6 Math 123: Calculus with Analytic Geometry

The basic concepts of sets, including its notation and terminologies,

operations, and ways of describing, will be tackled on this part. Moreover, the
sets of real numbers will be illustrated in a number line.

1. Discuss the basic concepts of sets.

2. Illustrate sets using the roster and set builder notation.
3. Illustrate the set of real numbers in a number line.

How do we distinguish entities in Mathematics?

SETS

The idea of “set” is used extensively in mathematics and is such a

basic concept that is not given a formal definition (Leithold, 1976). Set is
defined as a distinct collection of objects. Each object in the set is called
“element”; the symbol used is ∈ . Otherwise, we use ∉. A set can also be
empty; we call it a “null set” with the symbol ∅ or { }. Moreover, in naming
sets, we use capital letters, while the small letters can be used only to
indicate an element in a set. In Calculus, for instance, we focused more on the
set of real numbers. But before proceeding to the set of real numbers, it is
just sensible to talk about the basic ways of describing sets, including its
notations.
In describing sets, we have two methods used. The first one is what
we call the listing method or Roster method, while the other one is the set-
builder notation. The two methods used a pair of braces { } with words or
symbols to describe a set.
For example, we have a set W, which is a set of natural numbers less
than 7; we can write it also as
{1, 2,3,4,5,6} using the roster method or
{𝑥| 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 7}
Reads as “x such that x is a natural number less than 7, using the set-
builder notation.
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The set of natural numbers will be denoted by N. Therefore, we may

write the set N as
{1, 2,3 . . . }
the three dots {. . .} is called an ellipsis meaning the list continues or
so on and so forth.
Furthermore, a set should be well-defined to avoid ambiguity. For
example, V is a set of numbers; this is not considered as a set; hence, a
detailed description of the set is not given, and we all know that there are
different sets of numbers.
,
DEFINITIONS

Equal Sets – Two sets are said to be equal if they have the same elements.
Any order does not matter and the repetition of any element is not
considered (Gilbert & Gilbert, 2009).

Finite Sets – A set which is possible to list all the elements (Leithold, 1996).

Infinite Set – A set with a property that its impossible to list all the
elements no matter how many elements are there in the list (Gilbert
&Gilbert, 2009).

SUBSETS
Given two sets, R and T, R is said to be a subset of T, in symbol R ⊆ T,
if and only if every element in R is also an element of T. Moreover, if there is
at least one element in T that is not in R, we say that R is a proper subset of T,
in symbol R ⊂ T. Also, if R ⊆ T and T⊆ R then, R and T are equal sets.
Is every set a subset of itself?
SUBSETS OF ℝ (Real Numbers)

The following are the subsets of R;

1. ℕ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . } – the set of natural numbers

2. ℤ = { . . . -3, -2, -1, 0 , 1, 2, 3, . . .} – the set of integers
𝑎
3. ℚ = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑏 | 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑁 and 𝑏 ≠ 0 } or
ℚ = {𝑥|𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙} - the set of rational
numbers.
4. 𝑊 = {0,1, 2, 3,4,5,6 . . . . } – the set of whole numbers.
5. ℚ′ = {𝑥|𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙} – the set of
irrational numbers.

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 8 Math 123: Calculus with Analytic Geometry

It is important to note that every natural number is a whole number,

which, in turn, is an integer (Stitz & Zeager, 2020). Every integer is a
rational number and every rational number is a real number based on the
definition of subsets. Thus, in analogy, these sets of numbers is 'nested'
like Matryoshka dolls.

Figure 1. Nesting doll

SET OPERATIONS
There are three set operations used in set theory. These are union,
intersection and complement. Each of these are discussed below.
UNION (∪)
Let C and D be two sets. The union of C and B, denoted by C ∪ D and
read "C union D," is the set of all elements that are in C or in D or in both C and
D. In notation, C ∪ D = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷}
Illustrative Examples
Given set A = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, set B= { 1, 3, 5, 9} and set C= { }
1. A ∪ B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ,10}
2. A ∪ C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
3. B ∪ C = {1, 3, 5, 9}
4. C ∪ C = { }

INTERSECTION (∩)
Let E and F be two sets. The intersection of E and F, denoted by E ∩ F
and read” E intersection F”, is the set of all elements that are in both E and F.
In notation, E ∪ F = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹}

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Illustrative Examples
Given set X = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}, Y = {1, 4, 9, 16} and Z = { 2, 10}.
1. X ∩ Y = {4}
2. X ∩ Z = {2, 10}
3. Y ∩ Z = { }
4. X ∩ X = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}

COMPLEMENT (A’)
For arbitrary subsets A and B of the universal set U, the complement
of B in A is 𝐴′ = 𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑈|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ B}
Illustrative Examples
Let
U = {𝑥|𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}
A = {𝑥| 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}
B = {𝑥| 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}
Then,
1. 𝑈 − 𝐴 = {𝑥|𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0}
= {0, 1,3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 . . . }
2. 𝑈 − 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}
= {0, 2, 4, 6, 8,10, 12 . . . }

VENN DIAGRAMS
The English logician John Venn (1834 – 1923) introduced his
famous eponymous diagrams in the late 19th century to illustrate
relationships between sets and provide a pictorial understanding of set
operations. Venn diagrams remain, to this day, powerful tools in elementary
set theory because they account for all the logical possibilities in set
interactions. They consist of circles representing sets (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) enclosed by a
rectangular box representing the universal set (𝑈). Different regions of the
diagram are bounded by the outlines of the circles and the box. Elements
under consideration (i.e. elements in the box 𝑈) are placed in regions of the
diagram based on which sets they belong to. If they belong to multiple sets,
then they are placed in the corresponding overlapping region. If they belong to
no set, then they are placed in the region outside the circles. Figure 2 below
shows the general Venn diagrams for one, two, and three sets.

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 10 Math 123: Calculus with Analytic Geometry

Figure 2. Venn Diagrams of One set, Two sets and Three sets

ILLUSTRATIONS OF VENN DIAGRAMS FOR SET OPERATIONS

Illustrative Example 4. Create a Venn diagram for A’. That is shade the area
depicted by the set A’.
Recall that the complement of A (denoted A’) is everything in the
universal set that is not in set A. We shade everything except what's in the A
circle. Here is the Venn diagram that depicts set A’

Figure 3. Complement

Illustrative Example 5. Create a Venn diagram for 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.

To do this: first create a shaded Venn diagram for each set
described in the problem. I will create a Venn diagram for set A and
another for set B.

Figure 4. Venn Diagram for Set A and Set B

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Now put them together. Notice that I darkened the area that is
shaded in both diagrams.

Figure 5. Set A union Set B

Illustrative Example 6: Create a Venn diagram for 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.

First create a shaded Venn diagram for each set described in the
problem refer to figure 4. Now put them together refer to figure 5.

This is an intersection problem. The final Venn diagram should be

shaded only where the two sets cross. Here is the answer:

Figure 6. Intersection

Illustrative Example 7. Venn Diagrams for Three Sets

Here's the beginning Venn diagram associated with 3 sets.

Figure 7. Venn Diagram for Three Sets

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 12 Math 123: Calculus with Analytic Geometry

Complements, unions and intersections are handled in the same way

as they were with 2 sets Venn Diagrams.
Here is the Venn diagram associated with the set A. Notice we shade
the inside of the A circle.

Figure 8. Set A

Illustrative Example 8. Create a Venn diagram for A’.

Recall that the complement of A is everything that is in the universal
set but not in the set A, so we shade everything except what's in the circle A.

Figure 9. Complement of A

Illustrative Example 9. Create a Venn diagram that represents 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶.

To do a Venn diagram for a union of three sets, first shade each set.

Figure 10. Three Sets

Now put them together

Figure 11. Union of Three Sets

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Anything that gets shaded at least once is in the union, so here's the answer.
𝐴∪𝐵∪C

Figure 12. Union of Three Sets

SOLVING PROBLEMS USING VENN DIAGRAMS

Venn diagrams are the illustrations of the different set operations.
Hence, the problems that will be showed are just the application of the
different set operations discussed above.
There are things that we need to consider to solve problems using
VENN DIAGRAMS.
Do you have any idea?
The first one, of course, is to determine the sets involve. Then, applying the
concepts above about the regions in the VENN diagram, we will now make
one, and we will monitor the number per region.

Illustrative Example 10.

Twenty-five people go on a trip. If 16 go swimming, 12 go
fishing, and 6 do neither how many go swimming and fishing? Draw a Venn
diagram and fill in the number of people in all four regions.

Solution:
S F
Given: 𝑈 = 25
7 9 3
Swimming (S) = 16
Fishing (F) = 12 6
𝑈 = 25
Neither F nor S = 6
Figure 13. Solution to exercise 10

Based on the data given, we can say that,

19 people are only involved in swimming or fishing,
and 16 + 12 = 28. Thus, there are 9 people who go swimming and fishing.
The solution is illustrated on figure 12.
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 14 Math 123: Calculus with Analytic Geometry

More exercises will be given below.

REAL NUMBER AND THE NUMBER LINE

The real numbers can be represented by points on a line, as shown in

figure 13. An arrow indicates the positive direction (toward the right). We
choose an arbitrary reference point O, called the origin, which corresponds to
the real number 0. Given any convenient unit of measurement, each positive
number 𝒙 is represented by the point on the line a distance of x units to the
right of the origin, and each negative number −𝒙 is represented by the point 𝒙
units to the left of the origin. The number associated with the point P is called
the coordinate of P, and the line is then called a coordinate line, or a real
number line, or simply a real line. Often, we identify the point with its
coordinate and think of a number as being a point on the real line. We
focused more on real numbers hence, it is very crucial in the study of

calculus.

Figure 14. The Real Line (Stewart, J., Redlin, L., and S. Watson, Precalculus:
Mathematics for Calculus, 6th Edition, Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, 2012.)

The real numbers are ordered. We say that a is less than b and write
𝑏 < 𝑎 if 𝑏 − 𝑎 is a positive number. Geometrically, this means that a lies to
the left of b on the number line. Equivalently, we can say that b is greater than
a and write 𝑏 > 𝑎. The symbol 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 or (𝑏 ≥ 𝑎) means that either 𝑎 < 𝑏 or 𝑎 =
𝑏 and is read “a is less than or equal to b.” For instance, the following are true
inequalities (see Figure ):

Figure 15. Inequalities (Stewart, J., Redlin, L., and S. Watson, Precalculus:
Mathematics for Calculus, 6th Edition, Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, 2012.)

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On the previous lesson, we illustrated the set operations in a Venn

Diagram, but at this point, we can also illustrate it using a real number line
through interval notation. However, not only the set operations can be
illustrated even sets described using the set-builder notation.

Illustrative Example 11. See the table below,

Table 1. Using Interval notation from Stitz and Zeager(2020)

In the interval notation above, you can see the symbols ( ] with
numbers inside. The open parentheses indicate that the value near it is not
included in the set, while the bracket indicates that the preceding number is
included. This aforementioned symbol is an example of half-closed interval.
On the other hand, in the number line the closed circle means that the
value is included otherwise it is not.

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