leurd ldp

b;sydih

PdhdrEmlrKh iy ldp w;r we;af;a wúfhdackSh iïnkaO;djhls' oyihjk ishjfia § f,kdfvda vdúkaÑ
úiska ks¾udKh lrk ,o uq,au leurdj jQ zleurd TíialshqrdjZ (Camera Obscura) ldp rys; tlla jQ w;r
tys m%;sìïnh ks¾udKh jQfha w,afmfk;a;s isÿrla ;=,ska m;kh jQ wdf,dal oyrdjla u.sks' flfia jqjo
leurd Tíialshqrdfõ jeäÈhqKl q sÍï Tiafia ìysjQ wfkl=;a ish¿u leurdj, ldph wksjdhH_ wx.hla úh'
PdhdrEmlrKh úYañ; fjkialïj,g n÷ka fjñka ;sfnk fï wjÈh jkúg PdhdrEm igyka lr.ekSfï
;dCIKh uq¿uksku a fjkiaj we;' PdhdrEm mg, máh ;jÿrg;a PdhdrEmlrKfha wksjdhH_ wx.hla fkdfõ'
PdhdrEm igyka lr .ekSfï l%shdj,sh fï jkúg ixLHdxl ;dCIKh úiska Ndrf.k we;' tfy;a leurd
ldph ;j;a ishjia .Kkdjla fydaa" we;eïúg PdhdrEmlrKh mj;akd ;dla l,a ta iu. mj;skq we;'
j¾;udkfha Ndú;djk oDIaáuh ldp (Optical lenses) moaO;sj, we;eï wNHka;r fldgia wkd.;fha §
bf,lafg%daksl ldp j,ska ksufjkq we;' tfia jqjo PdhdrEmlrKh õma,ùh fjkialïj,g Ndckh jqj o
iuia; jYfhka PdhdrEmlrK fCI;%h ;=, oDIaáuh ldp fjkqjg wdfoaYlhla ìys fkdjkq we;'

f,dj uq,au leurd ldph Ndú;hg meñKsfha j¾I 1558 § h' vdúkaÑf.a leurd Tíialshqrdfõ w,afmfk;a;s
isÿr fjkqjg ldphla fhdod tys zwm%io
s aêhZ ^leurd Tíialshqrd hkafkys isxy, f;areu wm%isoaO leurdj
hkakhs& neyer lr,Sug lghq;= lrk ,oafoa tjlg b;d,sfha meÿjd iriúfha fiajh l< veksfhf,da ndnfrda
kï jQ jekSishdkq cd;sl uydpdhH_jrhd úisks' Bg fmr o ùÿre fyda m,sÕ= øjHj,ska ;ekqkq ldp leurd
Tíialshqrdj iu. Ndú;d jQ njg idOl we;' 1550 § ldofkda kï wfhla leurd Tíialshqrdj i|yd ldphla
ks¾udKh l< nj we;eñ uQ,dY%j, i|yka fõ' tfy;a ta f;dr;=re újdod;aulh' leurd Tíialshqrdj o
vdúkaÑ f.a ks¾udKhla f,i ie,l=K;a weßiafgdag,a f.a iufha §;a th Ndú;d jQ njg idOl we;'

flfiajqjo veksfhf,da ndnfrdaf.a ;ks ldph fndfyda fodaIj,ska hqla; tlla úh' fï ksid tys jeäÈhqKqlsÍï
w;HjYH úh' j¾I 1620 § muK ta i|yd uq,skau odhl jQfha fcdyekakia flma,¾ kï c¾udkq cd;sl ;drld
úoHd{hd h' veksfhf,da ndnfrda f.a ;ks W;a;, ldph fjkqjg flma,¾ ldp follska iukaú; ixhqla;
ldphla Ndú;d lf<ah' W;a;, ldphg wu;r jYfhka wj;, ldphlao fuys§ fhdok ,§' ;ks ldphla
u.ska ,efnkjdg jvd mq¿,a oY_K fldaKhla fï u.ska ,nd.; yels úh' tfia jqjo ldpj, idudkHfhka
olakg ,efnk fodaI u.yerùula bka isÿ fkdùh'

1812 § bx.%Sis cd;sl fN!;sl úoHd{ ú,shï yhsâ fjd,iagka ldp ie,iqïlsÍu iïnkaOj jeo.;a
fidhd.ekSula lf<ah' tkï ldphg idfmaCIj ksis whqßka ia:dk.; lrk ,o l=vd ldp újrhla fh§u u.ska
we;eï ldp fodaI u.yrjd.; yels njhs' fï wkqj Tyq y÷kajd ÿka ldph u.ska ms,s.; yels ;rï ;shqKq
njlska hq;a ms,sìUq ,nd.; yelsúh'

flfia jqjo fjd,iagka fidhd.;a Wml%uh u.ska j¾K wfmarKh kï jQ fodaIh u. yrjd.; yels fkdùh'
1829 § pd,aia ¨úia fpj,sh¾ kï jQ oDIaá úfYaI{hd úiska j¾K wfmarKhg hï ;rula ÿrg ksjerÈ lrk
,o ldphla y|kajd fok ,§' l%jqka ùÿrej,ska ksujk ,o W;a;, ldphla iu. *a,skaÜ ùÿrej,ska ksujQ
n,fhka wvq wj;, ldphla fh§fuka ilia l< tu ldph wefl%daueála fuksialia kñka ye¢kaúks'

l=vd ldp újrhla fh§fuka we;eñ ldp fodaI ie<lshhq;= ;rñka u.yrjd.; yels jqjo tu jljdkqj
jkúg Ndú;hg meñK ;snQ PdhdrEm igyka lr .ekSfï w÷kaj, wdf,dal ixfõ§;djh fnfyúka wvq
uÜgul mej;Su ksid fõ.fhka jeä ^úYd, ldp újr iys;& ldp wjYH úh' fuu wjYH;djh wkqj
yxf.aßhdkq cd;sl uydpdhH_ fcdaima uelaia fmÜiajd,a 1840 § fmÜiajd,a ldph y÷kajd ÿkafkah' f 3'6 l
ldpújr w.hlska hqla; jQ fuh ldp fldgia y;rlska iukaú; úh' f.da,Sh wfmarKh" j¾K wfmarKh iy
fldud hk fodaI ie<lshhq;= ;rñka u.yrjd ;snqkq tu ldph ta hq.fha yeáhg úYd, bÈß msïula úh' tfia
jqjo úIu oDIaál;dj (Astigmatism)" fCI;%fha jl%;djh (Curvature of the field) hk fodaI ie<lshhq;=
;rñka tys fYaIj mej;sK's fuu ldph úYd, ldp újrhla iy mgq oY_K fldaKhla wjYH mqoa.,
PdhdrEmlrKh i|yd tu hq.fha § fnfyúka fhdod.kakd ,§' tmuKla fkdj iskud leurd yd m%fCIamk
hka;% i|yd o fmÜiajd,a ldph fhdod .eKsks'

jI_ 1866 § c¾udkq cd;sl ldp ie,iqïlrejl= jQ yshqf.da wefvd,a*a iafghskafya,a úiska N+ñ oY_K fukau
f.dvke.s,s we;=,; oY_K i|yd o Ndú;d l< yels wema,kÜ ldph y÷kajd fok ,o w;r th ldp fldgia
fol ne.ska hq;a ldp moaO;s foll iuñ;sl tl;=jla úh' f.da,Sh wfmarKh iy fCIa;%fha jl%;djh hk
fodaI yer wfkl=;a fodaI fuys fndfydaÿrg bj;a fldg ;sìKs' fuu ie,iqugu wkql+, jQ iy iudk m%;sM,
,nd ÿka ldphla tu jljdkqfõ§u ,kavkays úiQ c¾udkq iïNjhla iys; oDIaá úfYaI{fhl= jQ fcdaka fykaß
fvda,afïh¾ úiska o y÷kajd fok ,§' fuu ldph miqj /msâ frlaá,Sksh¾ kñka ye¢kajqkq w;r th
fnfyúka ckm%sh;ajhg m;aúh'

úIu oDIaál;dj iy fCIa;%fha jl%;djh hk fodaI ie<lshhq;= ;rñka bj;a lrk ,o ldphla 1888 §
fI%dhsv¾ kï jQ c¾udkq cd;sl ldp ie<iqïlre úiska y÷kajd ÿka w;r th frdia fldkafikaá%la kñka
1
ye¢kaúKs' ta jkúg ksIamdokh lr ;snQ fíßhï l%jk
q a ùÿre yd *a,skaÜ ùÿre Ndú;fhka ksujk ,o j¾K
wfmarKhg ksjerÈ lrk ,o ldp fldgia tl,ia lsÍfuka th ilia úh' flfia jqjo tu ldpfha f.da,Sh
wfmarKh ie<lshhq;= ;rñka fYaIj mej;Su ksid th Ndú;d l< yels jQfha f 16 jeks wvq ldp újr w.hla
iys;jh'

fuu .eg¿jg úi÷ï jYfhka 1890 § c¾udkq cd;sl .Ks;{fhl= iy oDIaá úfYaI{fhl= jQ fmda,a
refvd,a*a iy oDIaá WmlrK ksIamdolfhl= jQ ld,a fihsia hk fofok tlaj fihsia fm%dagd¾ ldph y÷kajd
fok ,§' ta jkúg ksmojd ;snQ wefl%daueála fuksialia ldph iu. Tyq úiska ksIm a dokh lrk ,o ;j;a
wefl%daueála ldphla fh§fuka fuh ksueúKs' fulS ldp fldgia fol w;rg ldp újrh fhdok ,§' fï
u.ska úIu oDIaál;dj hï m%udKhlg u. yerùug o yels úh' fuu ldpfha Wmßu újr w.h f 7.5 la úh'
1894 jI_fha § fuu ldph ;j ÿrg;a jeä ÈhqKq lrk ,oafoa fihsia fm%dagd¾ ldpfha ldp fldgia fol tlg
w,jd tjeks lÜg, folla ldp újrfha fomiska fh§fuks' th vn,a fm%dagd¾ f,i ye¢kaúKs'

ldp b;sydifha ó,Õg jeo.;a ks¾udKhla jQfha l=la á%ma,Ü ldphhs' bx.S%is cd;sl oDIaá WmlrK
ksYamdolfhl= iy ldp ie,iqïlrefjl= jQ yer,aâ fvksia fÜ,¾ úiska 1893 § tu ldph y÷kajd fok ,§'
b;du;a ir, ie,iqulska hqla; jqjo fuu ldpfha l%shdldß;ajh b;d úYsIag úh' f 3 l Wmßu ldp újr
w.hlska hqla; jQ fuu ldph" f.da,Sh wfmarKh" fldud iy úIu oDIaál;dj hk fodaI ie<lshhq;= ;rñka
wju lrk ,o tlla úh' ;jo l=la á%ma,Ü ldph bka miqj ks¾udKh jQ ldp ie,iqï i|yd mokï jQ w;s
úYsIag mQj_doY_hla úh'

l=la á%ma,Ü ldpfha ie,iqu mokï fldg f.k ks¾udKh l< kj ldphla c¾uka cd;sl .Ks;{fhl= fukau
oDIaá úfYaI{fhl= o jQ fmda,a refvda,a*a úiska 1902 § y÷kajd fok ,§' fuys Wmßu ldp újr w.h f 3.5 la
jQ w;r ldph ye¢kajqfka fihsia fgid¾ hk kñks' l=la á%ma,Ü ldpfha ;ks ldp fldgia ;=kla Ndú;d jqjo
fihsia fgid¾ ys ldp fldgia y;rla jQ w;r thska folla tlg w,jd ;snqKs'

fihsia fgid¾ ldph fukau bka wk;=rej y÷kajd ÿka ldp .Kkdjlau l=la á%ma,Ü ldpfha ie,eiau mokï
fldgf.k ks¾udKh úh' Tiaá%hdkq cd;sl oDIaá WmlrK ksIamdolfhl= jQ mSg¾ ú,afy,aï f*%âßÉ
fjdhs.aÜ,Ekav¾ iy f;dauia refvd,a*a fvd,afïh¾ úiska ks¾udKh lrk ,o fvd,afïh¾ fmkagela ldph f
2.9 l Wmßu idfmaCI ldp újrhlska hqla; úh' fuys ldp fldgia myla jQ w;r thska y;rla fol ne.ska
tlg w,jd ks¾udKh úh' tu jljdkqfõ§u c¾udkq cd;sl wdpdhH_ w¾kiaÜ f,hsÜia úiska ks¾udKh l<
f,hsÜia fylagd¾ ldph f 1.9 l Wmßu idfmaCI ldp újrhla iys; úh' fuys ldp fldgia yhla fol ne.ska
tlg w,jd ldp ldKav ;=kla f,i ks¾udKh úh' c¾udkq cd;sl ld,a fihsia úiska f 2 l Wmßu ldp
újrhla iys;j yd f 1.5 l Wmßu ldp újrhla iys;j ldp folla ks¾udKh lrk ,§' fuu ldp i|yd
oaú;aj yd ;s%;aj ldp moaO;s Ndú;d úh'

ÿr fiahd ldp f,i ye¢kafjk È.= kdNs ÿr iys; ldp ks¾udKh i|yd jI_ 1891 mgka úúO m¾fhaIlhska
úiska h;ak ork ,o kuq;a hï ;rulg fyda id¾:l È.= kdNsÿr iys; ldphla m%:ufhkau ks¾udKh jQfha
1898 § fmda,a refvd,a*a yd ld,a fihsia w;sks' th fihsia fg,sf*dfgda kï úh' tys Wmßu ldp újrh f 0.85
;rï úYd, jqjo ±ä f,i fodaI iys; úh'

idfmaCI jYfhka id¾:l m%:u ÿrfiahd ldph 1906 § ks¾udKh jQ nqIa ìiafg,¾ kï úh' tys Wmßu ldp
újrh f 7 g iSud úh' 1910 § ks¾udKh jQ fvd,afïh¾ .a?kavela ldph" 1912 § nQ;a fg,sf*dfgda ldph wdÈh
Bg miqj ks¾udKh jQ ÿr fiahd ldp úh' fuu ldpj, Wmßu ldp újrh f 5.6 la jeks w.hl jQfha úYd,
ldp újr m%udKhkays § tu ldpj, ls%hdldß;ajh fodaI iys; jQ neúks'

hqyquq ldp (Zoom Lenses) f,i ye¢kafjk kdNs ÿr fjkia l< yels ldp ks¾udKh ms<sn|j 1902 jir
mgka úúO W;aidyhka ork ,o kuq;a id¾:l hqyquq ldphla y÷kajdfok ,oafoa 1930 § muKh' fn,a wekaâ
fydfj,a l=la fõfrda" nqIa fõßfhda .a,jql¾ iy weiafg%da g%dkaiaf*daflag¾ wdÈh uq,au hqyquq ldp f,i ±laúh
yel' fïjd iduQysl jYfhka l< ks¾udK jk w;r ;ks whs;shla ±laúh fkdyel' fï jk úg b;du;a
úYsIag ls%hdldß;ajhka iys; hqyquq ldp ks¾udKh ù we;' fndfyduhla ksYap, leurdj, iy ùäfhda leurd
ieu tllu mdfya hqyquq ldp Ndú;d fõ'

kùk leurd iy oDIaá WmlrKj, Ndú;djk ldp b;du;a úYsIag yd ishqï ls%hdldß;ajhlska hqla; jk
w;r" úúO wjYH;djhka i|yd fhdod.; yels mßÈ mq¿,a fldaK ldp" ÿr fiahd ldp" úYd,k ldp" CIqø
ldp" u;aiHdCIs ldp wdÈ jYfhka úYd, mrdihlska hq;= ldp ksYamdokh ù we;'

ldphl l%shdldß;ajh

b;du;a ir, wdldrfhka meyeÈ,s lrkafka kï" ldphla hkq ls%hdldß;ajh jeä ÈhqKq lrk ,o w,afmfk;a;s
isÿrla f,i ye¢kaúh yelsh' ms<sìUqfõ §ma;su;aNdjh wvqùu iy wdf,dal új¾;kh (Diffraction) kï jQ

2
ixisoaêh fya;=fldgf.k we;sjk fodaI yereKqfldg isÿre leurdjlska ,efnk ms<sìUqj we;eïúg kQ;k
ixhqla; ldphlska ,efnk ms<sìUqjlg jvd ;shqKq njla olajkq we;' tfy;a wvq wdf,dal ;;a;ajhka hgf;a
oS PdhdrEm .ekSu i|yd isÿre leurdj lsisfia;a m%udKj;a jkafka ke;' fï ksid jeä wdf,dal m%udKhla
leurdj ;=,g we;=¿lr.kakd w;ru ms<s.; yels ;rfï ;shqKq njlska hq;a m%;sìïn ,nd .ekSu Wfoid
isÿre leurdfõ Ndú;djk isÿr fjkqjg ldp Ndú;d fõ' ldphla u.ska ms<sìUq ,nd fokafka wdf,dal j¾;kh
kï jQ iajdNdúl ixisoaêh mokï fldgf.kh' wdf,dal ixfõ§ mg,hla fyda ;yvqjla u; hï ms<sìUqjla
igyka lr .ekSu i|yd leurdjl ldp moaO;sh u.ska ,ndfok ms<sìUqj ;d;aúl tlla úh hq;=h' tkï
PdhdrEm.; lrk wruqfKys isg meñfKk wdf,dal lsrK u.ska ;srhla u; ,nd.; yels ms<sìUqjla ,nd Èh
hq;=h'

uQ,sl jYfhka ldp j._ follg fnod ±laúh yelsh' ta W;a;, ldp iy wj;, ldp jYfhks' fuys Wm
fn§ï o lsysmhla ±laúh yel' my; fmfkk igyfka tajd olajd we;'

oaú W;a;, iu W;a;, Ok iDK iu wj;, oaú wj;,

fuksil
a ia fuksil
a ia

ldp j¾.SlrKh
rEm igyk wxl 1

rEm igyfka jï miska olajd we;s ldp ;=ka j._h u.ska ta ;=,ska .uka lrk wdf,dal loïn wNsirKh
^talrdYs& lrhs’ fï ksid tajd wNsidß ldp fyj;a Ok ldp f,i ye¢kafõ’ rEm igyfka ol=Kq miska we;s ldp
;=ka j._h wdf,dal loïn wmirKh lrhs ^úysÿjd yÍ&’ fï ksid tu ldp wmidß ldp fyj;a iDK ldp f,i
ye¢kafõ’

by; úiaa;r l< mßÈ ;srhla u;g ,nd.; yels ;d;aúl ms<sìUq ,nd fokafka wNsidß fyj;a Ok ldp u.ska
muKs’ tfia jqjo by; fmkajd we;s ;ks ir, ldpj, fkdfhl=;a wfmarK ^fodaI& olakg ,efí’ fï ksid tajd
u.ska ,efnk ms<sìUq” ;shqKq núka yd meyeÈ,s núka f;dr jk w;r úlD;sùï o olakg ,efí’ tu ldp fodaI
ms<sn|j ixlaIsma; jYfhka fuys lreKq bÈßm;a flf¾’

ldp fodaI

ir, ;ks ldpj, olakg ,efnk fodaI my; ±lafjk mßÈ fõ’

 f.da,Sh wfmarKh (Sperical aberration)

 j¾K wfmarKh (Chromatic aberration)
 fldud fodaIh (Coma)
 úIu oDIaál;dj (Astigmatism)
 fCIa;%fha jl%;djh (Curvature of the field)
 úlD;sh” fuh fohdldr fõ’
o nrKs úlD;sh (Barrel distortion)
o oU, úlD;sh (Pin-cushion distortion)
 jg úysÿu (Halation)

by; ±lafjk ldp fodaI úia;r lsÍug fmr ldp iïnkaO uQ,sl mrdñ;Ska ms<sn|j lreKq bÈßm;a lsÍu
wjYH fõ' ir, W;a;, ldp iy wj;, ldp iïnkaOj jk tu mrdñ;Ska rEm igyka wxl 2 iy 3 ys ±la
fõ'

fuys Axis hkqfjka olajd we;af;a ldpfha m%Odk wCIhhs' ldp wCIhg iudka;rj meñfKk wdf,dal lsrK
W;a;, ldphl kï j¾;kfhka miq m%Odk kdNsh (Focal point) f,i ye¢kafjk ,CIHhla fj; fhduqfõ'
wj;, ldphl isÿjkafka m%Odk kdNsh fj;ska meñfKk wdldrhg tu lsrK úys§ hduhs' ldp uOHh;a
m%Odk kdNsh;a w;r ÿr" kdNs ÿr (Focal length) f,i ±lafõ' rEm igykaj, th f f,i olajd we;'

3
idudkHfhka ldpj, u;=msg mDIaG f.da,hS mDIaG fõ' tu f.da,Sh mDIaGj, wrhhka R1 iy R2 f,i olajd
we;' d hkqfjka olajd we;af;a ldp wCIfha § ldpfha >kluhs'

W;a;, ldphl mrdñ;Ska

rEm igyk wxl 2

wj;, ldphl mrdñ;Ska

rEm igyk wxl 3

ldp ;=,ska wdf,dal lsrK .uka lsÍfï § j¾;kfhka miq tu lsrK by; olajd we;s wdldrhg yeisÍu
wfmaCId l,o m%dfhda.sl jYfhka tfia isÿ fkdfõ' fuys§ we;sjk" by; i|yka l< fodaI ms<n
s |j ixlaIsma;
jYfhka ±ka i,ld n,uq'

f.da,Sh wfmarKh

W;a;, ldphla ;=,k

s a .uka lrk iudka;r wdf,dal loïnhla j¾;kh ùfuka fuka miq ldpfha m%Odk kdNsh
fj; wNsirKh úh hq;h = ' tfy;a ldp wCIhg iómj tk lsrK muKla fufia m%Odk kdNsh fj;g
wNsirKh jk w;r Bg neyeßka tk lsrK fjk;a ia:dkj,g fhduq fõ' rEm igyka wxl 4 ys fuh fmkajd
we;' idudkH wj;, ldphla jqjo óg wkqrEm wksis yeisÍula olajhs' ldph ;=,ska .uka .kakd iudka;r
wdf,dal lsrK j¾;kfhka miq m%Odk kdNsfha isg meñfKkakdla jeks wdldrhg wmirKh úh hq;= jqjo ldp
wCIhg iómj meñfKk lsrK iy Bg neyeßka meñfKk lsrK fjkia wdldrhg wmirKh fjhs'

W;a;, fyda wj;, ldp ksIamdokh lrkq ,nkafka W,af,aLk hka;% (Abrasive machines) u.ska ldp øjH
wjiSreï lsÍu u.sks' fujeks hka;%j, ls%hd iajrEmh jD;a;dldr jk w;r fï ksid fuu hka;% u.ska
myiqfjka ks¾udKh l< yels jkafka jD;a;dldr fyda f.da,dldr yevhka fõ' ta wkqj tjeks hka;% u.ska
ks¾udKh jk ldphka ys mDIaG f.da,dldr fõ' flfia jqjo mßiudma; ldphl mDIaGhka f.da,dldr fkdj
ldpfhka wfmaCIs; m%;sM, ,nd fok yevhlska hq;=j ks¾udKh úh hq;=h' kñkau mejfik mßÈ f.da,Sh
wfmarKh we;sùug fya;= jkafka ldp mDIaGj, f.da,Sh yevhhs'
 f.da,Sh wfmarKh
rEm igyk wxl 4

f.da,Sh wfmarK fodaIh ksjerÈ lsÍu i|yd uq,a hq.fha § ldp fldgia folla fyda jeä .Kkla tlg
iïnkaO fldg fhdok ,o kuq;a thska tu fodaIh uq¿ukskau u.yerùug yels jQfha ke;' tfy;a kQ;k
ldpj, fuu fodaIh iïmQ¾Kfhkau mdfya ksjerÈ lr we;af;a ks¾f.da, mDI
mDIaÀ ldp fldgia fh§fuks' rEm
igyk wxl 5 n,kak'

ks¾f.da, mDIaÀ ldphlska f.da,Sh wfmarKh ksjerÈ lsÍu

rEm igyk wxl 5

j¾K wfmarKh

j¾K wfmarKfha § isÿ jkafka tla tla j¾K fjkia ;ekaj, kdNs.; ùuhs' fï ksid úúO j¾K iys; hï
wruqKla PdhdrEm.; lsÍfï § wruqfKys ish¿u fldgia meyeÈ,sj kdNs.; fkdfõ' rEm igyk wxl 6
n,kak'

j¾K wfmarKh
rEm igyk wxl 6
fuys§ r;= ldKavfha j¾K jvd wE;skq;a ks,a ldKavfha j¾K jvd ,Õskq;a kdNs.; fõ' fuu fodaIh ksjerÈ
lsÍu i|yd l%jqka ùÿrej,ska ksujk ,o W;a;, ldphla iu. noaO lrk ,o *a,k s aÜ ùÿrej,ska idok ,o
n,fhka wvq wj;, ldphlska iukaú; ldp tl,ila Ndú;d fõ' rEm igyk wxl 7 n,kak'

j¾K wfmarKh ksjerÈ lsÍu

rEm igyk wxl 7

fldud fodaIh

fuu fodaIh olakg yelafla ldp wCIhg neyeßka msysá jia;+kf

a .a ms<sìUq iïnkaOfhks' mßmQ¾K ldphla
u.ska ,ndfok ,CIHdldr wruqKl ms<sìUqjla ,CIHdldr úh hq;=h' tfy;a fldud fodaIh iys; ldphlsk"a
ldp wCIhg neyeßka msysá §ma;su;a ,CIHdldr wruqKl ms<sìUqj" j,a.d ;rejl l jeks tla me;a;lg we§
.sh yevhla iys; me,a,ul wdldrfhka ,nd fohs' rEm igyk wxl 8 n,kak' j,a.d ;rejg fhfok flduÜ
(comet) hk bx.S%is jok wdYs%;j fuu fodaIh kï lr we;'

fldud fodaIh
rEm igyk wxl 8

fldud fodaIh fya;= fldg f.k ,CIHdldr wruqKl ms<sìUqj me;a;lg we§ .sh me,a,ula f,i ,efnk nj
by; i|yka lrk ,§' fuu me,a,fï úYd,;ajh" ms<sìUqj ldp wCIfhka neyerj msysgk ÿr m%udKhg;a"
ldp újrfha úIalïNfha j._hg;a iudkqmd;sl fõ'

ldpfha mDIaGhka foflys wrhhka tlsfkl fjkia yd .e,fmk wdldrhg fhdod .ekSfuka fldud fodaIfhys
n,mEu wju l< yel' flfia jqjo fõ.fhka jeä ^úYd, Wmßu ldp újr iys;& mq¿,a fldaKS ldpj,
ldp fuu
fodaIh u. yerùu b;du;a wiSre h' fï ksid mq¿,a fldaKS ldp fndfyda úg ksYamdokh jkafka idfmaCI
jYfhka wvq fõ.S ldp f,i h'

úIu oDIaál;dj

úIu oDIaál;dj iys; ldphlska hï wruqKl ms<sìUqjla ,nd §fï § wruqfKys ;sria iy isria f¾Ld fjka
fjka ia:dkj, kdNs.; ùu isÿ fõ' fï ksid iïmQ¾K wruqfKysu meyeÈ,s ms<sìUqjla fuu fodaIh we;s
ldphlska ,nd .; fkdyel' fuu fodaIh we;sùug fya;= jkafka isria iy ;sria ;;,j, m%pdrKh jk
wdf,dal lsrK tlu ia:dkhl kdNs .; fkdùuhs'
rEm igyk wxl 9 n,kak' fuys by, jïmi fmkajd we;af;a uq,a wruqKhs' my, jïmiska we;s ms<sìUqfõ
wl=rej, isria ixrpl fyd¢ka kdNs.; ù we;s w;r ;sria ixrpl fkdmeyeÈ,s h' my, ol=Kq miska we;s
ms<sìUqfõ ;sria
ria ixrpl meyeÈ,sj kdNs.; ù we;s kuq;a isria fldgia meyeÈ,sj kdNs.; ù fkdue;' by,
ol=Kqmiska fmkajd we;af;a fuu ;sria yd isria kdNs ;,hka fol w;r ia:dkhlg kdNs.; fldg ,nd .;a
ikaksl¾Is; (Compromised) ms<sìUqjhs' úIu oDIaál;dj iys; ldphlska ,nd fok" hï wruqKl
ms<sìUqfjys wÍh (Radial) yd iam¾Il (Tangential) ÈYdjka Tiafia we;s ixrpl w;r o fuu úIu;dj ±lsh
yel'

úIu oDIaál;dj
rEm igyk wxl 9

fuu fodaIh we;sjk wdldrhka folla fõ' ldp moaO;sh" ksIma dok fodaI fyda ldp tl,ia lsÍfï § we;sjk
jerÈ (Misalignment) fya;=fldgf.k tys wCIh jgd iuñ;sl fkdjk úg fuu fodaIh ±lsh yel' tjeks
wjia:djl § wruqK" ldp wCIhg iómj msysgd ;snqk;a ke;;a fuu fodaIh we;s fõ' wks;a w;g ldp
moaO;sh tys wCIh jgd iuñ;slj ks¾udKh ù we;s úg jqjo ldp wCIhg neyeßka msysá wruqKqj, ms<sìUq
fuu fodaIh fmkajhs' tneúka úIu oDIaál;dj
l;dj" uq¿ukskau neyerlr,Su ;rula wmyiq ldp fodaIhls' flfia
jqjo" ksIamdok fodaI iy tl,ia lsÍfï fodaI wju lsÍfuka kùk ldp moaO;sj, ie<lshhq;= ;rñka fuu
fodaIh u. yrjd we;'

fCIa;%fha jl%;djh

fuh f.da,Sh wfmarKhgu iïnkaO w;=re fodaIhla f,i ±laúh yel' f.da,Sh wfmarKfha § isÿ jkafka ldp
wCIhg iómj yd bka neyerj meñfKk wdf,dal lsrK fjkia ia:dkj, kdNs.; ùuhs' fuu yeisÍu ksid
idudkH ldphla u.ska hï wruqKl ms<sìUqjla ,nd .ekSfï § wruqfKys ldp wCIhg iómj msysá fl fldgia
yd bka neyerj msysá fldgia fjka fjka ia:dkj, kdNs .; jk w;r fï ksid kdNs ;,h iu;,hla fkdj
jl%dldr tlla fõ' tfy;a m%dfhda.sl jYfhka leurdjla jeks ms<sìsUq igyka lr.kakd oDIaá WmlrKhl"
WmlrKhl
kdNs;,h jl%dldr yevhlska ;eîu l< fkdyelsh' ta wkqj ldpfha fuu yeisÍu ldp fodaIhla f,i l%h s d
lrhs' rEm igyk wxl 10 ys fuu fodaIfhys n,mEu fmkajd we;'

fCIa;%fha jl%;djh
rEm igyk wxl 10
úlD;sh

úlD;sh hkq ldphla u.ska ,nd fok ms<sìUqjl yevh uq,a wruqfKys yevhg jvd fjkia ùuhs' uQ,sl
jYfhka ldp u.ska ,nd fok ms<sìsUqj, fohdldrhl úlD;sùï ±lsh yel' ta znrKs úlD;shZ iy zoU,
úlD;shZ hkqfjks'

úlD;s fodaIh iys; ldphlska ,nd fok iup;=ri%dldr yevh we;s fldgqj,ska iukaú; ±,l ms<sìUqjla" tys
uq,a iajrEmhg jvd fjkia wdldrhlska úlD;shla iys;j igyka fõ' ldpfha iajNdjh wkqj fuu úlD;sh
nrKs wdldrhg" tkï ueÈka msg;g msïî .sh mßÈ fyda" oU, lr,l yrialvl wdldrhg" tkï fl<jrj,a
W,a jQ mßÈ fyda igyka úh yel' rEm igyka wxl 11 iy 12 n,kak'

nrKs úlD;sh
rEm igyk wxl 11

oU, úlD;sh
rEm igyk wxl 12

úlD;sh we;sùug fya;= jkafka ldphl" ldp wCIhg iómj msyá s fldgiaj,ska yd bka neyerj msyá
s
fldgiaj,ska ,nd fok úYd,kh (Magnification) fjkia ùu hs' ldp wCIhg iómj msysá fldgfia
úYd,khg jvd bka neyer fldgfia úYd,kh wvq kï nrKs úlD;sh;a" ldp wCIhg iómj msysá fld
fldgfia
úYd,khg jvd bka neyer fldgfia úYd,kh jeä kï oU, úlD;sh;a we;s fõ'

we;eñ úg fuu úlD;Ska foflysu ixl,khla f,ig zrjq¿ úlD;sh (Moustache distortion)Z kñka
ye¢kafjk úlD;sùula o ±lsh yel' fuys § wruqfKys ir, f¾Ldjka" Wvq /jq<l wdldrhg ueÈka my,g
jla jQ iy fl<jrj,a by,g jla jQ iajrEmhlska ms<sìUqj ;=, ±lsh yels fõ'
fõ rEm igyk wxl 13 n,kak'
ksis mßÈ ksuyï fkdlrk ,o ksIamdok fodaI iys; ldpj, rjq¿ úlD;sh we;s úh yel'

wvq kdNs ÿr iys; mq¿,a fldaKS ldpj, úlD;sh fndfyda ÿrg ±lsh yel' úfYaIfhka b;d jeä oY_K fldaK
iys;" u;aiHdCIs ldp (Fish eye lenses) j,ska ,efnk ms<sìUqj, úlD;sh wksjdhH_ jQjls' u;aiHdCIs ldp
f,i ye¢kafjkafka oY_K fldaKh 1200 g jeä mq¿,a fldaKs ldp h' 1800 l oY_K fldaKhla iys; u;aiHdCIs
ldphla u.ska Bg bÈßfhka we;s ;%us dk jQ wO_ f.da,hl jmißfha we;s oY_Kh yl=,d" oaúudk jQ mg,h u;g
,nd fohs' ;%sudk jQ oY_Kh oaúudk njg m;aùfï § wksjdhH_fhkau úlD;s ùï we;s fõ' 1800 g wvq oY_K
fldaK iys; ldpj,o fuu úlD;sùu hï m%udKhlg we;s fõ' 1300 l oY_K fldaKhlska hq;a 16 mm kdNsÿr
iys; ldphlska .;a PdhdrEmhla rEm igyk wxl 14 ys ±la fõ' tys ;sria CIs;sch f¾Ldj jl% j igyka ù
we;s wdldrh Tng ksÍCIKh l< yels h' fuu ms<sìUqj b;d wêl jYfhka nrKs úlD;shg Ndckh ù we;'
 rjq¿ úlD;sh
rEm igyk wxl 13

u;aiHdCIs ldphlska .;a wêl f,i úlD;shg ,la jQ PdhdrEmhla

rEm igyk wxl 14

kQ;k leurd ldpj, by; i|yka l< úúOdldr jQ fodaI u.yerùu fyda wju lsÍu isÿ lr we;af;a ;ks
ldp fjkqjg ldp fldgia lsysmhlska iukaú; ixhql; a ldp Ndú;fhks' we;eï leurd ldp ks¾udKh ù
we;af;a ldp fldgia 10 la fyda jeä .Kkla tl,ia lsÍfuks' fujeks ixhql;
a leurd ldp
ldphl yrialvla rEm
igyk wxl 15ys olajd we;'

kQ;k leurd ldphl yrialvla

rEm igyk wxl 15
mrdj¾;s; wdf,dalfha n,mEu

fuu wdldrhg ixhqla; ldp Ndú;h u.ska ldp fodaI msgq ±lSug yels jqj o" ldp fldgia .Kk jeäùu;a
iu. jeä ÈhqKqjk fjk;a fodaIhla fjhs' tkï ldpj, mDIaGhkays § we;sjk wkjYH mrdj¾;khka
fya;=fldgf.k we;sjk oaù;Shsl ms<sìUqj,ska we;sjk n,mEuhs' fï ksid tu wkjYH mrdj¾;khka wju l<
hq;= h'

kùk ;dCIKfha ÈhqKqj;a iu. fuu .eg¿j i|yd b;du;a ldhH_CIu úi÷ula ,eî we;' tkï ldp
wdf,amhhs' fuys§ ldp fldgiaj, mDIaGhka u; ldp wdf,amh b;du;a ishqï f,i kefkda óg¾ lsysmhl
>klug wdf,am lrkq ,efí'

ldp wdf,amh fh§u iïnkaO isoaOdka;h b;du;a is;a.kakd iq¿ jQjla jk w;r" thska ,efnk m%;sM,h
fnfyúka ldhH_CIu jQjls' th fuys my; úia;r fõ'

ldp wdf,amh

wdf,dalh m%pdrKh jkafka ;rx. wdldrhg nj Tn okakd lreKls' fujeks ;rx. folla tla jQ úg ,fnk
iïm%hqla; wdf,dal ;rx.fha iajNdjh" tu ;rx. w;r l,d wka;rh (Phase difference) wkqj ;SrKh fõ'
;rx. w;r l,d wka;rhla fkdue;s kï" tkï ;rx. folu l,dj w;ska iudk kï" ,efnk iïm%hqla;
;rx.fha úia;drh" ixl,kh jQ ;rx.hkaf.a úia;drhka ys tl;=jg iudk fõ' ta wkqj fuys § wdf,dal
;Sj%;dj jeä fõ' wks;a w;g wod, ;rx." l,dj w;ska m%;súreoaO kï" ;rx. ixl,kh ùfï § tlsfkl
ksfYaOkh ù hhs'

ldp wdf,amh fhdokq ,nkafka ldp mDIaGfhka iy ldp wdf,am ia:rfha u;=msáka ;Sj%;djfhka iudk" tfy;a
l,dj w;ska m%;súreoaO jk f,i mrdj¾;khka we;s ù tu mrdj¾;s; ;rx. tlsfkl ksfYaOkh jk
wdldrhg h' rEm igyk wxl 16 n,kak'

ldp wdf,amh ms<sn| isoaOdka;h

rEm igyk wxl 15

fuys I hkqfjka fmkajd we;af;a ldph u; m;kh jk wdf,dal ;rx.h jk w;r T hkq ldph ;=,ska .uka
lrk ;rx.hhs' I ;rx.fhka fldgila ldp wdf,am ia:rh u;=msg § mrdj¾;kh jk w;r ;j;a fldgila
ldp mDIaGh u; § mrdj¾;kh fõ' ldp wdf,amh u;ska mrdj¾;kh jQ ;rx.h R1 f,i;a" ldp mDIaGh
u;ska mrdj¾;kh jQ ;rx.h R2 f,i;a fuys fmkajd we;' wdf,dal ;rx.fha ;rx. wdhduh l jk w;r"
ldp wdf,amh fhdod we;af;a l/4 l >klug h' fï ksid R2 ;rx.h" ldp wdf,am ia:rfha u;=msgg kej;
meñfKk úg R1 ;rx.hg jvd l/2 ÿrla jeämqr .uka lr we;' fuu fjki fya;=fldgf.k R1 yd R2
;rx.j, l,djka iïmQ¾Kfhka u tlsfkl m%;súreoaO fõ' ta wkqj R1 yd R2 ;rx. tlsfkl ksfYaOkh ù
hk w;r mrdj¾;s; wdf,dalhka iïmQ¾Kfhka u ke;sj hhs'

10
by; ixisoaêh kshñ; wdldrfhka yd ij_ iïmQ¾K f,i isÿùug kï" ldp wdf,amh u;ska yd ldp mDIaGh
u;ska isÿjk mrdj¾;khka ;Sj%;djfhka iudk úh hq;= fõ' fufia isÿùug kï ;j;a wjYH;djhla iïmQ¾K
úh hq;=j we;'

ldp wdf,am øjHfha j¾;k wxlh;a jd;fha j¾;k wxlh;a iudk jqjfyd;a ldp wdf,amh u;=msáka lsisÿ
mrdj¾;khla isÿ fkdjkq we;' fumßÈ u ldp wdf,am øjHfha j¾;k wxlh;a ldp øjHfha j¾;k wxlh;a
iudk jqjfyd;a ldp mDIaGfha § lsisÿ mrdj¾;khla isÿ fkdjkq o we;' ta wkqj ldp wdf,am øjHfha j¾;k
wxlh" jd;fha j¾;k wxlh;a ^fuu w.h 1'00 g b;du wdikak jk neúka tu w.h 1'00 f,i ie,fla&"
ldp øjHfha j¾;k wxlh;a w;r" w;rueÈ w.hl ;sìh hq;= fõ' by; úia;r l< mßÈ ldp wdf,amh u;ska
yd ldp mDIaGh u;ska iudk mrdj¾;khka isÿùug kï" ldp wdf,am øjHfha j¾;k wxlh jk n1 ys w.h"
jd;fha j¾;k wxlh jk n0 yd ldp øjHfha j¾;k wxlh jk ns ys .=Ks;fha j¾.uQ,hg iudk úh hq;= nj
.Ks;uh jYfhka fmkaúh yel' ^,smsfhys ixlS¾K;ajh jeä jk neúka fuys jeäuk;a .Ks;uh lreKq
fuys§ idlÉPd fkdflf¾&' fuu iïnkaO;djh iólrKhl wdldrfhka fufia ±laúh yel'

n1 = (n0 n s ) 1/2

n0 ys w.h 1'00 g wdikak neúka by; iólrKh n1 = ( n s ) 1/2 f,ig ,súh yel'

ldp mDIaGhkays § we;sjk wkjYH mrdj¾;khka ms<sn| .eg¿j fu;ekska ksu ù hhs Tn is;sh hq;= ke;'
Tn o okakd mßÈ oDIH wdf,dalfha ;rx. wdhduh kefkda óg¾ 400 ^oï meyeh& isg kefkda óg¾ 700 ^r;=
meyeh& olajd jk mrdihl úys§ mj;S' tfiau lsishï ldp øjHhla iïnkaOfhka jqj o tla tla meyefha
j¾;k wxlhka o fjkia h' fï ksid ldp wdf,amh i|yd fhÈh hq;= øjHfha j¾;k wxlh fuka u wdf,amh
fhÈh hq;= >klu o jK_h wkqj fjkia jk neúka fhÈh hq;= wdf,am øjHh l=ulao hkak fukau wdf,amh
fhÈh hq;= >klu ms<sn|j o .eg¿jla mek k.S'

fuu .eg¿j i|yd ij_ iïmQ¾K úi÷ula ,nd .ekSu l< fkdyelafla by; lS oDIH wdf,dal mrdih ;=,
tlsfklg fjkia j¾;k wxlhka fukau ;rx. wdhduhka o úYd, m%udKhla jk neúks' fuys § ldp wdf,am
øjHhka úYd, ixLHdjla wjYH jk w;r tu wdf,amhka fhÈh hq;= >klu o øjHfhka øjHhg fjkia jkq
we;' flfia jqj o fuys § m%dfhda.sl jYfhka ms<s.;yels úi÷ula ,nd .ekSu l< yels h'

ta iqÿ wdf,dalfha m%Odk;u ix>glhka jk r;=" fld, iy ks,a hk meyehka f.a j¾;k wxlhka iy ;rx.
wdhduhka muKla ie<ls,a,g f.k Bg iß,k j¾;k wxlhka iys; ldp wdf,am øjH f;dardf.k thg
wkqrEm jQ >klïj,g ldp wdf,amhka lsysmhla fh§uhs' fuu ;dCIKh kQ;k leurd ldp iïnkaOfhka
fhfok w;r th nyq wdf,amkh (Multy coating) f,i ±la fõ'

uq,a hq.fha § ldp wdf,amhka i|yd fhdod.;a øjH jQfha ue.aki s ï *a¨fjdrhsâ (MgF2) iy ìiau;a Tlaihsâ
S h
(BiO2) hk tajd h' fï jk úg by; øjHhkag wu;rj is,slka vfhdlaihsâ (SiO2) " ghsfÜkshï vfhdlaihsâ
(TiO2) hk øjH fuka u *a¨fjdfrdafmd,su¾ (Fluoropolymers) ye¢kafjk ixlS¾K ridhk ixfhda.hka o
Ndú;d fõ' fï wdldrfhka ldp wdf,amhka fh§u u.ska wkjYH mrdj¾;khka ms<sn| .eg¿j uq¿uksku a
úi|d .; fkdyels jqjo m%dfhda.sl Ndú;hkag wkqj th ms<s.;yels úi÷uls'

leurd ldp iïnkaO uQ,sl lreKq

leurd ldp iïnkaOj jk fuu úia;rh ;j ÿrg;a lrf.k hdug fmr" tu ldp iïnkaOfhka jk uQ,sl
;dCIKsl lreKq lsysmhla bosrsm;a lsÍu wjYH hhs yefÕa' fuu lreKq mdGlhd oekgu;a okakd tajd jqj o
tu lreKq isysm;a lr .ekSu m%fhdackj;a h' wks;a w;g tu uQ,sl jHdlrKhkag wod, jeäuk;a lreKq
idlÉPd lsÍu o wjYH h'

leurd ldphla ms<sn|j i|yka lsÍfï § tys kdNSh ÿr iy úYd,u ldp újr w.h ^f wxlh& idudkHfhka
m%ldY flf¾' m%Odk jYfhkau leurd ldphl kdNSh ÿr u; thska ,nd fok ms<sìUqj, pß; ,CIK r|d
mj;S' kdNSh ÿr wvq jk úg ldph úiska yiq lr.kakd oY_Kfha mq¿,a nj jeä fõ' fï ksid wruqKq
PdhdrEmh u; igyka jkafka l=vdjg h' wks;a w;g ldpfha kdNSh ÿr jeä jk úg oY_Kfha mq¿,a nj wvq
fõ' oY_Kfhka l=vd fldgila muKla" idfmaCI jYfhka wvq kdNsh ÿr iys; ldphlska ,nd fok wdldrhg
jvd jeä mßudKhlska PdhdrEmh u; igyka fõ' rEm igyk wxl 16 ys fmkajd we;s PdhdrEm n,kak' fuu
PdhdrEm lÜg,h /f.k we;af;a ñ,sógr 35 m%udKfha leurdjlska tla tla kdNSh ÿr iys; ldp Ndú;d
lsÍfuks' wvq kdNSh ÿr iys; ldph u.ska f.k we;s PdhdrEmhg mßirfha úYd, fmfoila yiq lrf.k
we;' kdNSh ÿr jeäùu;a iu. PdhdrEmfha oY_K fldaKh wvq jk nj;a" wruqKqj, idfmaCI m%udKh úYd,
jk nj;a Tng fmfkkq we;' kdNSh ÿr wvq ldpj, meyeÈ,s f,iu ±lsh yels úlD;s ùu fya;=fldgf.k
ñ,sógr 16 kdNSh ÿr iys; ldph u.ska .kakd ,o PdhdrEmfha we;s wruqKqj, isria f¾Ld jl%j igyka ù
we;s wdldrh o ksÍCIKh l< yels h'

11
 kdNSh ÿr iu. PdhdrEmfha wruqKj
q , idfmaCI m%udKhka fjkia jk wdldrh
rEm igyk wxl 16

PdhdrEm.; lrk wruqKqj, idfmaCI m%udKh iy oY_K fldaKh fjkiaùug wu;rj" ldpfha kdNSh ÿr"
PdhdrEmfha wvx.=jk wruqKq w;r úYd,;ajfha fjki" tkï h:do¾YSh fmkqu (Perspective) flfrys o
n,mdhs' fuu lreK rEm igyk wxl 17 hgf;a fmkajd we;s PdhdrEm u.ska meyeÈ,s l< yel'

tu PdhdrEm /f.k we;af;a fjkia kdNSh ÿr iys; ldpj,sks' tfy;a m%Odk wruqK jk ksrEmsldjf.a
rEmfha m%udKh o, jYfhka iudk jk mßÈ igyka ù we;af;a kdNSh ÿr jeä ùu;a iu. m%Odk wruqK yd
leurdj w;r ÿr jeä jk wdldrhg leurdfõ msysàu fjkia lr we;s ksid h' m%Odk wruqfKys m%udKh
iudk jqj o" wjg mßirfha we;s wksl=;a wruqKq PdhdrEmhg wvx.= ù we;s wdldrh iy tajd w;r m%udKfha
fjkialï o wkqj fulS PdhdrEmj, pß; ,CIK tlsfklg fjkia nj fmfkkq we;'

kdNSh ÿr iu. PdhdrEmfha wruqKq w;r h:do¾YSh fmkqu fjkia jk wdldrh

rEm igyk wxl 17

fuu lreK ;j ÿrg;a meyeÈ,s j jgyd .ekSug rEm igyk wxl 18 ys olajd we;s PdhdrEm n,kak'
leurdfõ isg tlsfklg fjkia ÿr m%udKhka ys we;s wem,a f.ä folla ms<sfj,ska ñ,sógr 15" 50 iy 135
kdNSh ÿr iys; ldp u.ska .;a PdhdrEm ;=kla tys ±la fõ' bÈßfhka we;s wem,a f.äfha m%udKh fuu
PdhdrEm ;=fkys u iudk jk wdldrhg leurdfõ msysàu fuys o fjkia lr we;' ñ,sógr 15 ldpfhka .;a
PdhdrEmfha" miqmiska we;s wem,a f.äh" bÈßfhka we;s wem,a f.ähg idfmaCIj l=vdjg igyka j we;'
tfy;a ñ,sógr 135 ldpfhka .;a PdhdrEmfha fï folu idfmaCI jYfhka iudk j igyka ù we;' tfiau
ñ,sógr 135 ldpfhka .;a PdhdrEmfha" wem,a f.ä w;r ÿr ^.eUqr& wvq j we;s njla fmkajhs'

kdNSh ÿr jeä ùu;a iu. PdhdrEmfha wruqKq w;r oDIH .eUqr wvq jk wdldrh
rEm igyk wxl 18

ldphl kdNSh ÿr u; r|d mj;sk ;j;a jeo.;a pß; ,CIKhla jkafka fCIa;% .eUqrhs' ieneúkau fCIa;%
.eUqr kdNSh ÿr muKla fkdj ldp újr w.h iy leurdfõ isg wod, wruqKg we;s ÿr u; o r|d mj;S'
fuu mrdñ;Ska u; fCIa;% .eUqr r|d mj;sk wdldrh fï wkaoñka isysm;a lr .ksuq'

12
 1' kdNSh ÿr jeä ùu;a iu. fCIa;% .eUqr wvq fõ’
2' ldp újr w.h ^f wxlh& úYd, ùu;a iu." tkï ldp újrfha úIalïNh wvq ùu;a iu.
fCIa;% .eUqr jeä fõ'
3' leurdj kdNs .; lr we;s wruqKg leurdfõ isg we;s ÿr ^jia;= ÿr& jeä jk úg fCIa;%
.eUqr jeä fõ'

by; olajd we;s lreKqj,ska wxl 1 yd 2 uq¿uksku a i;H jqj o wxl 3 i;H jkafka ±ä t,a, ¥rh
(Hyperfocal Distance) kñka y÷kajk tla;rd iSudjla olajd muKs' jia;= ÿr tlS iSudj olajd jeä ùfï §
fCIa;% .eUqr o Bg wkqrEmj jeä fõ' bka Tíng jia;= ÿr jeä ùfï § fCI;% .eUqr hï m%udKhla olajd wvq
ù" jia;= ÿr wkka;h jk úg fCIa;% .eUqr iSudldÍ w.hlg t<fò' fï wkqj ±ä t,a, ¥rfha oS fCIa;% .eUqr
Wmßu fõ'

fCIa;% .eUqr .Kkh lsÍu i|yd jHq;amkak lr we;s .Ks;uh iólrK fuys my; olajd we;s mßÈ fõ'

meyeÈ,sj kdNs .;jk uE;u ÿr (Dn)

Dn = DF2 .
2
F + Dcf

meyeÈ,sj kdNs .;jk wE;u ÿr (Df)

Df = DF2 .
2
F - Dcf

Wmßu fCIa;% .eUqr ,efnk ±ä t,a, ¥rh (H) i|yd iólrKh

H = F2 .
cf

by; iólrKj, D, F, f yd c hk mo Ndú;d lr we;af;a my; ±lafjk ixLHdjka i|yd h'

D = leurdj kdNs.; fldg we;s ÿr m%udKh

F = ldpfha kdNSh ÿr
f = ldp újr w.h (f wxlh)
c = úms,shd ljfha úIalïNh

by; wjidkhg i|yka úms,shd ljfha úIalïNh hkak uola meyeÈ,s l< hq;=j we;' Tn lsishï ÿr
m%udKhl isg mshú weiska jD;a;hl rEmhla krUñka isákafka hhs is;kak' tu jD;a;fha úIalïNh l%ufhka
l=vd lrf.k hk úg" tla;rd wjia:djl § th jD;a;hla f,i fkdj ;s;la f,i fmfkkakg mgka .kS'
fufia ;s;la f,i fmfkkakg mgka.kakd wjia:dfõ § tlS jD;a;fha úIalïNh úms,shd ljfha úIalïNh
f,i ±la fõ'

úms,shd ljfha úIalïNh" krUkakdf.a wefiys fmkSu wkqj fukau krUk ÿr wkqj o r|d mj;S' weia fmkSu
b;du;a úYsIag uÜgfï mj;sk wfhl= f.a úms,shd ljfha úIalïNh fnfyúka wvq w.hla fõ' krUk ÿr wvq
jk úg o úms,shd ljfha úIalïNh wvq fõ'

úms,shd ljfha úIalïNh b;du;a wvq w.hla" tkï Y+kHh lrd wdikak ùfï §" meyeÈ,sj kdNs .; jk
uE;u ÿr (Dn) yd wE;u ÿr (Df) i|yd by; olajd we;s iólrK foflysu ol=Kq me;a; D hk ixLHdjg
W!Kkh jk nj Tng fmfkkq we;' ta wkqj tjeks ;;a;ajhla hgf;a § meyeÈ,sj kdNs.;jk uE;u ÿr;a"
wE;u ÿr;a hk folu leurdj kdNs.;lr we;s ÿr m%udKh (D) fõ' tkï fuys § fuu foflys wka;rh jk
fCIa;% .eUqr Y+kHhg wdikak fõ' ta wkqj fCIa;% .eUqr hk ixl,amh wmf.a wefiys mj;akd ÿ¾j,lula
uq,alr.;a m%dfhda.sl lreKla ñi ieneúka u mj;akd fohla fkdjk nj Tng wjfndaO jkq we;'

uyu. hfkk úg § Tng olskakg ,efnk úYd, m%udKfha ixo¾Yk mqjrej, fmkS isák m%isoaO
mqoa.,hskaf.a rEm" tys yqjd olajd we;s fYdaNk;ajfhka iy iql=ud, núka hq;=j ±lsh yelafla tajd wE; isg
krUk ;dla l,a muKs' jvd;a ,x j keröfï §" fCIa;% .eUqr kï jQ ñ:Hdj fukau wfkl=;a ñ:Hdjka o Tng
fyd¢ka n,d .; yelsjkq we;'

fuu idlÉPdjg we;=,;a l< hq;= hhs yefÕk ;j;a lreKla kï fndfyda PdhdrEm Ys,amSka muKla fkdj
we;eï úoHd¾Òka o ;=," fCIa;% .eUqr iïnkaOfhka we;s ñ:Hd úYajdihka h' thska tlla jkafka leurdj hï

13
wruqKlg kdNs.;l< úg" leurdfõ isg tu wruqKg we;s ÿfrka 1/3 l m%udKhla fmrìñka msysá ia:dkhl
isg" wruqfKys isg wkka;h olajd we;s ÿfrka 2/3 l m%udKhla miqìñka we;s ia:dkhla olajd jk fCIa;%
.eUqrla ,efnk njhs' fuu woyi foaYShj muKla fkdj úfoaYSh Ys,amSka ;=, o uq,a nei.;a tlls' tfy;a
fCIa;% .eUqr hk ixLHdj mrdñ;Ska lsysmhla u; r|d mj;skakla neúka by; i|yka l< wdldrfha ixCIsma;
kS;shla f.dvk.d.; fkdyels nj lsj hq;=j we;'

fCIa;% .eUqr iïnkaOj jk ;j;a ms<s.;a lreKla jkafka jeäu fCIa;% .eUqrla ,eîu i|yd leurd ldpfha
we;s l=vdu ldp újrh Ndú;d l< hq;= njhs' by; olajd we;s .Ks; iólrK wkqj o fuh meyeÈ,s h'
tfy;a m%dfhda.sl ;;a;ajh th fkdfõ' Wmßu fCIa;% .eUqrla ,nd .ekSu Wfoid leurd ldphl we;s l=vdu
ldp újrh Ndú;d lsÍu fya;= folla ksid fhda.H fkdfõ' tlla kï idudkHfhka ldpj, olakg ,efnk
fodaI hï leurd ldphl ksjerÈ lr we;af;a tys uOHia: ldp újr m%udKhka i|yd jk w;r wju fukau
Wmßu újrhkays § tlS fodaIj, n,mEu ±lsh yels ùuhs' wfkla lreK kï b;d l=vd újr ;=,ska wdf,dalh
.uka lsÍfï § we;sjk wdf,dal új¾;kh (Diffraction of Light) kï jQ ixisoaêh fya;=fldgf.k" l=vd
ldp újr m%udKhkays § ms<sìUqj, ;shqKq nj wvq ùuhs' ta wkqj Wmßu .eUqrla ,nd .ekSu i|yd Ndú;d l<
hq;af;a leurdjl l=vdu ldp újrh fkdj Bg kej;=ï tllska fyda follska muK úYd, jQ B<Õ újrhhs'

leurd ldp j¾.SlrKh

ldp ;dCIKfha we;s jQ w;s YS>% ÈhqKqj fya;=fldgf.k fï jk úg b;d úYsIag jQ m%;sM, ,nd fok ishqï
ls%hdldß;ajfhka hq;a tfukau úúO wjYH;d i|yd Ndú;d l< yels" leurd fuka u wfkl=;a oDIaá
WmlrKj,g wod, ldp j._ úYd, m%udKhla ±kg fj<|fmd,g tlaj we;' ldpj, wNHka;r jHqyh yd
ls%hdldß;ajh mokï fldgf.k tajd j¾.SlrKh lrkafka kï ldp j._ w;s úYd, ixLHdjla ms<sn|j i|yka
lsÍug isÿ fõ' tfy;a ,nd fok m%;sM, mokï lrf.k ldp j¾.SlrKh jvd iqÿiq fõ' tu ldp j._
ms<sn|j ixlaIsma; jYfhka oeka úuid n,uq' leurd i|yd ksmojd we;s ldp ,ndfok m%;sM, wkqj my;
±lafjk mßÈ j¾.SlrKh l< yel'

1' iïu; ldp (Standard or Normal Lenses)

2' ÿr fiahd ldp (Telephoto Lenses)
3' mq¿,a fldaKS ldp (Wide Angle Lenses)
4' hqyquq ldp (Zoom Lenses)
5' u;aiHdCIs ldp (Fisheye Lenses)
6' ióm rEm ldp (Macro Lenses)
7' iQCIau ldp (Micro Lenses)
8' i¾mk ldp (Shift Lenses)

iïu; ldp

hï leurdjla i|yd jk iïu; ldph hkq idudkHfhka wfma oDIaá m:hg yiqjk oY_K fldaKh jk 45 0 l
muK oY_K fldaKhla iys; ldphhs' leurdjl mg, rduqfõ m%udKh wkqj" fuu oY_K fldaKh ,nd fok
ldpfhys kdNSh ÿr ;SrKh fõ' ñ,sógr 35 m%udKfha leurdjla iïnkaOfhka i,lk úg iïu; ldpfhys
kdNSh ÿr ñ,sógr 50 la fõ' 120 m%udKfha 1B wdlD;sh iys; leurdjla kï tys iïu; ldpfha kdNSh ÿr
ñ,sógr 75 la o" 120 m%udKfha 2B wdlD;sh i|yd th ñ,sógr 105 la o fõ'

ÿr fiahd ldp

iïu; ldpfha kdNSh ÿrg jvd jeä kdNSh ÿr iys; ldp ÿr fiahd ldp f,i ±laúh yels h' ÿr fiahd
ldpj, oY_K fldaKh iïu; ldpfha oY_K fldaKhg jvd wvq w.hls' ÿr fiahd ldp u.ska wE;ska msysá
wruqKqj, ms<sìUq" idfmaCI jYfhka iïu; ldphlska ,nd fokjdg jvd úYd, mßudKhlska hq;=j ,nd fohs'
rEm igyk wxl 16 ys olajd we;s PdhdrEm u.ska fuu lreK meyeÈ,s fõ'

mq¿,a fldaKS ldp

mq¿,a fldaKS ldpj,ska" iïu; ldpfhka ,nd fok ms<sìUqj,g jvd mq¿,a jQ mrdihl oY_Kh mg, rduqj u;
,nd fohs' kñka u mejfik mßÈ" mq¿,a fldaKS ldpj, oY_K fldaKh" iïu; ldpfha oY_K fldaKhg jvd
jeä w.hla .kS' mq¿,a fldaKS ldphlska .kq ,nk PdhdrEmhl" wod, wruqKq igyka jkafka idfmaCI
jYfhka l=vd mßudKhlsks' rEm igyk wxl 16 ys olajd we;s PdhdrEm lÜg,fha ñ,sógr 35" 28" 24" 20 yd
16 kdNSh ÿr iys; ldpj,ska .kakd ,o PdhdrEm n,kak' kdNSh ÿr wvq ùu;a iu. oY_Kfha mq¿,a nj
jeäjk wdldrh Tng ksÍCIKh l< yels jkq we;' tfiau mq¿,a fldaKS ldpj, wksjdhH_fhkau ±lsh yels
úlD;s ùu fya;=fldgf.k oY_Kfha we;s iDcq f¾Ld ms<sìUqj ;=, jl%j igyka ù we;s wdldrh o ±l .;
yels fõ'

14
hqyquq ldp

ldp udre lsÍulska f;drj úúO kdNs ¥rhka ,nd .ekSu Wfoid hqyquq ldp Ndú;d fõ' ia:djr kdNs ¥r iys;
ldpj, fuka fkdj hqyquq ldpj, wvx.= jk ldp fldgia ldKavj,g fnod ixhqla; ldph ;=, wka;¾.; lr
we;s w;r fuu ldKav tlsfklg idfmaCIj tajdfha msysàus fjkia l< yels wdldrhg ks¾udKh lr we;'
ldp ldKav w;r idfmaCI msysàu fjkia lsÍfï § iuia; ldpfha kdNs ¥rh fjkia fõ'

uq,a hq.fha § ks¾udKh jQ hqyquq ldpj, we;s ldp ldKavj, idfmaCI msysàu fjkia lrk úg ldpfha iuia;
È. m%udKfha o fjkiaùula olakg ,enqK's tfy;a j¾;udkfha ksIamdokh jk fndfyda kQ;k hqyquq ldpj,
hqyquq ls%hdj,sh isÿjkafka ldph wNHka;rfha we;s ldp ldKavhla fyda folla wksl=;a ldKavj,g idfmaCIj
ish msysàu fjkia lr .ekSu u.sks' fï ksid hqyquq ls%hdj,sfha § ldpfha iuia; Èf.ys fjkila fndfyda úg
isÿ fkdfõ'

hqyquq ldpj, fõ.h" tkï tys Wmßu ldp újr w.h o ldpfha hqyquq msysàu wkqj iq¿ jYfhka fjkia fõ'
fufia isÿ jkafka ldph tla hqyquq msysàul isg ;j;a tllg fjkia jk úg ldp újrh msysgj
q d we;s ia:dkh
o ldp ldKavj,g idfmaCIj fjkia jk ksid h' tjeks fjkia ùula isÿ jk úg ldph ;=,ska .uka lrk
wdf,dal loïnfha j¾;k rgdj o fjkia jk ksid fN!;sl jYfhka ldp újrfha m%udKfha fjkia ùula isÿ
fkdjqj o tys iM, ldp újr m%udKh fjkia fõ' hqyquq ldphla kdulrKfha § 35 - 105 mm / f 3.5 - 4.5
hk wdldrhg i|yka lr ;sfnkq ±lsh yel' thska woyia jkafka ldpfha kdNs ¥rh ñ,sógr 35 isg 105
olajd fjkia l< yels w;r" ñ,sógr 35 wka;fha § tys ldp fõ.h f 3'5 la jk nj;a" ñ,sóg¾ 105 wka;fha
§ th f 4'5 la jk nj;a h'

flfia jqjo kdNs ¥rh úYd, mrdihlska fjkia l< yels hqyquq ldp olakg fkd,efí' ldp fodaI u.yerùu
b;du;a wiSre neúka tjeks ldp ksIamdokh m%dfhda.sl fkdfõ' hqyquq ldphl Wmßu kdNs ¥rh iy wju kdNs
¥rh w;r wkqmd;h tys hqyquq wkqmd;h (Zoom Ratio) f,i ±lafõ' idudkHfhka hqyquq ldphl olakg yels
Wmßu hqyquq wkqmd;h 15 la blaujkafka ke;'

we;eï ùäfhda leurdj, hqyquq wkqmd;h 400 la fyda 500 la jYfhka i|yka lr ;sfnkq ±lsh yel' tfy;a
fuh tla;rd wdldrhl fj<| m%fhda.hls' tjeks leurdjl" tys oDIaá moaO;sfha ls%hdldß;ajh u.ska ,nd.;
yels hqyquq wkqmd;h by; i|yka l< mßÈ 15 la jeks w.hl mj;sk w;r 400 la fyda 500 la jeks hqyquq
wkqmd;hla ,nd .kafka Wmßu hqyquq msysàfï § ,efnk rEmh úYd,kh fldg oDIaá rduqfõ m%udKh
;ndf.k wksla fldgia lmd yeÍu u.sks' fï wdldrhg hqyquq m%;sM,hla ,nd .ekSu y÷kajkafka ixLHdxl
hqyquq lsÍu (Digital Zooming) kñks' idudkH ixLHdxl rEmhla iukaú; jkafka mslai,a kñka y÷kajk l=vd
;s;a u.ska jk w;r tjeks rEmhla úYd,kh lsÍfï § tu mslai,aj, m%udKh o úYd,kh jk ksid rEmfha
;shqKq nj ie<lshhq;= ;rñka wvq fõ' fï ksid by; lS hqyquq wkqmd;h fldgia follg fnod ±laùu wjYH
fõ' ta oDIaáuh hqyquq wkqmd;h iy ixLHdxl hqyquq wkqmd;h jYfhks' ieneúka u jeo.;a jkafka oDIaáuh
hqyquq wkqmd;hhs' tneúka ixLHdxl ;dCIKh Ndú;djk ùäfhda fyda ksYap, leurd iïnkaOfhka ie<ls,su;a
úh hq;af;a tys oDIaáuh hqyquq wkqmd;h ms<sn|j h'

u;aiHdCIs ldp

oY_K fldaKh 1200 blaujk mq¿,a fldaKS ldp" u;aiHdCIs ldp f,i ye¢kafjk w;r tajdhska b;du;a wêl
mq¿,a fldaKS m%;sM, ,nd fohs' u;aiHfhl= f.a oY_K m:h fujeks wdldrfha mq¿,a iajNdjhla .kakd ksid
fuu ldp u;aiHdCIs ldp f,i ye¢ka fõ' u;aiHdCIs ldp u.ska 1800 la fyda Bg;a jeä oY_K fldaKhkaf.ka
hqla;j PdhdrEm ,nd .; yels h' flfia jqjo u;aiHdCIs ldp u.ska hï oY_Khla PdhdrEm .; lsÍfï § th
w;sYhska úlD;shg Ndckh jk nj o lsj hq;= h' rEm igyk wxl 19 ys fujeks u;aiHdCIs ldpj,ska ,nd
.;a PdhdrEm folla fmkajd we;' tajd fl;rï úlD;shlg ,laj we;s±hs n,kak'

u;aiHdCIs ldp u.ska ,nd .;a wêl f,i úlD;shg Ndckh jQ PdhdrEm
rEm igyk wxl 19

15
ióm rEm ldp iy iQCIau ldp

idudkHfhka leurdjl ldph kdNs .; l< yels wju ÿrla ;sfí' fuu ÿr m%udKh ldpfha kdNs ¥rh wkqj
fuka u ldpfha ks¾udKh wkqj o r|d mj;S' iïu; ldphla iïnkaOfhka fuu wju ÿr m%udKh ñ,sógr
500 la 600 la muK úh yel' ldphla hï wruqKlg kdNs .; lsÍfï § isÿjkafka ldph;a kdNs ;,h;a w;r
ÿr fjkia ùuhs' <Õska msysá wruqKq kdNs.; lsÍug ldph iy kdNs ;,h w;r ÿr jeä l< hq;= h'
idudkHfhka ldphla ks¾udKh lsÍfï § fuu ÿr hï Wmßu iSudjl ;nk ksid b;du;a <Õska msysá wruqKq
kdNs.; lsÍu l< fkdyels h' tfy;a ióm rEm msysàug ilia l< yels f,i úfYaIfhka ks¾udKh lrk ,o
ióm rEm ldp Ndú;fhka tjeks wruqKq meyeÈ,sj PdhdrEm .;l< yel'

idudkH fyda ÿr fiahd ldphla iy leurdj w;rg È.= lsÍfï j,¨ (Extension Tubes) fyda È.= lsÍfï
m%dÖrhla iúfldg Ndú;d lsÍfuka ióm rEm ldphlska ,efnk m%;sM,h ,nd.; yel' È.= lsÍfï m%dÖrhla
iu. ldphla iïnkaO l< leurdjla rEm igyk wxl 20 ys fmkajd we;' fujeks È.= lsÍfï m%dÖr iu.
iqÿiq ldp Ndú;fhka Ôjudk m%udKhgo jvd hï iSudjla olajd úYd,kh jQ ms<sìUq ,nd .; yel' tfia
cSjudk m%udKhg jvd ie<lsh hq;= ;rñka úYd,kh fldg wruqKq PdhdrEm .; lsÍu ye¢kafjkafka iQCIau
PdhdrEmlrKh f,i h' úoHd;aul iy ffjoHuh lghq;= i|yd fujeks wdldrfha iQCIau PdhdrEm .ekSu
wjYH jk w;r" tys § leurdj wkaùCIhla iu. iïnkaO fldg PdhdrEm .ekSu i|yd ksmojd we;s Wmdx.
o Ndú;d fõ'

È.= lsÍfï m%dÖrhla iu. ldphla iïnkaO l< leurdjla

rEm igyk wxl 20

ióm rEm (Macro) PdhdrEmlrKh" iQCIau PdhdrEmlrKfhka fjkiajk iSudj f,i ms<s.kafka Ôjudk
m%udKhhs' tkï úYd,kh 1 g jvd jeä úg th iQCIau PdhdrEmlrKh f,i;a" úYd,kh 1 isg 1$10 w;r
mrdih ^ieneúka u fuys § isÿ jkafka úYd,khla fkdj ms<sìUqfõ m%udKh l=vd ùuls&" ióm rEm
PdhdrEmlrKh f,i;a ks¾jpkh flf¾' 1$10 ka Tíng isÿjk úYd,k ^l=vdùï& mrdihka wh;ajkafka
idudkH PdhdrEmlrKhg h'

ióm rEm ldphlska ,nd.;a PdhdrEmhla

rEm igyk wxl 21

16
 iQCIau rEm ldphlska ,nd.;a PdhdrEmhla
rEm igyk wxl 22

i¾mk ldp

weia uÜgfï isg Wi f.dvke.s,a,l PdhdrEmhla .ekSfï § leurdj by,g yrjd we,a,Sug isÿ fõ' fuys §
idudkHfhka ldphl olakg ,efnk h:do¾YSh ls%hdldß;ajh fya;=fldgf.k f.dvke.s,af,a yevh
msrñvhl wdldrhg tys uqÿka fldgi m,,ska wvqj igyka ùu isÿ fõ' fuh u.yrjdf.k f.dvke.s,af,a
isria ì;a;s isria f,iu igyka jk wdldrhg PdhdrEm.; lsÍug wjYH kï leurdj by,g yrjd we,a,Su
fjkqjg i¾mk ldphla Ndú;d l< yels h' fuys § leurdj ;sriaj ;ndf.k i¾mk ldpfha bÈß fldgi
by,g i¾mkh lsÍfuka wjYH m%;sM,h ,o yels h' jdia;= úoHd;aul PdhdrEm .ekSfï § we;eï úg fuu
m%;sM,h ,nd .ekSu wjYH fõ' i¾mk ldphla iúl< leurdjla" tu ldph by<g i¾mkh lr we;s úg
fmfkk wdldrh rEm igyka wxl 23 ka ±la fõ'

i¾mk ldphla fh¥ leurdjla

rEm igyka wxl 23

idudkH ldphlska .kakd ,o Wi f.dvke.s,a,l PdhdrEmhla iy tu oY_Khu i¾mk ldphla Ndú;fhka

PdhdrEm.; l<úg fmfkk wdldrh rEm igyk wxl 24 ys we;s PdhdrEmj,ska ±la fõ'

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 idudkH ldphlska ,nd.;a PdhdrEmhla iy tu o¾Ykhu i¾mk ldphlska ,nd.;a úg fmfkk wdldrh
rEm igyk wxl 24

wdYs%; .%ka:

Focal Encyclopaedia of Photography - Vol 1 & 2, Revised Edition 1982, Focal Press Ltd.
Exposure Theory & Practice, Revised Edition 1981, Focal Press Ltd.
Advanced Photography, Revised Edition 1980, Focal Press Ltd.

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