Chapter one

Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

Organic agriculture is a system of farming that relies on ecosystem management

rather than external agro-allied companies inputs. Thus, in organic agriculture, the

use of synthetic inputs such as inorganic fertilizers, agro-chemicals, veterinary

drugs, genetically modified seeds and breeds, commercial livestock feeds,

preservatives, additives and irradiation are eliminated. According to Ndanitsa et

al., (2021), the goals of organic agriculture include maintaining bio-diverse crops;

keeping soil healthy and fertile for future; reducing pollution; minimizing food

contamination; producing high quality products; avoiding use of commercial

fertilizers and chemicals in farming; recycling nutrients; and supporting ecological

wholeness.

Common farming techniques used to accomplish these goals are crop rotation,

green and compose manure, planting of cover crops, biological pest control, animal

manure and use of natural feeds (New Partnership for Africa's Development,

2019). In realizing this importance, governments of most developing countries

have made concerted efforts to augment agricultural production and productivity

through various intervention initiatives, projects and production technologies

advanced by well-organized basic and applied researches.

Radhakrishna (2018) submitted that the educational programmes delivered by

extension personnel today are more varied than they have ever been and will

continue to change to meet the changing needs of the clientele they serve. Thus

training and retraining programmes must be enhanced to ensure they meet the

needed service delivery capacity posed by the new agricultural trend. Wals and

Bawden (2020) opined that fundamental transformation is required in the

competencies of multi-functional extension workers to deal with complexity,

uncertainty, and conflicting norms, values and interests associated with

sustainability if they would be potential facilitators of sustainable agricultural and

rural development. Radhakvishna and Thomson (2016) noted that extension

personnel particularly require practical learning that provides them with

opportunities to share with rural people in a collaborative process that combines

scientific technical knowledge with local indigenous knowledge in client-oriented

problem solving activities. Therefore, the future success of extension programmes

will be determined to a large degree by the ability of the extension personnel to do

the job and the extent to which they are up-to-date on the essential agricultural

subject matter they are to disseminate. Although the pre-employment training

programmes provided excellent subject matter exposure, the re-training

programme provide opportunities for newly employed agent to receive training in

preparation for assuming assigned roles in their field units and enhance their ability
to maximize performance. Consequently, this evolution of a re-engineered

extension service made possible through training is sine qua non to putting in place

a virile and responsive extension system that relate to the changing agricultural

development objectives and goals. Agbamu (2016) opined that training of

extension personnel is one of the essential developmental paths to trail to facilitate

effective agricultural extension service delivery and a thriving extension service in

the 21st century. Consequently, this evolution of a re-engineered extention service

made possible through training is sine qua non to putting in place a virile and

responsible extension system that relate to the changing agricultural development.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Nwachukwu (2018) asserted that many employees have failed in organizations

because their need for training was not identified and provided for as an

indispensable part of management function. Employee’s performance is a function

of ability, will and situational factors. An organization may have employees of

high ability and determination with appropriate equipment and managerial support,

yet production falls below the expected standards. According to Okereke, (2019),

the missing factors in many cases are training and development. The ultimate

wealth of a nation is its human resources. It is the human resources that can

explore mineral and natural endowment, develop and regulate its economy in the

path of progress.
The Nigerian extension service is bedeviled by several problems as identified by

Agbamu (2005). These include inadequacy and instability of funding, poor logistic

support for field staff, use of poorly trained personnel at local level, ineffective

agricultural research extension linkages, insufficient and inappropriate agricultural

technologies for farmers, disproportionate Extension Agent: Farm Family ratio and

lack of clientele participation in program development in Imo State. Others are

poor input supply, irregular evaluation of extension programmes and policy,

institutional and programme instabilities of National agricultural extension

systems.

Allo (2001) pointed out that one of the main factors limiting the development

of effective training programmes for agricultural professionals in developing

countries is the inadequacy of information on their training need. In this regard,

there is also the need to rationalize training to minimize repetition of the same

message, more exposure to relevant technology and communication techniques,

more avenues for personal career development and frequent contact between

various categories of extension personal. Agbamu (2006) opined that training of

extension personnel is one of the essential developmental paths to trail to facilitate

effective agricultural extension service delivery and a thriving extension

service in the 21stcentury. Areas of training needs for extension

personnel include skills to use new communication technology, interpret

research findings, develop leadership skills, nurture leadership skills among

others. The study therefore assesses the training needs of extension agents on

organic farming in Imo State Agricultural Development Programme.

1.3 Objective of the study

The broad objective of this study is to examine the training needs of extension

agents in Imo State Agricultural Development Programme on organic farming. The

specific objectives include to:

i. Describe the socio-economic characteristics of the personnel

ii. Ascertain the types of training on organic farming received by the extension

personnel

iii. Determine the perceived importance of the training they acquired organic

farming

iv. Determine the training needs of the personnel on organic farming and

v. Identify the constraint to continuous training of the extension personnel on

organic farming

1.4 Research Questions

i. What are the socio-economic characteristics of the personnel?

ii. What are the types of training on organic farming received by the extension

personnel?
iii. What is the perceived importance of the training they acquired organic

farming?

iv. What are the training needs of the personnel on organic farming?

v. What are the constraints to continuous training of the extension personnel on

organic farming?

1.5 Significance of the study

It is hoped that, the findings of this research will form a good reference materials

for scholars and serve as a guide to the extension organization in organizing

training for extension personnel and farmers. Non- Governmental Organization

(NGOs) will also find the results of this study of great benefits in training their

personnel for the effective performance of their task in rural areas among different

group of clientele. The findings will also serve as a reference material for other

researchers who may be willing to conduct similar research in the future.

Furthermore, trainers in other fields can adopt the process adopted for the study in

identifying training needs of their personnel. The research findings will serve as a

guide for future agricultural administrators as it concerns extension personnel

training. Farmers will also benefit from the study as it will lead to their

empowerment, increased productivity and improved standard of living through

well trained extension personnel. Finally, the study will also be of immense help

for policy makers in agriculture. It will guide them to know what to include in the
agricultural policy and the type of training to be given to change agents which will

lead to development of our rural communities.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Organic farming

Organic farming, also known as ecological farming or biological farming, is an

agricultural system that uses fertilizers of organic origin such as

compost manure, green manure, and bone meal and places emphasis on techniques

such as crop rotation and companion planting. It originated early in the 20th

century in reaction to rapidly changing farming practices. Certified organic

agriculture accounts for 70 million hectares (170 million acres) globally, with over

half of that total in Australia. Organic farming continues to be developed by

various organizations today (Küstermann et al., 2018). Biological pest control,

mixed cropping, and the fostering of insect predators are encouraged. Organic

standards are designed to allow the use of naturally-occurring substances while

prohibiting or strictly limiting synthetic substances. For instance, naturally-

occurring pesticides such as pyrethrin are permitted, while

synthetic fertilizers and pesticides are generally prohibited. Synthetic substances

that are allowed include, for example, copper sulfate, elemental sulfur,

and ivermectin. Genetically modified organisms, nanomaterials, human sewage

sludge, plant growth regulators, hormones, and antibiotic use in

livestock husbandry are prohibited (Butler et al., 2018).

Organic agricultural methods are internationally regulated and legally enforced by

many nations, based in large part on the standards set by the International

Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), an international umbrella

organization for organic farming organizations established in 1972. Organic

agriculture can be defined as "an integrated farming system that strives for

sustainability, the enhancement of soil fertility and biological diversity while, with

rare exceptions, prohibiting synthetic pesticides, antibiotics, synthetic fertilizers,

genetically modified organisms, and growth hormones" (Alfven T, Braun-

Fahrlander et al., 2016).

2.2 State of Organic farming in Nigeria

Unlike other African countries, Nigeria is yet to develop its potential in terms of

organic farming, even though it is an agrarian country with a track record of being

world leading producer of some crops at one time or the other. Organic farming in

an organized manner is still young in the country, with less than ten years of

application. Nigeria only cultivated 3,154 ha and 11,979 ha in 2007 and 2010

respectively (Adeoye, 2021). The practitioners are mostly a few farmers and some

NGO’s. An Organic farm in Nigeria currently sells organic lemongrass tea,

turmeric and other produce in the local market, a situation many regard as under-

maximization of the premium benefits of organic farming. Nigeria has over 170

million people making it the most populous country in Africa. The country’s
economic mainstay before the oil boom was agriculture. The country is blessed

with both natural and human resources. Huge oil deposits in the Niger Delta region

bring both economic benefits and adverse impacts to the environment and the

nation as whole. The practice of organic agriculture in an organized manner is still

new to the country, with less than ten years of application. As of 2007, Nigeria had

3,154 ha under organic agriculture of which 59 ha were fully converted and

managed by a few farmers and NGO’s, with little government involvement.

However, it was reported that in 2010, land under organic production increased to

11,979 ha with 517 producers (IFOAM and FiBL, 2016).

2.3 Emerging roles of extension personnel

According to Jibowo (2015), understanding the history of any profession is

important for three fundamental reasons. Firstly, it provides a record of events

which took place in the past within the profession. Secondly, it enables a current

and future performance to appreciate the status, strength and weakness of the

events which took place in the past. Thirdly, it serves as a guide post to subsequent

professionals pursuing their discipline in such a way that previous mistakes are

avoided and rectified while novel professional mistakes are avoided. Jibowo

(2015) asserted that specifically; agricultural extension has changed its philosophy

and modified its methodology from what obtain during the British pre-colonial and

colonial periods to new orientations and current methodology. The philosophy

during the pre-colonial and colonial periods emphasized production. It has shifted

from direct approach of informing farmers of what to produce to meet the needs of

the colonial administration during colonial period to the non-directive approach of

basing extension programmes on the farmers needs (felt needs).

Agbamu (2016) opined that the possibility that agricultural extension will thrive in

developing countries in the 21st century depends on efforts geared towards making

the service to be more effective through sustainable financing option, well trained

and adequate staffing to cope with the population of clientele and the use of

participatory extension approach under a stable policy and sustainable institutional

arrangement. Therefore, extension administrators must change their attitude and

ensure that all stages of planning and implementation phase should involve farmers

for whom the programmes seek to improve. Agricultural extension programmes

are planned by experts in an extension agency or ministry of Agricultural and

decisions are focused on local problem and day to day difficulties facing the farmer

and extension workers (Agbamu, 2016). There is little feedback to programme

planner and decision makers because extension supervisor and intermediate staff

are reluctant to pass back information which might imply criticism of senior

officers. Those charged with programme development, hardly identify with

farmers and the farmer’ anxieties. In many developing, countries too little attention

is paid to the understanding of farm level realities. So extension programmes are

developed without detailed diagnosis of the constraints on farming development. In

most cases, farmers who constitute major extension clients are not involved in

planning the extension programmes. Relying on only the relatively superficial

observations of field officers or arm chair deduction and ready generalization of

programme is a mistake. Therefore, the extension personnel should be trained

towards involving the various groups of their clientele in the planning and

implementation of their development programmes as the agricultural extension

clientele have expanded to include rural farm families, urban and peri-urban

farmers, commercial farmers and HIV/AIDS affected farmers (Ogunbameru, 2004,

Quamar 2022).

Madukwe (2015) emphasized the need for proper training of the extension

personnel as their emerging role increases to face the challenges of this present

generation. He went further by saying that training does not only make extension

personnel competent in his work but more importantly increase his confidence and

his moral in the service. In other to empower farm household in agricultural

development, extensionists must understand and adopt participatory methodology

in their operations (Sinkaye, 2015). It is through this process that a more

sustainable agriculture can be encouraged with all actors being involved in

continuing process of learning, since participation is critical to the success of

projects in agriculture. Igbokwe (2021) observed that in many developing

countries, researchers largely remain intoxicated with quantitative research

(surveys and experiment) that fail to listen to the views, perception and knowledge

of the people they support to seek solutions to their problems. Pretty and Vodoune

(2017) buttressed the above point by saying that extension has come to mean

extending knowledge from a centre of learning to those presumed to be in need of

that knowledge. This method does not lead to enhanced capacity building among

extensionists and farmers. Participatory method and approaches represent

opportunity to build better linkages between various actors and increase learning

from each other.

Participatory approaches have been applied in many areas of extension research in

project planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, conflict resolution,

technology transfer, training, poverty alleviation and food security, documentation

of rural people’s knowledge, livelihood strategies and natural resource

management. In order to plan a development programme, situation analysis

(appraisal) is required in order to identify needs, wants and interest, determine

problems, resources and priorities and identify other agencies rendering service to

the community. This demands retraining of extension personnel in order to be able

to cope with and be efficient in administering participatory approaches in rural

areas.
2.4 Training and its effect on the role performance of extension personnel

Training is the process of teaching, informing or educating people so that they may

become as qualified as possible to do their job with greater efficiency. According

to Reiliy and Clarke, (2015) training is a process in which knowledge; skill and

attitude for a purpose or specific job, task or vocation are acquired and developed.

It is a deliberate attempt to improve a person’s skill, knowledge or practice. The

aim of training extension personnel is to improve their skill in various areas of

agriculture so as to increase their practical efficiency in the field. The knowledge

acquired through constant and adequate training will be used to train the farmers to

improve their food production both at household and national level.

Onah (2019) defined straining as an organized and coordinated development of

knowledge, skills and attitudes needed by an individual to master a given situation

or perform a certain task within an organizational setting. Cole (2020) supported

the above idea by asserting that training is the preparation for an occupation or

specific skills which enables the trainee to be in a position to perform better.

Farinde (2016) buttressed the above assertion by stating that extension personnel

should be responsible for providing and communicating knowledge and

information that will enable the farmers to gain confidence, to organize themselves

and to begin to participate in extension works. To do these effectively require

continuous training of the personnel.

Hazeliman and Floor (2016) opined that the cost of keeping incompetent employee

is not the cost outlay but also the cost of opportunities cost or recurring cost of

correcting problems because the job is not being done correctly. They stressed

further that it is hard to expect good performance and continuous improvement if

the human capital is not growing in capability and expectation as a result of lack of

continuous training and retraining.

Galseki (2017) contended that training of extension personnel helps them to be

identified with farm environment. He noted further that in predominantly

subsistent rural agriculture small-scale farmers are less able to deal effectively with

individual agricultural problems and other neighboring farmer’s experiences.

Therefore, there is a little encouragement or hope in the environment to help the

farmer believe that things could be better. At times, it leads to frustration and

inability of farmers to deal with problems objectively. Hence a trained extension

personnel offers solution to their identified farm problems. Hayward (2020) opined

that constant training of extension personnel provides learning experiences to

them, which equip them with knowledge to help rural people to develop attitudes,

habits and standard behaviour consistent with farm environment. This brings

awareness of rural people towards farming problems identified by them. He further

stressed that training based on actual field experience should be emphasized.

Emerging new farm technologies such as integrated pest management and improve
practices in horticulture call for actual field experience. Extension personnel need

training not only in the technology aspects but also in human relations, problem

solving sensitivity towards disadvantage groups and the basic concept of

management. The training of extension personnel contribute directly to the

development of human resources within extension organization. Training and

retraining of extension personnel are directed towards maintaining and improving

current job performance without which it will not be effectively and efficiently

done (Stoner and Freeman, 1992). Obibuaku (1975) stressed the importance of

training to include; increase in the extension personnel knowledge through study

incentives, keeping the employees abreast of the latest research findings that might

help to improve production in the farms, to improve workers professional skill and

competence in performing their duties.

2.5 Training needs of extension personnel

Training need is a condition where there is a gap between what is and what should

be in terms of incumbent knowledge, skills, attitude and behavior for a particular

situation at one point in time. The gap is called a problem, which usually occurs

when difference exists between desired performance and actual performance.

Adequacy of staff training in extension work is the degree to which various

methods are used by staff to transfer information technology to farmers ( Okeowo,

2015). The success of extension workers depend on the following type and intensity
of various methods and techniques used in teaching farmers in order to persuade

them to adopt new technologies and their ability to apply extension philosophy and

principles effectively. Lack of qualified and well-trained staff of extension to

establish credibility in the mind of farmers can influence changed behavior related

to technology from research centers (Obibuaku 1975). Obibuaku 1975 further

explained that the emphasis on extension workers training is more of technical

proficiency rather than theoretical and persuasive skills. An extension agent trained

in this way may not be able to have much impact on some poor conservative

farmers who fear the risk of trying out new innovations. Therefore, there is need

for the extension personnel training and retraining to be relevant to their job at the

grass root. Inadequate knowledge of subject matter usually makes the agricultural

extension workers to lose confidence when facing farmers. To be effective such

staff must have practical knowledge and training in agriculture, farm management,

marketing, psychology, rural sociology, human relation, etc, in order to influence

rural farm families. All these are essential tools that would enable them to work

successfully with the farmers and rural growers and cooperate harmoniously with

representative of other agencies as well as playing a leading role in indicate a rural

development programme.

The role of public supported agricultural extension has traditionally been to

provide the important link between agricultural research and farming communities
especially for technology transfer in support of agricultural and development

(FAO,2014). Quamar (2012) noted that the top-down approach of reaching the

farmers with technologies has been supplydriven, technically weak catering for

large farmers and providing insufficient coverage of and contacts with farmers. He

further stressed that public extension services unfortunately have been ineffective

in reaching farmers and farm communities with information and technologies

needed to ensure food security and sustainable development. This calls for training

of extension personnel in order to do this effectively. William (1999) posited that

there is training need by agricultural extension personnel in order to increase the

behavioral pattern. He maintained that the aim of training personnel is to assist

them in gaining more knowledge and skills in providing the physical and

psychological level in dealing with rural farm families in their cultural practices.

Akinbode (2016) hinteds that extension should be left in the hands of competent

personnel. He remarked that extension services demand personnel of high caliber

equipped with required technical information and knowledge of agricultural

extension technology. He observed that some of these personnel are effective in

creating awareness of programme but are not effective enough in persuading rural

farm families to continue adoption of new farm practices. Therefore, constant

attendances to conferences and workshop will bridge the gap.

Taylor (2017) buttressed the above point by stating that continuous training is a

basic management tool. Its cost is offset by gains in production and efficiency. It

costs money to train but costs money not to train. Wallace and Howell (2000)

stressed the importance of in-service training. They stated that the formal

education provided by public schools, colleges and universities may establish

excellent foundation but do not develop the special knowledge and skills required

in most jobs. Such general education is essential for living rather than training for

work. It is through constant training of personnel that they acquire current skills

and knowledge needed to be efficient in carrying out their jobs.

In a study carried out to determine the professional training needs of Costa Rica

agricultural extension personnel, Rivera (1998) posited that about two-third of the

agricultural extensionists emphasized dealing with teaching subject matter such as

extension, psychology and sociology. The various group of extensionists differed

very much in their needs for training in knowledge, ability, and skills involved in

the job as well as in specific subject matter areas. He continued by asserting that

experience, rural urban origin, professional preparation, position held in the service

and place of work greatly affect the training needs of the agricultural extension

personnel. Wallace and Howell (2020) claimed that the training need of extension

officers is usually inadequate and outdated and therefore should be a continuous

process. They stressed further that most training efforts are concentrated on the
pre-service training, which is often too theoretical and provides little opportunity to

practice what has been learned in real situation. Therefore, with little attention

given to continuous in-service training the extensionists are outdated and may not

be competent enough to face the present day challenges in their job.

2.6 The major problems impeding continuous training and retraining of

extension personnel

1. Lack of Awareness: It is a fact that many farmers in the country have only

vague ideas about organic farming and its advantages as compared to conventional

farming methods. Use of bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides requires awareness and

willingness on the part of the farming community. Knowledge about the

availability and usefulness of supplementary nutrients to enrich the soil is also vital

to increase productivity.

2. Output Marketing Problems: Organic farmers are of the opinion that

marketing and distribution of organic produce is challenging, unlike in the

developed countries. It is found that before the beginning of the cultivation of

organic crops, their marketability and distribution at a premium over the

conventional produce has to be assured. One has to get certification before his

good is sold. Inability to obtain a premium price, at least during the period required

to achieve the productivity levels of the conventional crop will be a setback. More

emphasis is usually placed, by government on policies to increase food production

with little or no consideration on how to distribute the food produced efficiently

and in a manner that will enhance increased productivity. In other words, food

marketing by farmers and their families, mostly in the immediate post-harvest

period usually involves a lot of costs and in Nigeria these costs are so high that

lowering the costs through efficient marketing system may be as important as

increasing agricultural production.

3. Shortage of Bio-mass: Many experts and well informed farmers are not sure if

all the nutrients with the required quantities can be made available by the organic

materials. They are also of the view that the available organic matter is not simply

enough to meet the requirements. The crop residues useful to prepare a high grade

natural, organic fertilizer are removed after harvest from the farms. And they are

used as fodder and fuel. Even if some are left out on the farms termites and other

insects destroy them. The small and marginal cultivators have difficulties in getting

the organic manures compared to the chemical fertilizers, which can be bought

easily, if they have the financial ability to procure them. However, they have to

either produce the organic manures by utilizing the bio-mass they have or they

have to be collected from the locality with a minimum effort and cost. Increasing

pressure of population and the disappearance of the common lands including the

wastes and government lands make the task difficult (WWOOF NEWS, 2012).
4. Inadequate Supporting Infrastructure: In spite of the recent pronouncement

by the African Union to assist in the development of organic agriculture in the

continent, the Federal and state governments are yet to formulate policies and a

credible mechanism to implement them. NOAN is sensitizing the Nigerian

Government to produce policy on Organic Agriculture, accreditation and

certification for organic produce. No Certifying agency yet to regulate and ensure

compliance with international organic production system. The trade channels are

yet to be formed and the infrastructure facilities for verification leading to

certification of the farms are inadequate.

5. High Input Costs: The small and marginal farmers in Nigeria have been

practicing a sort of pre organic farming in the form of the traditional farming

system. They use local or own farm renewable resources and carry on the

agricultural practices in an ecologically friendly environment. However, the costs

of the organic inputs are now higher than those of industrially produced chemical

fertilizers and pesticides including other inputs used in the conventional farming

system. According to an industry source, groundnut cake, neem seed and cake,

organic fertilizer, silt, cow dung, other manures, etc. applied as organic manure are

increasingly becoming costly making them unaffordable to the small cultivators.

6. Non-availability of farm Inputs: Bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides are yet to

become popular in the country. There is a lack of marketing and distribution

network for them because the retailers are not interested to deal in these products,

as the demand is low. Biofertilizers are not marketed by retailers in most parts of

Nigeria. The erratic supplies and the low level of awareness of the cultivators also

add to the problem. Higher margins of profit for chemical fertilizers and pesticides

for retailing, heavy advertisement campaigns by the manufacturers and dealers are

other major problems affecting the markets for organic inputs in Nigeria.

7. Lack of appropriate Agriculture Policy: Promotion of organic agriculture

both for export and domestic consumption, the requirements of food security for

millions of the poor, national self-sufficiency in food production, product and input

supplies, etc. are vital issues which will have to be dealt with in an appropriate

agricultural policy in Nigeria. These are serious issues that need to be resolved

with consistent efforts. Formulation of an appropriate agricultural policy that will

take care of these complexities is essential to promote organic agriculture in a big

way.

8. Lack of Financial Support: The developing countries like Nigeria need to

design a plethora of national and regional standards in tune with those of the

developed countries. The adoption and maintenance of such regulatory framework

and its implementation will be costly. The cost of certification, a major component

of which is the periodical inspections carried out by the certifying agencies, which

have freedom to fix the timing, type and number of such inspections appears to be
burdensome for the small and marginal farmers. Despite contributing 45 per cent to

Nigeria’s Gross Domestic Product, agriculture, which before the discovery of oil

was the country’s highest revenue earner, is still plagued by funding issues.

Supports from the States and the Federal government for the marketing of the

organic products are not forthcoming.

9. Low production: Conventional agriculture has shown to produce more yield

than organic agriculture. A 2006 study suggested that converted organic farms

have lower pre-harvest yields than their conventional counterparts in developed

countries (92%) and those organic farms have higher pre-harvest yields than their

low-intensity counterparts in developing countries (132%) (Stanhil, 2020). In many

cases the farmers experience some loss in yields on discarding synthetic inputs

during conversion of their farming methods from conventional to organic.

Restoration of full biological activity in terms of growth of beneficial insect

populations, nitrogen fixation from legumes, pest suppression and fertility

problems will take some time and the reduction in the yield rates is the result

during the changeover period. It may also be possible that it will take years to

make organic production possible on the Nigerian farms. Small and marginal

farmers cannot take the risk of low yields for the initial 2-3 years during the

conversion to organic farming. There are no schemes to compensate them during

the adjustment period.

10. Inability to Meet the Export Demand: The demand for organic products is

high in the advanced countries like United States of America (US), the European

Union (EU) and Japan. It is reported that US consumers are ready to pay a

premium price of 60 to 100 per cent for organic products. The upper classes in

Nigeria are beginning to follow this trend.

2.7 Contribution of organic farming

Sustainability over the long term: Many changes observed in the environment

are long term, occurring slowly over time. Organic agriculture considers the

medium- and long-term effect of agricultural interventions on the agro-ecosystem.

It aims to produce food while establishing an ecological balance to prevent soil

fertility or pest problems. Organic agriculture takes a proactive approach as

opposed to treating problems after they emerge.

Soil: Soil building practices such as crop rotations, inter-cropping, symbiotic

associations, cover crops, organic fertilizers and minimum tillage are central to

organic practices. These encourage soil fauna and flora, improving soil formation

and structure and creating more stable systems. In turn, nutrient and energy cycling

is increased and the retentive abilities of the soil for nutrients and water are

enhanced, compensating for the non-use of mineral fertilizers. Such management

techniques also play an important role in soil erosion control. The length of time

that the soil is exposed to erosive forces is decreased, soil biodiversity is increased,
and nutrient losses are reduced, helping to maintain and enhance soil productivity.

Crop export of nutrients is usually compensated by farm-derived renewable

resources but it is sometimes necessary to supplement organic soils with

potassium, phosphate, calcium, magnesium and trace elements from external

sources.

Water: In many agriculture areas, pollution of groundwater courses with synthetic

fertilizers and pesticides is a major problem. As the use of these is prohibited in

organic agriculture, they are replaced by organic fertilizers (e.g. compost, animal

manure, green manure) and through the use of greater biodiversity (in terms of

species cultivated and permanent vegetation), enhancing soil structure and water

infiltration. Well managed organic systems with better nutrient retentive abilities,

greatly reduce the risk of groundwater pollution. In some areas where pollution is a

real problem, conversion to organic agriculture is highly encouraged as a

restorative measure (e.g. by the Governments of France and Germany).

Air and climate change: Organic agriculture reduces non-renewable energy use

by decreasing agrochemical needs (these require high quantities of fossil fuel to be

produced). Organic agriculture contributes to mitigating the greenhouse effect and

global warming through its ability to sequester carbon in the soil. Many

management practices used by organic agriculture (e.g. minimum tillage, returning

crop residues to the soil, the use of cover crops and rotations, and the greater
integration of nitrogen-fixing legumes), increase the return of carbon to the soil,

raising productivity and favouring carbon storage. A number of studies revealed

that soil organic carbon contents under organic farming are considerably higher.

The more organic carbon is retained in the soil, the more the mitigation potential of

agriculture against climate change is higher.  However, there is much research

needed in this field, yet. There is a lack of data on soil organic carbon for

developing countries, with no farm system comparison data from Africa and Latin

America, and only limited data on soil organic carbon stocks, which is crucial for

determining carbon sequestration rates for farming practices.

Biodiversity: Organic farmers are both custodians and users of biodiversity at all

levels. At the gene level, traditional and adapted seeds and breeds are preferred for

their greater resistance to diseases and their resilience to climatic stress. At the

species level, diverse combinations of plants and animals optimize nutrient and

energy cycling for agricultural production. At the ecosystem level, the maintenance

of natural areas within and around organic fields and absence of chemical inputs

create suitable habitats for wildlife. The frequent use of under-utilized species

(often as rotation crops to build soil fertility) reduces erosion of agro-biodiversity,

creating a healthier gene pool - the basis for future adaptation. The provision of

structures providing food and shelter, and the lack of pesticide use, attract new or

re-colonizing species to the organic area (both permanent and migratory),

including wild flora and fauna (e.g. birds) and organisms beneficial to the organic

system such as pollinators and pest predators. The number of studies on organic

farming and biodiversity increased significantly within the last years. 

Genetically modified organisms: The use of GMOs within organic systems is not

permitted during any stage of organic food production, processing or handling. As

the potential impact of GMOs to both the environment and health is not entirely

understood, organic agriculture is taking the precautionary approach and choosing

to encourage natural biodiversity. The organic label therefore provides an

assurance that GMOs have not been used intentionally in the production and

processing of the organic products. This is something which cannot be guaranteed

in conventional products as labelling the presence of GMOs in food products has

not yet come into force in most countries. However, with increasing GMO use in

conventional agriculture and due to the method of transmission of GMOs in the

environment (e.g. through pollen), organic agriculture will not be able to ensure

that organic products are completely GMO free in the future.

Ecological services: The impact of organic agriculture on natural resources

favours interactions within the agro-ecosystem that are vital for both agricultural

production and nature conservation. Ecological services derived include soil

forming and conditioning, soil stabilization, waste recycling, carbon sequestration,

nutrients cycling, predation, pollination and habitats. By opting for organic

products, the consumer through his/her purchasing power promotes a less polluting

agricultural system. The hidden costs of agriculture to the environment in terms of

natural resource degradation are reduced.