are used :
Power motors, energy motors and force motors.
Power Motors: In transportation systems like traction, cranes, conveyers etc. power motors are used.
They are characterized by high power efficiency.
Energy Motors: In applications like aircraft, missile launchers etc. it is necessary to have high
acceleration from low to high speed in short time and short distance. The motor for such applications
is called energy motors. They are highly energy efficient.
Force Motors: The applications like door closers, stop valve etc. high force is required. For such
applications force motors are used.

8.1 Classification of Linear Motors

Basically linear motors can be classified based on their construction.
1. Linear induction motor
2. Linear synchronous motor
3. Linear reluctance motor
4. Linear DC motor
8.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Linear Motor

Advantages
1. Simple Construction
2. Less maintenance cost
3. Tractive effort is independent of speed
4. Higher power to weight ratio.
5. Unlimited maximum speed as the centrifugal force is absent.
6. Overheating of stationary part is eliminated.
Disadvantages
1. High capital cost
2. Low power factor
3. Attractive force between primary and secondary.
8.3 Applications of Linear Motors

1. Conveyor Systems
2. Material handling and storage
3. People movers (Elevators)
4. Liquid metal pumping
5. Machine tools operation
6. Operation of sliding doors

Linear Motors 123
8.4 Linear Induction Motor

Linear induction motor (LIM) is a special induction motor which gives linear motion instead of
rotational motion. The magnetic field produced by the current carrying conductors in a LIM is
rectilinear and develops a force along the direction of a travelling magnetic field. Primary of an LIM is
excited by a balanced three phase power supply. A travelling flux is induced in the primary instead
of rotating three phase flux. Electric current is induced into the secondary due to the relative motion
between the travelling flux and the conductors. This induced current interacts with the travelling flux
wave to produce linear force or thrust F. A force producing linear motion is called thrust, propulsion
force or traction force. If the secondary is fixed and the primary is free to move, the force will move
the primary in the direction of the force, resulting in the required rectilinear motion.
8.5 Principle of Operation of Linear Induction Motor

When the primary of an LIM is excited by a balanced three phase power supply, traveling flux is
induced in the primary instead of rotating flux. The linear synchronous speed is given by,
Vs = 2τ f (8.1)
Where,
τ= pole pitch (pole to pole linear distance in meter) Electric current is induced into
f = frequency of supply voltage
the secondary due to the relative motion between the travelling flux and the conductors. This induced
current interacts with the travelling flux wave to produce linear force or thrust. If the secondary is fixed
and the primary is free to move, the force will move the primary in the direction of the force, resulting
in the required rectilinear motion.
Similar to an induction motor, the secondary or runner cannot catch the speed of the magnetic field.
Hence there will be a slip. For a slip of s, the speed of the linear induction motor will be,
V = (1 − s)Vs (8.2)
In traditional induction motor, the armature is stationary and the rotor is moving. In LIM, either
primary or secondary can be the moving part. Depending upon the application, we can chose primary
or secondary as the moving part.
8.6 Construction of Linear Induction Motor

Linear Induction motors can be classified as axial field and transverse field motors
8.6.1 Axial field LIM

Axial field LIM is a linear traditional rotating squirrel cage induction motor. It can be used only for low
and medium speed applications. In a LIM, the part which carries windings and produces the magnetic
field (stator ina conventional motor) is called the primary winding The part which carries current that
interacts with the flux to produce the force (rotor of an ordinary rotor) in the axial direction is called
the secondary.

Figure 8.1: Elementary Linear Induction Motor
The primary three phase voltage develops a travelling wave flux. This flux induces the emf in the
secondary and the current flows through the secondary winding as it is closed.
Figure 8.2: Direction of Secondary Current, Flux and Force in Axial Field LIM
Due to the interaction of the flux and the current, a force is produced axially. The travelling flux,
secondary current and force are mutually perpendicular to each other.
Axial field LIM are of two types: Flat and Tubular LIM. Flat LIM is classified into four: Short
primary, Short secondary, Coreless secondary and Double primary. Axial field LIM are of two types:
Flat and Tubular LIM.
Flat LIM
Flat LIM is classified into four:

Linear Motors 125
• Short primary
• Short secondary
• Core-less secondary
• Double primary
Short Primary
Primary is short and secondary is long. It is useful when the distance to be travelled is very large. (Since
winding a very long 3 phase primary is costly).Overheating is eliminated because of the continuous
movement of the primary over cold part of the rotor leaving behind the heated part.
Figure 8.3: Short Primary
Short Secondary
Secondary is short and primary is long. The short secondary is used when the operating distance is
limited. Long primary is not economical as it requires long three phase winding
Figure 8.4: Short Secondary
Core-less Sheet Secondary

Core is absent in this case. Flat plate or sheet is used as secondary.
Figure 8.5: Core-less Sheet Secondary

Double Primary
The ferromagnetic plate, in a single primary system, is usually placed on the other side of the conducting
plate to provide a path of low reluctance to the main flux. The ferromagnetic plate however gets
attracted towards the primary when the field is energized. Consequently unequal gap length results on
the two sides of the plate. Double primary system can be used to overcome this problem.
Figure 8.6: Double Primary
8.6.2 Tubular LIM

By cutting a conventional rotating induction motor axially and re-rolling along lengthwise axis, an
elementary tubular linear induction motor can be realized. An axially traveling, magnetic field is
produced within the tube when the primary winding is energized by three phase supply.
Figure 8.7: Tubular LIM
8.6.3 Transverse field LIM

Transverse field LIM are used for high speed applications. In transverse flux LIM, there is no restriction
on pole pitch as no flux is to be conveyed axially.
Figure 8.8: Direction of Secondary Current, Flux and Force in Transverse Field LIM

Linear Motors 127
The secondary is provided with steel backing to reduce the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
These arrangements have single slot per pole per phase and successive cores must be separated by
a minimum distance to avoid the axial thrust produced by the strong axial flux distribution. Thus
secondary current induced by one core interacts less effectively with the flux of the other.
Figure 8.9: Transverse field LIM
8.7 Effects in Linear Induction Motors

In a linear induction motor, there are two effects which are not seen in conventional induction motors
effects increase in losses. They are:
• Transverse edge effect
• End effect
Figure 8.10: Transverse edge effect and End effect
Transverse edge effect

Paths of induced current in secondary is not well defined because secondary of linear motor is a solid
conducting plate The portion of current paths parallel to direction of motion of secondary does not

make any contribution towards production of useful thrust but contribute towards losses This effect
reduces effective thrust and increases losses and is known as transverse edge effect because current
paths parallel to the direction of motion are more towards direction of conducting plates
End effect
In case of linear induction motor with short primary the current path towards end of field structure
on the secondary go beyond the field structure and such portions of current path do not contribute to
useful thrust but only towards motor losses. This is called end effect
Gap effect
Induction motor has a very small airgap of order 2mm or less but in the case of a LIM it is 5cm for
traction purpose. Due to large airgap motor having large reluctance and losses. So efficiency of LIM is
low compared to induction motor.
8.8 Thrust Equation of LIM

Let,
f = frequency of supply voltage in Hz
τ = pole pitch in m
Vs = synchronous speed in m/s
V = actual speed of runner in m/s
s = slip
E1 = emf induced in the primary per phase in volts
I1 = primary current per phase in A
Pg = gross power developed
Pm = mechanical power developed
φ = power factor angle of primary
Φm = maximum flux density in air gap in W b
Tph = turns/phase
ac = specific electrical loading
Bav = specific magnetic loading
L = length of field system along the direction of motion in m
P = number of poles
W = width of field system in m
Kw = winding factor
The linear synchronous speed of the travelling wave,
Vs = 2τ f
Vs −V
Slip, s =
Vs
Neglecting magnetic and copper losses, the gross power developed is,
Pg = 3E1 I1 cos φ (8.3)
The emf induced in the primary is given by,

√
E1 = 2π f Kw Tph Φm (8.4)

Linear Motors 129
Specific electrical loading is given by,

3 × 2Tph × I1
ac =
L
ac × L
I1 = (8.5)
3 × 2 × Tph
Also,
L = Pτ
Specific magnetic loading,

Pφm
Bav =
L ×W
Bav × L ×W
∴ Φm = (8.6)
P
Substituting the value of E1 and I1 from equation 8.4 and 8.5 in equation 8.3
√
Pg = 3 2πKw Tph Φm f I1 cos φ
√

Bav × L ×W Vs ac × L
=3 2πKw Tph . . cos φ
P 2τ 3 × 2 × Tph
π
= √ Kw LW Vs Bav ac cos φ (8.7)
2 2
The thrust of linear force developed is given by,

Pg
F =η (8.8)
Vs
Where η is the efficiency

π Kw LW Vs Bav ac cos φ
∴F =η √ .
2 2 Vs
π
= η. √ LW Kw Bav ac cos φ
2 2
= 1.11η LW Kw Bav ac cos φ (8.9)
8.9 Goodness Factor

Goodness factor is a criterion for non-conventional machines. It expresses the capability of a machine
to convert air gap power between the secondary and primary in electrical form and mechanical form at
a speed related to primary field speed. The goodness factor for a double primary three phase LIM is
given by
2
µ0 d Vs
G= (8.10)
ρ lg 2π f
The goodness factor can be used for predicting the performance of LIM.

8.10 Equivalent Circuit of LIM
8.11 Linear Synchronous Motor

In LSM, the mechanical motion is in synchronism with magnetic field. That is the mechanical speed is
same as the speed of travelling magnetic field. Thrust is generated by the action of travelling magnetic
field produced by a three phase winding and an array of magnetic poles or a variable reluctance
ferromagnetic rail. The part of the machine which produces travelling magnetic field is called the
armature or forcer. The part of the machine which produces DC magnetic flux or variable reluctance
is called the field excitation system or reaction rail or salient pole rail or variable reluctance platen

Linear Motors 131
LSM has better energy conversion levels but with higher cost. It produces much higher thrust density
compared to LIM. This makes them suitable for applications in vehicles and propulsion.

• Flat or Tubular (Cylindrical)
• Homopolar or heteropolar LSM
• Transverse flux or Longitudinal flux LSM
• Single ended or double ended
• Slotted or slotless
• Iron cored or Air cored
• Super conductor field LSM
• Permanent magnet LSM with active reaction rail and Permanent magnet LSM with passive
reaction rail
8.13 Classification of Linear Synchronous Motor Based on Excitation System

LSM with Electromagnetic excitation
It is similar to conventional salient pole synchronous motor. There are two types of LSM: flat single
sided LSM and flat double sided LSM. They have salient ferromagnetic pole and DC field winding. If
the excitation system is integrated with moving part, the DC excitation should be provided with the
help of brushes and contact bars.
Figure 8.11: LSM with Electromagnetic excitation

LSM with Superconducting Excitation System

This kind of excitation is used for large power applications. The ferromagnetic core that produces
magnetic field is replaced by coreless superconducting electromagnets. It is fully air-cored. The
magnetic field produced by superconducting electromagnets is much greater than the saturation flux of
the best laminated alloys (eg. Cobalt alloy)
Figure 8.12: LSM with Superconducting Excitation System
Permanent Magnet LSM with Active Reaction Rail

Single sided flat LSMs with surface magnets and embedded permanent magnets are shown in figure.
In surface permanent type LSM, the yoke(black iron) of the reaction rail is made up of ferromagnetic
material and the permanent magnets are energized in the perpendicular direction to the active surface.
Where as in embedded magnetic field type LSM, the yoke is non-ferromagnetic (eg. Aluminium) and
the magnetization is done in the direction of travelling magnetic field
Figure 8.13: Permanent Magnet LSM with Active Reaction Rail
The detent torque, higher order space harmonics and force ripples can be reduced by skewing

Linear Motors 133
the permanent magnets. Detent torque is the attractive force between the PMs and the armature
ferromagnetic teeths.
Figure 8.14: Skewed PMs in Flat LSM
Generally, PMLSMs are provided with dampers. When the speed of the travelling magnetic
field and rail are different, current is induced in the damper circuit. Dampers help in starting, damp
oscillation and brings in synchronism when speed increases or decreases. The damper of PMLSM are
aluminium cover or solid steel pole shoes. Dampers also provide protection to permanent magnets
against mechanical damage
Figure 8.15: Damper of Surface Type PMLSM
Double sided flat PMLSM can also be built with one internal armature system and two excitation
system

Figure 8.16: Double sided flat PMLSM
Another type of PMLSM is the slotless motor. In this type the primary winding is uniformly
distributed on a smooth armature core or without a core. They are characterized by detent force, free
operation and higher input frequency.
Figure 8.17: Flat Slotted PMLSM
They require more PM material due to larger non-ferromagnetic airgap. The absence of teeth leads
to very large value of direct and quadrature axis synchronous reactance, which results in higher current.
Transverse Magnetic Flux LSM

In transverse flux LSM, the lines of magnetic flux are in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
travelling magnetic field.

Linear Motors 135
The reaction rail is of passive nature and salient The reaction rail poles are magnetized by the
armature PMs through airgap The interaction between the travelling magnetic field produced by
armature winding and the magnetized poles of reaction rail produces the thrust.
Permanent Magnet LSM with Passive Reaction Rail

The reaction rail is of passive nature and salient The reaction rail poles are magnetized by the armature
PMs through airgap The interaction between the travelling magnetic field produced by armature
winding and the magnetized poles of reaction rail produces the thrust.
Homopolar means the armature and field system are in same parts and reaction rail is of passive
nature. Heteropolar means the armature and field system are separate parts
8.14 Advantages of LSM

1. Highly reliable
2. Acceleration and braking is independent of friction
3. Precise position control is possible

4. Can be used fir movement along any slope including vertical direction without friction
5. High speed acceleration and efficiency
6. Improved performance
8.15 Features of LSM

+ Fewer moving parts
+ Cost effective
+ Better control possible
+ Lower maintenance
+ Ease of installation
+ Movement in vertical or diagonal direction possible.
8.16 Applications of LSM

1. Factory automation
2. Packaging and material handling
3. Passenger elevators for tall buildings
4. Military elevators for weapon and aircraft
5. Loading and unloading of ships and hazardous cargo.
6. Can replace hydraulic actuators with same space requirement , less wearing and higher reliability
8.17 Linear Reluctance Motor

Linear reluctance motor is an attractive alternative to linear induction motor and linear synchronous
motors. LRM is suitable for material handling and transportation of materials in a totally enclosed
container. Less maintenance and cheap secondary material for construction make their cost very low.
8.18 Construction of Linear Reluctance Motor

Single phase LRM with U-shaped primary core
The schematic diagram showing the structure of a Single phase LRM with U-shaped primary core. It
has a primary and secondary part. The primary has winding which can be energized by AC or DC. The
current produces magnetic flux in perpendicular direction to the direction of motion. When the primary
is aligned with secondary or placed in between the secondary elements, the starting force is zero.

Linear Motors 137
Figure 8.18: U-shaped primary core
Also negative forces developed in certain positions. This disadvantage is overcome by providing
asymmetry provided in the primary or secondary or by a permanent magnet attached to the primary
body. When the primary is de-energized, the permanent magnet takes the position in the middle of
secondary element. Hence whenever the primary is energized, a starting force is developed.
When the primary winding is excited, a linear force Fx and attractive force Fy are developed. The
linear force is given by,
dL(x)
Fx = i2 (8.11)
dx
Where L(x) is the coil inductance.

For higher value of Fx , the inductance gradient should be high.
Figure 8.19: Variation of Inductance
The variation of inductance is shown in figure. The normal force is given by,
B2
Fn = Ag (8.12)
2µ0
Where,
B= Flux density
Ag = Active airgap area
µ0 = permeability of free space

Single phase LRM with E-shaped primary core

The structure of this type is shown in figure The working is similar to that of LRM with U shaped
primary.
Figure 8.20: E-shaped primary core

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EE402 : SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINES

T RINITY C OLLEGE OF E NGINEERING

Lineesh A S, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE, Trinity College of Engineering

III MODULE THREE

5 Switched Reluctance Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

7 Brush less DC Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Lineesh A S, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE, Trinity College of Engineering

Figure 1.1: Servomechanism

1.2 Requirement of a Good Servomotor

• It should be quickly reversible.

• Low-speed large torque, overload capacity.

• It should have linear torque-speed characteristics.

• Its operation should be stable without any oscillations or overshoots.

Lineesh A S, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE, Trinity College of Engineering

1.3 Comparison of Servomotor with Conventional motors

• High starting torque.

• Servomotor can hold the static position.

• Overheating is absent at low speed or at rest.

• It is possible to change the direction of rotation quickly.

• Quick acceleration and retardation.

• Without drift, the servomotor can return to a desired position repeatedly.

+ Linear torque-speed characteristics.

1.4.1 Construction of AC Servomotor

Lineesh A S, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE, Trinity College of Engineering

+ Squirrel cage rotor

+ Drag cup type rotor

Squirrel cage rotor

Figure 1.2: Rotor of Induction Motor

Drag Cup rotor

Lineesh A S, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE, Trinity College of Engineering

Figure 1.3: Dragcup Rotor

1.4.2 Principle of Operation of AC Servomotor

Figure 1.4: Schematic Diagram of AC Servomotor

Lineesh A S, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE, Trinity College of Engineering

1.5 Torque-Speed Characteristics of AC Servomotor

• Linear torque-speed characteristics

• Slope of the torque-speed characteristics must be negative.

Figure 1.5: Schematic Diagram of AC Servomotor

1.6 Performance Characteristics of AC Servomotor

Lineesh A S, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE, Trinity College of Engineering

Figure 1.6: Schematic Diagram of AC Servomotor

1.7 Features of A.C. Servomotor

1.8 Damped AC Servomotor

Lineesh A S, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE, Trinity College of Engineering

1.8.1 Internal damping

Figure 1.7: Internal Damping

1.8.2 Viscous Damping

1.8.3 Inertial Damping

Lineesh A S, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE, Trinity College of Engineering

1.9 Applications of AC Servomotor

• Self balancing recorders

+ Ease of speed control

+ High torque to inertia ratio

+ Capability to deliver more than three times of their rated torque

+ Linear torque-speed characteristics.

1.11 Principle of Operation of DC Servomotor

Lineesh A S, Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE, Trinity College of Engineering

1.12 Classification of DC servomotor

• Field controlled d.c. servomotors.

• Armature controlled d.c. servomotors.

• Series split field d.c. servomotors

• Permanent magnet armature controlled d.c. servomotors