Title:

Chapter 1- Properties of Fluids

Overview/Introduction
Fluids is a substance which deforms continuously under action of external force. These
are the substance which cannot resist the shear force ( force causing the change in shape) applied to
them. Air, water, toothpaste, molten lava etc. A fluid flows under the action of force or pressure.

Learning Outcome/Objectives
To know the different properties of fluids and their characteristics

Learning Content/Topic
Lesson 1 Properties of Fluids
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
General Notes

a. Hydraulics is the branch of mechanics which deals with the lows

governing the behavior of water and other liquids in the states of rest and motion.

b. Branches of Hydraulics

(i) Hydrostatics - the study of liquids at rest.

(ii) Hydrokinetics - the study of pure motion in liquids
(iii) Hydrodynamics-the study of forces (including velocity and acceleration)
exerted by or upon liquids in motion.
 c. Fluid Mechanics is the science of the mechanics of liquids and gases
and is based on the same fundamental principles used in mechanics of solids. The
sub-divisions of fluid mechanics are fluid statics, kinematics, and fluid dynamics.

d. Fluids are substances which, owing to the nature of their internal

structure, offer comparatively little resistance to a change in form.

e. Classifications of Fluids
(i) Gases: fluids which have little resistance to change either in form or
volume. It occupies all the space in which it is contained. The gas molecules are
sparsely spaced and have much more activity which results in its lighter weight.

(ii) Liquids: fluids, which offer great resistance to change in volume. It

occupies a definite portion in which it is contained. The molecules in liquids
possess a cohesiveness which tends to hold them together. The molecules are
fixed relative to each other and are free to move and slip past one another
although the spacings are essentially the same as that of solids.
 f. Ideal or Perfect Fluid is one in which viscosity and compressibility are
conveniently eliminated for the purpose of developing theories and making
mathematical derivations. Theory based upon these assumptions is subject to
correction when applied to take care of the physical properties which have been
neglected.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
a. Specific Weight, γ : the weight of a unit volume of a substance,

𝑾 Where:
γ=
𝑽 w = specific weight in N/𝑚3
W = weight in N
or W = V γ V = volume in 𝑚3

NOTE: For gases, where the specific weight, w , varies with the pressure and temperature it
is computed by,
Where:
𝒑 p = absolute pressure in Pa
𝒘= 𝑹𝑻
R = gas constant in m/degree R
T = absolute temperature in
degree Rankine ( T = °𝐹 + 460)
T = absolute temperature in
degree Kelvin ( T = °𝐶 + 273)
For air, R = 16.25 m/°𝑅
w = specific weight in N/𝑚3
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
b. Mass, M : a quantitative measure of the amount of matter in a given body,

𝑾 Where:
𝑴=
𝒈 M = mass in kg
W = weight in N
or W = Mg g = 9.81 m/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦)

c. Mass Density, ρ : the mass per unit volume of a substance.

𝑴 𝑾/𝒈 Where:
ρ= = ρ = density in kg/ 𝑚3
𝑽 𝑽
w = specific weight in N/ 𝑚3
𝒘 g = 9.81 m/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
ρ=
𝒈
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
NOTE: For gases the density , ρ , is computed by,

𝒑 Where:
ρ= p = absolute pressure in Pa
𝑹𝑻 R = gas constant in N.m/kg °𝐾
T = temperature in kelvin (T = °𝐶 + 273)
For air, R = 287 N.m/kg °𝐾
ρ = density in kg/𝑚3

d. Specific Gravity, sg : the dimensionless ratio of the density (or specific weight) of a
substance to that of some other standard substance,

𝝆 𝒘 Where:
sg = 𝝆𝒔
𝒐𝒓 sg = 𝒘𝒔 ρ = density of the fluid in kg/𝑚3
𝝆𝒔 = density of the standard fluid in kg/𝑚3
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
d. Specific Gravity, sg : the dimensionless ratio of the density (or specific weight) of a
substance to that of some other standard substance,

𝝆 𝒘 Where:
sg = 𝝆𝒔
𝒐𝒓 sg = 𝒘𝒔 ρ = density pf the fluid in kg/𝑚3
𝝆𝒔 = density of the standard fluid in kg/𝑚3

e. Dynamic Viscosity, 𝝁 : the property of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance
to a shearing stress,
Note: The shearing stress, 𝜏 , and the viscosity , 𝝁, are related by,
Where:
𝒅𝑽
𝝉=𝝁 𝒅𝑽
- velocity gradient in m/sec, m
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
𝝉 – shearing stress in N/ 𝑚2
𝝁 – dynamic viscosity in N.sec/ 𝑚2
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
f. Kinematic Viscosity, 𝝋 : the ratio of the dynamic viscosity to its mass density,

𝝁
𝝋=ρ Where:
𝝋 = kinematic viscosity in 𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝝁 – dynamic viscosity in N.sec/𝑚2
ρ = density in kg/𝑚3

g. Cohesion: this property refers to the intermolecular attraction by which the separate
particles of the fluid are held together.

h. Adhesion: this property refers to liquids which refers to the attractive force between its
molecules its molecules and any solid substance with which they are in contact.

i. Surface Tension,𝜹: the effect of cohesion between particles of the liquid at its surface.
NOTE: Unit of 𝜹 is N/m.
At 0℃ , 𝑡he surface tension of water is 0.0756 N/m and at 100 ℃ is 0.0589 N/m.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
j. Capillarity: this property of the liquids is due to both cohesion and adhesion. If adhesion has a greater
effect than cohesion, the liquid will rise at the point where it comes in contact with another body. If
cohesion is prevalent, the liquid will be depressed.

h. Vapor Pressure, 𝒑𝒗 : the pressure exerted by the vapor as evaporation of the liquid takes
place within a closed space.

NOTE: Unit of 𝒑𝒗 is N/𝑚2 .

At 20℃ , 𝑡he vapor pressure of :
Mercury 0.17 N/𝑚2 abs.
Water 2340 N/𝑚2
Gasoline 55,000 N/𝑚2
Some Important Mathematical Constants
in Hydraulics

1. Acceleration of Gravity ; g = 9.81 m/𝑠 2 4. Normal Atmospheric Pressure(Sea 𝐿𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙)

2. Specific Weight of Selected Fluids (KN/𝑚3 ) 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101.325𝐾𝑃𝑎

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1013𝑚𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠
Fresh water 9.81 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 760𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
Sea Water 10.10 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 10.3 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂
Motor Oil 8.50
Mercury 133.40
Standard air 0.012

3. Mass Density (kg/𝑚3 )

Fresh water 1000

Sea Water 1030
Motor Oil 866
Mercury 13600
Standard air 1.23
BASE UNITS

International System (SI) English System

Force (F) N lb
Mass (m) kg slug
Acceleration (a) m/s² ft/s²

Newton’s Second Law:

𝐹 𝒎 𝒇𝒕
a = F = ma N = kg ( 𝟐 ) lb = slug ( 𝟐 )
𝑚 𝒔 𝒔
 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
𝑁
γ(gamma) - Unit weight; Specific Weight 𝑵 γ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 9810
𝑚3
- Weight per unit volume ( 𝟑)
𝒎
ρ (rho) - Unit mass; Mass Density 𝑘𝑔
𝒌𝒈 ρ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000
-Mass per unit volume ( 𝟑) 𝑚3
𝒎
sg - Specific gravity; Relative density γ= ρg
Standard value of sg
For solid & liquid: of common liquids: For gas:
ρ freshwater − 1.0 ρ 𝑵
sg = sg = γ𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 12 𝟑
ρ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ρ𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝒎
seawater − 1.03
γ γ
sg = oil − 0.80 sg = ρ𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.23
𝒌𝒈
γ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 γ𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝒎𝟑
𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 − 13.6
SPECIFIC WEIGHT
Problem 1
A certain type of jet fuel in a 1.25 𝑚3 container has a mass of 969kg.
a. What is its mass density?
b. What is its specific weight?
c. What is its gravity force?

𝑚 969 𝑊
a.) ρ = = b.) γ = c. )W= γV
𝑉 1.25 𝑉
from F=ma
ρ =775.2
𝒌𝒈 γ= ρg = 775.2(9.81)
𝒎𝟑 W=mg
𝑵
γ =7604.71 W=969(9.81)
𝒎𝟑
W=9505.89 N
Problem 2
A certain liquid has a unit weight of 56 kN/𝑚3
a. Compute the mass density.
b. Compute its specific volume.
c. Compute its specific gravity.

𝑚 56000 1 c.) Specific Gravity

a.) ρ = = b.) Specific Volume =
𝑉 9.81 ρ 56
Sp.gr =
𝒌𝒈 1 9.81
ρ = 5708 Specific Volume =
𝒎𝟑 5708
Sp.gr = 5.71
γ = 0.000175 𝒎𝟑 /kg
 Problem 3
A 10 mm diameter cylinder tank has a height of 5 m. and is full of water at
𝑘𝑁
20℃ unit weight of water = 9.789 3 if the water is heated to a temperature
𝑚
𝑘𝑁
of 50℃ ( unit weight of water = 9.689 ).
𝑚3
a. Compute the weight of water
b. What is the final volume when heated to a temp. of 50℃.
c. Determine the volume of water that will spill over the edge of the tank.

a.)Weight of water, w:
𝜋
𝑉1 = ( 10)2 (5) w = (392.70)(9.689)
4

𝑉1 = 392.70𝑚3 w = 𝟑𝟖𝟒𝟒. 𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝑵
w = 𝛾𝑉1
 Problem 3
A 10 mm diameter cylinder tank has a height of 5 m. and is full of water at
𝑘𝑁
20℃ unit weight of water = 9.789 3 if the water is heated to a temperature
𝑚
𝑘𝑁
of 50℃ ( unit weight of water = 9.689 ).
𝑚3
a. Compute the weight of water
b. What is the final volume when heated to a temp. of 50℃.
c. Determine the volume of water that will spill over the edge of the tank.

b.) Final Volume when heated a temp of 50℃

𝑤2 = 𝛾𝑉2

3844.14 = (9.689)𝑉2

𝑽𝟐 = 𝟑𝟗𝟔. 𝟕𝟓 𝒎𝟑
 Problem 3
A 10 mm diameter cylinder tank has a height of 5 m. and is full of water at
𝑘𝑁
20℃ unit weight of water = 9.789 3 if the water is heated to a temperature
𝑚
𝑘𝑁
of 50℃ ( unit weight of water = 9.689 ).
𝑚3
a. Compute the weight of water
b. What is the final volume when heated to a temp. of 50℃.
c. Determine the volume of water that will spill over the edge of the tank.
c.)Volume of water:

∆𝑉 = 396.75 − 392.70

∆𝑽 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟑
Seatwork #1
What is the specific weight of air at 480 kPa
1.

absolute and 21°𝐶?

2. A cylindrical tank 80 cm in diameter and 90

cm high is filled with a liquid. The tank and the
liquid weighed 420 kg. the weight of the
empty tank is 40 kg. What is the unit weight of
the liquid in kN/𝑚3
Viscosity
Problem 1
If the viscosity of water at 70 ℃ is 0.00402 and its specific gravity is 0.978 determine
the its absolute viscosity in Pa – s and its kinematic viscosity in 𝑚2 /𝑠

𝐀𝐛𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐕𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐊𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐕𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲

0.1 𝑃𝑎−𝑠 𝝁 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟐

𝝁 =0.00402 poise x 𝝋= = (1000 x 0.978)
1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 ρ

𝝁 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟐 𝑷𝒂 − 𝒔 𝝋 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎𝟐 /𝒔
𝒎 𝟐 𝟏 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒌𝒆
𝝋 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒙 𝒎𝟐
𝒔 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝒔

𝝋 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒌𝒆
Specific Weight of Air and Gases
Problem 1
A gas having a volume of 40 liters has a pressure of 0.24 MPa at
N
24℃. If the gas constant R is equal to 212 M. . k, compute
kg
a. Density of the gas
b. Mass of the gas
c. Weight of gas

T = 273 + ℃ 0.24(10)6
T= 273 + 24 𝝆=
(212)(297)
T = 297 °𝐾

𝐏 𝝆 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟏 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
𝝆=
𝐑𝐓
Problem 1
A gas having a volume of 40 liters has a pressure of 0.24 MPa at
N
24℃. If the gas constant R is equal to 212 M. . k, compute
kg
a. Density of the gas
b. Mass of the gas
c. Weight of gas

𝒎 = 𝝆𝑽

𝑚 = (3.81)(0.04)

𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟐 𝒌𝒈
Problem 1
A gas having a volume of 40 liters has a pressure of 0.24 MPa at
N
24℃. If the gas constant R is equal to 212 M. . k, compute
kg
a. Density of the gas
b. Mass of the gas
c. Weight of gas

𝑾 = 𝑴𝒈

𝑊 = (0.152)(9.81)

𝑾 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟗 𝑵
Surface Tension
Surface Tension
W = σ cosθ (πD)
π
γ ( ) 𝐷 2 (h) = σ cosθ (πD)
4

4σ cosθ
h=
γ𝐷
or
2σ cosθ
h=
𝝆𝒈𝒓

h = capillary rise r = radius of tube in meter

σ = surface tension in N/m 𝜌 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Θ = wetting angle 𝜌 = 1000 kg/𝑚3
Θ = 0° 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 g = 9.81
Θ = 130 ° 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦
Problem 1
A 3mm dia. Tube is inserted in mercury and later in water.
a. Assuming the tube is clean so that its angle of contract with water is 0𝑜 and the
surface tension is 0.0728N/m, what is the amount of rise?

W = σ cosθ (πD)
π 2
γ ( ) 𝐷 (h) = σ cosθ (πD)
4

4σ cosθ
h=
γ𝐷

4(0.0728) cos 0𝑜
h=
9810(0.003)

h = 0.0099𝑚 (𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒)
Problem 1
A 3mm dia. Tube is inserted in mercury and later in water.
b. Assuming the tube is clean so that its angle of contract with mercury is 140𝑜 and the
surface tension is 0.514 N/m, what is the amount of depression?

W = σ cosθ (πD)
π 2
γ ( ) 𝐷 (h) = σ cosθ (πD)
4

4σ cosθ
h=
γ𝐷

4(0.514) cos 140𝑜

h=
13.6(9810)(0.003)

h = −0.0039𝑚 (𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
Problem 2
The radius of the tube as shown in the figure is 1mm. The surface tension of water at
𝑁
20°𝐶 is equal to 0.0728 . For a water − glass interface σ = 0°
𝑚
a. Compute the capillarity rise in the tube in mm.
b. Compute the total force due to surface.
c. Compute the weight of water above the surface due to surface tension.

2σ cosθ
h=
𝜌𝑔𝑟

2(0.0728) cos0°
h=
(1000)(9.81)(0.001)

h = 0.0148 𝑚

h = 14.8 mm
Problem 2
The radius of the tube as shown in the figure is 1mm. The surface tension of water at
𝑁
20°𝐶 is equal to 0.0728 . For a water − glass interface σ = 0°
𝑚
a. Compute the capillarity rise in the tube in mm.
b. Compute the total force due to surface.
c. Compute the weight of water above the surface due to surface tension.

F = σ 𝜋 𝑑 cos 𝜃
F = (0.0728) (2𝜋) (0.001) cos 0°

F = 4.57 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝑵
Problem 2
The radius of the tube as shown in the figure is 1mm. The surface tension of water at
𝑁
20°𝐶 is equal to 0.0728 . For a water − glass interface σ = 0°
𝑚
a. Compute the capillarity rise in the tube in mm.
b. Compute the total force due to surface.
c. Compute the weight of water above the surface due to surface tension.

W = 𝛾 𝑉𝑜𝑙 − 9810 𝜋(0.001)(0.0148)

W = 4.56 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝑵
UNIT PRESSURE

a liquid surface

h P𝑏 = P𝑎 + γℎ P𝑎𝑏𝑠 = P𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + P𝑎𝑡𝑚

b c P𝑏 = γℎ P𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (+)

P𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
P𝑏 = P𝑎 + γℎ (𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎) = 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐

ℎ = 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎 & 𝑏 1atm = 101.325 kPa

P = unit pressure = 760mmHg
𝑁 Note: if given pressure = 14.7 psi
= or Pa
𝑚2 is not specified,
= gage pressure (+ or -) assume gage pressure
UNIT PRESSURE

liquid surface

h Convert the pressure head of

a liquid “A” to the pressure
head of liquid “B”

P = γℎ
𝑃
h= γ𝑎 h𝑎 = γ𝑏 h𝑏
γ
sg 𝑎 (γ𝑤 )h𝑎 =sg 𝑏 (γ𝑤 )h𝑏
Pressure Head – height of a
column of the fluid that is sg 𝑎
h𝑏 = ( h𝑎 )
needed to produce the sg 𝑏
pressure P.
 Problem 1
The closed tank is filled with water and 5m long. The pressure gage on the
tank reads 50kPa. Determine:
a. The height, h, in the open water column.
b. The gage pressure acting on the bottom tank surface AB.
c. The absolute pressure of the air in the top of the tank

P1 = 50 + 9.81 2 = 69.62 kPa

P1 = γh
1 69.62 = 9.81(h)
ℎ = 7.10𝑚
Pascal’s Law:
In a fluid at rest in a closed container, a pressure change in one part is transmitted
without loss to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the container.
 Problem 2
The closed tank is filled with water and 5m long. The pressure gage on the
tank reads 50kPa. Determine:
a. The height, h, in the open water column.
b. The gage pressure acting on the bottom tank surface AB.
c. The absolute pressure of the air in the top of the tank
P𝑏𝑜𝑡 = 50 + 9.81 4
P𝑏𝑜𝑡 = 89.24 𝑘𝑃𝑎

P𝑎𝑏𝑠 = P𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + P𝑎𝑡𝑚

P𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 50 + 101.325
P𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 151.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Pascal’s Law:
In a fluid at rest in a closed container, a pressure change in one part is transmitted
without loss to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of the container.
Problem 3
The pressure gage in a given tank reads 134mmHg. Calculate the equivalent height
of column of oil.

sg 𝐻𝑔
h𝑜𝑖𝑙 = ( h𝐻𝑔 )
sg 𝑜𝑖𝑙

13.6
h𝑜𝑖𝑙 = ( 0.134)
0.8

h𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 2.278𝑚
Problem 4
Determine the gage pressure at A in the given open-type manometer.

෍ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒]

0 + 0.85 9.81 0.4 −

13.6 9.81 0.15 + 9.81 0.45 = P𝐴

P𝐴 = − 12.26𝑘𝑃𝑎

෍ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠]

0.85 13.6 P𝐴
0+ 0.4 − 0.15 + 0.45 =
1 1 γ
P𝐴 = − 12.26𝑘𝑃𝑎
Problem 5
For the tank shown in the figure, ℎ1 = 3m and h3 = 4m . Determine the value of h2 .

SOLUTION: Summing-up pressure

head from 1 to 3 in meters of water

𝜌1 𝜌3
+ ℎ2 0.84 − 𝑥 =
𝛾 𝛾

0 + ℎ2 0.84 − (4 − 3) = 0

𝒉𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟗 𝒎
Problem 6
In the figure shown, what is the static pressure in kPa in the air chamber?

SOLUTION: The pressure in the air

space equals the pressure on the
surface of oil, 𝑝3

𝑝1 = 0 𝑝2 − 𝑝3 = 𝛾𝑜 ℎ𝑜
𝑝2 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑤
19.62 − 𝑝3
𝑝2 = 9.81(2) = (9.81 𝑥 0.80)(4)
𝑝2 = 19.62 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝒑𝟑 = −𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕 𝒌𝑷𝒂
Problem 7
In the figure shown, when the funnel is empty the water surface is at point A and
the mercury of sp.gr. 13.55 shows a deflection of 15cm. Determine the new
deflection of mercury when the funnel is filled with water to B.
 SOLUTION:
In figure (b) from B to 2

𝑃𝐵 𝑃2
+ 0.80 + 𝑦 + 𝑥 − (𝑥 + 0.15 + 𝑥)(13.55) =
𝛾 𝛾

0 + 0.80 + 2.03 + 𝑥 − 27.1𝑥 − 2.03 = 0

26.1𝑥 = 0.80

𝑥 = 0.031𝑚 = 3.1 𝑐𝑚

𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑅 = 15 + 2𝑥 = 15 + 2(3.1)

Solve for y in figure (a) from A to 2
𝑃𝐴 𝑃2
+ 𝑦 − 0.15 13.55 = 𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈, 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟐 𝒄𝒎
𝛾 𝛾
0 + 𝑦 − 2.03 = 0

𝑦 = 2.03
Problem 8

For a gage reading of -17.1kPa,

determine the :
a) elevations of the liquids in the
open piezometer columns E, F, and
G and
b) The deflection of the U-tube
manometer neglecting the weight of
air.
SOLUTION:
Column E (from 1 to e)

𝑃1 𝑃𝑒
+ ℎ1 (0.7) =
𝛾 𝛾

−17.1
+ ℎ1 0.7 = 0
9.81

ℎ1 = 2.5𝑚

Surface Elevation = 15 - ℎ1

Surface Elevation = 15 - 2.5

𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎

SOLUTION:
Column F (from 1 to f)

𝑃1 𝑃𝑓
+ 3 0.7 − ℎ2 (1) =
𝛾 𝛾

−17.1
+ 2.1 + ℎ2 = 0
9.81

ℎ2 = 0.357𝑚

Surface Elevation = 12 + ℎ2

Surface Elevation = 12 + 0.357

𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟓𝟕𝒎

SOLUTION:
Column G (from 1 to g)

𝑃1 𝑃𝑔
+ 3 0.7 + 4(1) − ℎ3 (1.6) =
𝛾 𝛾

−17.1
+ 2.1 + 4 − ℎ3 (1.6) = 0
9.81

ℎ3 = 2.72 𝑚

Surface Elevation = 8 + ℎ3

Surface Elevation = 8 + 2.72

𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟕𝟐 𝒎

SOLUTION:
Deflection of Mercury (from 1 to 5)

𝑃1 𝑃5
+ 3 0.7 + 4 + 4 − ℎ4 (13.6) =
𝛾 𝛾

−17.1
+ 10.1 − ℎ4 (13.6) = 0
9.81

𝒉𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟒 𝒎
Problem 9

In the figure shown, the deflection of

mercury is initially 250mm. If the pressure
at A is increased by 40 kPa, while
maintaining the pressure at B constant,
what will be the new mercury deflection?
SOLUTION:
In figure (a) from A to B)

𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵
− 0.6 − 0.25 13.6 + 0.25 + 2.1 =
𝛾 𝛾

𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵
+ = 1.65 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝛾 𝛾

In figure (b) from A’ to B)

𝑃𝐴 ’ = 𝑃𝐴 + 40

𝑃𝐴 ′
− (0.6 − 𝑥) − (0.25 + 2𝑥) 13.6
𝛾
𝑃𝐵
+ 0(2.35 + 𝑥) =
𝛾
SOLUTION: In figure (b) from A’ to B)

𝑃𝐴 ’ = 𝑃𝐴 + 40

𝑃𝐴 ′
− (0.6 − 𝑥) − (0.25 + 2𝑥) 13.6
𝛾
𝑃𝐵
+ (2.35 + 𝑥) =
𝛾
𝑃𝐴 + 40
− (0.6 − 𝑥) − (0.25 + 2𝑥) 13.6
𝛾
𝑃𝐵
+ (2.35 + 𝑥) =
𝛾

𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵
− = 25.2𝑥 − 2.423
𝛾 𝛾
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵
But − = 1.65
𝛾 𝛾
SOLUTION:

𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵
But − = 1.65
𝛾 𝛾

1.65 = 25.2x -2.423

x = 0.162m = 162mm

New mercury deflection = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 + 𝟐𝒙 =

𝟐𝟓𝟎 + 𝟐(𝟏𝟔𝟐)

𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝑴𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟓𝟕𝟒 𝒎𝒎

Problem 10

In the figure shown, determine the

difference in pressure between points A
and B.
SOLUTION: From A to B)

𝑃𝐴
+ 0.2 0.88 − 0.09 13.6 − 0.31 0.82
𝛾
𝑃𝐵
+ 0.25 − 0.1(0.0012) =
𝛾

𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵
− = 1.0523 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝛾 𝛾

𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏(𝟏. 𝟎𝟓𝟐𝟑)

𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟐 𝒌𝑷𝒂
Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s Law
The volume of a gas at a constant temperature varies
inversely as the pressure applied to this gas.
Before Immersion: After Immersion:

𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟏 = Ah 𝑽𝟐 = Ay

𝑷𝟏 = 𝟎 + 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 𝑷𝟐 = 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 + 𝒘𝒙
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑷𝟏 = initial pressure (abs)
𝑷𝟐 = final pressure (abs) 𝑷𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟑𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑷𝒂 𝑷𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟑𝟐𝟓 + 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏𝒙
𝑽𝟏 = initial volume
𝑽𝟐 = final volume
Problem 1

A cylinder glass tubing 2.8 cm inside

diameter and 90 cm long with one end
closed is immersed vertically with the open
end down into a tank of cleaning solvent (
sp.gr. = 0.73) until only 5 cm of its length
remain above the liquid surface. If the
barometric pressure is 1
kg/𝑐𝑚2 and neglecting vapor pressure.

a. How high will the fluid rise in the tube?

b. Compute the height of air inside the
glass?
c. What force required to maintain
equilibrium?
SOLUTION:

a. Height of fluid rise in the tube: 𝜋

𝑉2 = (2.8)2 (ℎ + 5)
4
𝑃1 = 1 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 𝑉2 = 6.158 (ℎ + 5)

𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝑤ℎ
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝑜𝑦𝑙𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤
1 + 1000(0.73)(ℎ)
𝑃2 =
(100)3 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑃2 = 1 + 0.00073ℎ 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 1 554.18 = (1 + 0.00073ℎ)(6.158)(ℎ + 5)

554.18
𝜋 = (1 + 0.00073ℎ)(ℎ + 5)
𝑉1 = (2.8)2 (90) 6.158
4
89.99 = 0.00073ℎ2 + 5 + 0.00365ℎ
𝑉1 = 554.18𝑐𝑚3
ℎ = 80 𝑐𝑚
SOLUTION:
c. Force required to maintain equilibrium:
ℎ = 80 𝑐𝑚

𝑥 = 90 − 5 − 80 𝐹 = 𝛾𝑉𝑜𝑙

𝒙 = 𝟓 𝒄𝒎 𝜋 (0.028)2
𝐹 = 9810 ( )(0.85)
4

b. Height of air inside the glass:

𝑭 = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟑 𝑵
𝒉 + 𝟓 = 𝟖𝟓 𝒄𝒎
Teaching and learning activities
To know the different properties of fluids and their characteristics
Flexible Teaching Modality (FTLM) adapted
Google classroom, Module, Recorded Lecture, Google Meet
Assessment Task
Quiz about properties of fluids
Reference:
1. Mays, Larry W. 2004. Water Resources Engineering, 2005 Edition, USA
2. Robert L. Daugherty, Joseph B. Franzini and E. John Finnemore. 2002 Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications SI Metric
Edition, USA
3. Linsley, Ray K.: Franzini, Joseph B. Freynerg, David L. Tchobanoglous, David L. 1992. Water Resources Engineering, Fourth Edition.
McGraw-Hill.
4. John J. Cassidy & M. Hanif Chaudhry. 1988. Hydraulic Engineering Second Edition, USA
5. H.W. King, J. O. Wisler and J.G. Woodburn. 1980. Hydraulics, 5th Edition R.E. Krieger Publishing Company.