Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Letters 11 (2021) 100296

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Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Letters

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/taml

Effects of a rooftop wind turbine on the dispersion of air pollutant

behind a cube-shaped building
Shuaibin Zhang a,b, Haoze Yang b, Bowen Du b, Mingwei Ge b,∗
a
State Grid Pingdingshan Power Supply Company, Pingdingshan 467001, China
b
State Key Laboratory of Alternate Electrical Power System with Renewable Energy Sources, North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The concentration distribution of urban air pollutants is closely related to people’s health. As an impor-
Received 23 September 2021 tant utilization form of urban wind power, rooftop wind turbines have been widely used in cities. The
Accepted 23 September 2021
wake effect of the rooftop wind turbines will change the flow behind buildings and then affect the pollu-
Available online 2 October 2021
tant dispersion. To this end, the pollutant dispersion behind the building is studied via the computational
Keywords: fluid dynamics method. The actuator disk model and idealized cube are adopted to model the wind tur-
Urban wind power bine and the building, respectively. The study shows that the rooftop wind turbine can reduce the pollu-
Actuator disk model tant mass fraction near the ground and the pedestrian level. Due to the wake effect of the rooftop wind
Wind-turbine wake turbine, the turbulent fluctuation behind the building is weakened, and the spanwise pollutant disper-
Pollutant dispersion sion is suppressed. Besides, the rooftop wind turbine weakens the downwash movement of the building,
which enhances the vertical pollutant dispersion.
© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Chinese Society of Theoretical and
Applied Mechanics.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

In recent years, with the enhanced urbanization worldwide, the
dispersion of urban air pollutants, which is closely related to peo-
ple’s health, has attracted widespread concern [1,2]. The accelera-
tion effect of the building rooftop provides the conditions for the
development of rooftop wind power [3–6]. Rooftop wind turbines
can alleviate urban energy pressure and improve the urban envi-
ronment. However, the wake effect of the rooftop wind turbine
can significantly change the flow behind the building, which will
affect the dispersion of air pollutants immersed in the building
wake.
The effects of buildings on air pollutant dispersion have been
widely studied. Saathoff et al. [7] studied the influence of upstream
buildings of different heights on the pollutant dispersion through
wind tunnel experiments. They found that the height of buildings
and the width of rooftop structures can affect the pollutant dis-
persion. Lateb et al. [8,9] used the Reynolds average Navier-Stokes
(RANS) method to investigate the pollutants dispersion exhausted
from a building roof stack located in the wake of a tower, and the
results show that this pollutant dispersion mode is completely dif-
ferent from that of an isolated building. In addition, Chavez et al.
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: gemingwei@ncepu.edu.cn (M. Ge).
[10,11] used the RANS method and the wind tunnel experiments
to analyze the pollutant dispersion between buildings. They found
that the pollutant dispersion is highly sensitive to the height of
the upstream building and much less sensitive to the width and
length of the upstream building. Beside buildings, trees also have
great effects on air pollutant dispersion in street canyons. Gromke
and Ruck [12,13] modeled avenue trees in urban street canyons
through wind tunnel experiments and revealed the unfavorable ef-
fects of trees on the pollutant dispersion in street canyons. Sun and
Zhang [14] got similar conclusions used numerical simulation. Li
and Wang [15] found that trees discourage the downward trans-
port of high momentum, which weakens the pollutant dispersion
in street canyons. Similar to buildings and trees, wind turbines
can significantly affect the wind conditions at the rooftop level,
and thus also can have influences on the dispersion of pollutant
sources in this height. However, there is still a lack of studies on
this. To this end, the pollutant dispersion at different heights be-
hind the building is studied via the computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) method. The actuator disk model and general cube are used
to simulate the wind turbine and the building, respectively. The
results can be used to evaluate the comprehensive value of urban
rooftop wind power.
The RANS method is used in this study. With the advantages
of short computation time and high computation accuracy, the k-ε

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taml.2021.100296
2095-0349/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of The Chinese Society of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
S. Zhang, H. Yang, B. Du et al. Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Letters 11 (2021) 100296

turbulence model has been widely used in the flow simulation of

buildings and wind turbines [16–19]. The incompressible governing
equations are as follows:
continuity equation:
∂ ūi
= 0, (1)
∂ xi
momentum equation:
 
∂ ui ∂ ui 1 ∂p ∂ ∂ ui Su
+ uj =− + ν − ui u j + , (2)
∂t ∂xj ρ ∂ xi ∂ xi t ∂ x j ρ
k-ε equations:
    Fig. 1. Schematic of the computational domain.
∂k ∂k ∂ μt ∂ k ∂ ui ∂ u j ∂ ui
+ uj = + μt + − ε, (3)
∂t ∂ x j ∂ x i σk ∂ x j ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj Table 1
Parameters of cases.
  Cases Lx × Ly × Lz (m×m×m) h(m) ht (m) D(m) zs (m)
∂ε ∂ε ∂ μt ∂ε
+ uj =
∂t ∂ x j ∂ x i σε ∂ x j SC1 240 × 80 × 60 10 – – 2
    SC2 240 × 80 × 60 10 – – 5
ε ∂ ui ∂ u j ∂ ui SC3 240 × 80 × 60 10 – – 8
+ Cε1 μt + − Cε2 ε , (4) SCT1 240 × 80 × 60 10 15 5 2
k ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj SCT2 240 × 80 × 60 10 15 5 5
SCT3 240 × 80 × 60 10 15 5 8
species transport equation:
   
∂ u j ci ∂  μt ∂ c i
= Di,m + + S, (5) to describe the dispersion range of pollutant, which can be written
∂t ∂xj Sct ∂ x j
as:
where ūi is the time-averaged velocity, i = 1, 2, 3 denote the


y2 MdA
streamwise direction, the spanwise direction, and the vertical di- σy =

− my 2 , (10)
MdA
rection, respectively; ρ is the fluid density; p is the pressure; νt is
the kinematic viscosity; ui u j is the Reynolds stress tensor; Su is the 

z2 MdA
momentum source, which is used to model the effect of rooftop σz =

− mz 2 . (11)
wind turbine; k is the turbulent kinetic energy; μt is the dynamic
viscosity; ε is the turbulent dissipation rate; σk and σε are Prandtl
numbers for k and ε , respectively; Cε1 and Cε2 are constants, here
we use 1.44 and 1.92, respectively; ci is the pollutant mass frac-
tion; Di,m is the molecular diffusion rate of the species pollutant i;
Sct = 0.7 is the turbulent Schmidt number; S is the strength of the
pollutant source.
In the flow simulations of wind turbines and wind farms, the
actuator disk model is often used to simulate the effect of the
wind turbine [20–24]. In this study, the momentum source term
is added as the actuator force:
ρCTUin 2
Su = − , (6)
2dx
where CT is the thrust coefficient, CT = 4a(1 − a ), a = 0.25 is the
induction factor, Uin is the incoming velocity, and dx is the thick-
ness of the rotor disk. To simplify the simulation, the rotor disk
velocity is taken as the reference velocity, then the actuator force
can be written as:
a and top boundary conditions are symmetric, the ground and build-
Su = −2ρ Ud 2 , (7)
(1 − a )dx
where Ud = Uin (1 − a ) is the velocity at the position of the rotor
disk.
To clearly describe the dispersion of air pollutants, similar to
Philips et al. [25], the mass center of pollutant is defined as:
MdA
Following the Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ) guidelines
[26], the schematic of the computational domain is shown in Fig. 1.
The domain size is Lx × Ly × Lz = 240 m × 80 m × 60 m. With
the height h = 10 m, the building is placed 80 m away from the
inlet of the domain. The wind turbine, which has the hub height
ht = 15 m and the rotor diameter D = 5 m, is placed in the cen-
ter of the building’s rooftop. We select CO as the considered air
pollutant. The pollutant sources are at xs = 95 m, ys = 40 m,
zs = 2 m, 5 m, and 8 m, which are denoted as S1, S2, and S3, re-
spectively. The parameters of cases are summarized in Table 1. We
set the cases with the single building as SC, and the cases with
the building and the rooftop wind turbine as SCT. The following
numbers represent different pollutant source heights. The grid is
refined around the building and the wind turbine. 17 grid points
are arranged around the building in each direction. This grid reso-
lution has been validated sufficiently to obtain grid-insensitive re-
sults (see Appendix A). The inlet boundary condition is velocity-
inlet, the outlet boundary condition is pressure-outlet, the sides
ing boundary conditions are wall. In this study, numerical sim-
ulations are carried out with the regular SIMPLE (Semi-Implicit
Method for Pressure Linked Equations) solver, which has been
adopted by many scholars [27,28]. The finite volume method with
second-order upwind scheme is used for spatial discretization and
the residual is set as 10−5 . The velocity and the turbulence inten-

yMdA sity of the inflow are obtained by fitting experimental data [26]. As
my =

, (8) shown in Fig. 2, the calculated inflow conditions agree well with
MdA
the experimental data.

zMdA Firstly, we analyze the flow structure around the building.

mz =

, (9)
MdA
where M is the pollutant mass fraction, and dA is the size of a
single grid. The spanwise and vertical standard deviation is used
Figures 3a and 3b show the contours of the mean streamwise ve-
locity in SC and SCT cases, respectively. As shown in Fig. 3a, due to
the strong shear effect of the building rooftop, the flow above the
rooftop is significantly accelerated, and low-speed zones appear at

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S. Zhang, H. Yang, B. Du et al.
Fig. 2. Inflow profile of the (a) velocity and the (b) turbulent kinetic energy.
the front and rear of the building, which agrees well with Hearst
et al. [29]. As illustrated in Fig. 3b, as the result of the wake effect
of the rooftop wind turbine, the acceleration of the flow above the
rooftop weakened. A low-speed zone appears behind the wind tur-
bine, and the wake deflects downward.
As illustrated in Fig. 4a and 4b, the rooftop wind turbine mainly
affects the area below 2h. Due to the wind turbine wake, the shear
effect is weakened and the streamwise velocity is decreased. In
addition, the downwash movement of the building is weakened,
which leads to a lower vertical velocity below the building height.
Figures 5a and 5b show the contours of the turbulent kinetic
energy in SC and SCT cases, respectively. Due to the strong shear
effect, the maximum turbulent kinetic energy appears above the
rooftop. As the flow evolves downstream, the turbulent kinetic en-
ergy decreases due to the weakening of the shear effect and the
turbulent dissipation. With the rooftop wind turbine, the shear ef-
fect of the rooftop is weakened, and the maximum turbulent ki-
netic energy decreases. However, the wind turbine enhances the
turbulence, and another maximum turbulent kinetic energy ap-
pears behind the wind turbine rotor, which mixes with the flow
around the building. In addition, due to the lower wind shear in-
duced by the wind turbine, the turbulent kinetic energy in the
building wake is significantly decreased.
Next, we discuss the dispersion of the air pollutant. As shown
in Figs. 6a and 6b, due to the weakened building downwash move-
ment induced by the rooftop wind turbine, the pollutant from
higher source has lower mass fractions at the height of ground
and pedestrian level. Meanwhile, with the increase of the pollu-
tant source height, the maximum decreased percent of pollutant
mass fraction are 3.97%, 4.47%, 6.63% and 1.21%, 3.95%, 6.22% at the
height of the ground and the pedestrian level, respectively. While
the pollutant sources released close to the ground are less affected
by the downwash movement, so they are either less affected by
the rooftop wind turbine.
Figure 7 shows the isolines of M = 0 at the vertical slice of
the building center, where M = MSCT − MSC . Due to the weakened
building downwash movement induced by the rooftop wind tur-
bine, more pollutants transport upwards. The pollutant mass frac-
Fig. 3. Contours of the mean streamwise velocity Ux at the vertical slice of the building center in (a) SC and (b) SCT cases.
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Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Letters 11 (2021) 100296
Fig. 4. Profiles of the mean (a) streamwise velocity Ux and (b) vertical velocity Uz
at the vertical slice of the building center, the numbers represent the streamwise
position of the profile.
tion under half of the building height decreases, except pollutant
from source S1, which has an absence of pollutant reduction at
1.5h–4.5h behind the building.
Furthermore, Fig. 8 shows the isolines of M = 0 at the span-
wise slice of different pollutant source heights. The higher the
pollutant source, the longer and narrower the M < 0 area in
the streamwise and spanwise direction, respectively. For pollu-
tant from source S3, the M > 0 area even evolves downstream
in a horn shape, and the pollutant mass fraction decreases out-
side this shape. As illustrated in Fig. 9, with the wake effect of
the rooftop wind turbine, the velocities behind the building sig-
nificantly decrease, which discourages the pollutant dispersion. As
the flow evolves downstream, the range of velocity deficit expands
spanwise. On both sides of the spanwise direction, the velocity is
slightly higher when there is a rooftop wind turbine, which leads
to a lower pollutant mass fraction. This phenomenon is consistent
with the change of pollutant mass fraction in Fig. 8.
Figures 10a–10f show the isosurfaces of the pollutant mass frac-
tion M = 0.005 at different released pollutant heights. As shown in
Fig. 10a, 10c, and 10e, the higher the pollutant source, the longer
and narrower the pollutant dispersion in the streamwise and span-
wise direction, respectively. When the released source height is
low, due to the downwash movement of the building, more pol-
lutant is entrained at the bottom of the leeward side of the build-
ing. The streamwise pollutant dispersion is mainly dominated by
the velocity behind the building. Therefore, the higher the released
source height, the higher the velocity (see Fig. 3a), and the fur-
ther the streamwise pollutant dispersion. In addition, when the re-
leased source height is high, the entrainment effect of the build-
ing is weak, which increases the vertical pollutant dispersion. With
the wake effect of the rooftop wind turbine, the range of pollutant
dispersion becomes shorter in streamwise direction and narrower
in spanwise direction, which is consistent with the influence of
rooftop wind turbine on the velocity and the turbulent kinetic en-
ergy behind the building. Because the rooftop wind turbine weak-
ens the downwash movement of the building and the turbulent
kinetic energy behind the rooftop wind turbine is significantly in-
creased, which leads to stronger vertical pollutant dispersion.
S. Zhang, H. Yang, B. Du et al.
Fig. 5. Contours of the mean turbulent kinetic energy k at the vertical slice of the building center in (a) SC and (b) SCT cases.
Fig. 6. Profiles of the pollutant mass fraction M at the height of (a) ground and (b) pedestrian level at the vertical slice of the building center.
Fig. 7. Isolines of M = 0 at the vertical slice of the building center, M = MSCT −
MSC , M < 0 below the isoline, and M > 0 above the isoline.
Fig. 8. Isolines of M = 0 at the spanwise slice of different source heights, M > 0
at the left side of S1 and S2, and the inner side of S3.
Fig. 9. Profiles of the mean streamwise velocity Ux at z = 8 m.
Figures 11a and 11b show the profiles of the spanwise and ver-
tical mass centers of pollutant calculated by Eqs. (8) and (9), re-
spectively. The mass centers of pollutant from different released
sources have no deflection in spanwise. Behind the building, the
higher the pollutant source, the higher the vertical mass center
of the pollutant. However, at about 10h downstream of the pol-
lutant source, the vertical mass centers of pollutant from differ-
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Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Letters 11 (2021) 100296
ent released sources tend to be identical. With the wake effect of
the rooftop wind turbine, the vertical mass centers of pollutant be-
come higher, especially for the pollutant far away from the build-
ing.
Figure 12a–12d show the profiles of the width and height of
the pollutant plume calculated by Eqs. (10) and (11), respectively.
The higher the pollutant source, the narrower the pollutant plume,
which agrees well with Fig. 10a–10f. The rooftop wind turbine re-
duces the width of pollutant plumes, which proves the correla-
tion between pollutant below the building height and the spanwise
pollutant dispersion. Within 1h after the pollutant source, as the
height of the pollutant source increases, the dispersion rate of the
pollutant plume increases from about 1/8. After passing through
the vortex reattachment zone of the building wake, the pollutant
plume disperses faster, and the dispersion rate increases to about
1/3. This characteristic of pollutant dispersion, which is negatively
related to the height of pollutant sources, originates from the mix-
ing length scale of the turbulent fluctuation. The rooftop wind tur-
bine reduces the turbulent fluctuation and weakens the mixing ef-
fect, which leads to a decrease in the spanwise dispersion rate of
pollutant plume.
As illustrated in Fig. 12c, the pollutant plumes from different
sources have the same height at 1h after the sources. After this
position, due to the vertical increasement of the turbulent kinetic
energy, the pollutant plume from a higher source has a larger dis-
persion rate. As the rooftop wind turbine weaken the downwash
movement of the building, the entrainment effect of the building is
suppressed. Beside, the increased turbulent kinetic energy behind
the rooftop wind turbine also accelerates the pollutant dispersion
in the vertical direction. Finally, due to the equilibrium effect, the
vertical dispersion rates of pollutant plumes from different sources
all reach about 0.27. In addition, since the vertical dispersion is af-
fected by the building downwash movement, the vertical disper-
sion rate is generally lower than the spanwise dispersion rate.
Figure 13 shows the profiles of the maximum mass fraction of
pollutant. The higher the pollutant source, the less the pollutant
is affected by the building wake vortex, which makes the initial
pollutant mass fraction and the concentration decay rate larger. At
about 2h after the pollutant source, the maximum mass fractions
of pollutant from different sources are almost the same. Besides,
the effect of the rooftop wind turbine on the concentration decay
S. Zhang, H. Yang, B. Du et al. Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Letters 11 (2021) 100296

Fig. 10. Isosurfaces of the pollutant mass fraction M = 0.005 at different released pollutant heights in (a) SC1, (b) SCT1, (c) SC2, (d) SCT2, (e) SC3, and (f) SCT3 cases.

Fig. 11. Profiles of the (a) spanwise and (b) vertical mass centers of pollutant.

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S. Zhang, H. Yang, B. Du et al. Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Letters 11 (2021) 100296

Fig. 12. Profiles of the (a) width and (c) height of the pollutant plume, with (b) and (d) in log-log coordinates.

studied via the RANS method. The main conclusions are as

follows:
• Due to the wake effect of the rooftop wind turbine, the velocity
and turbulent kinetic energy decrease behind the building. The
pollutant mass fraction under half of the building height de-
creases. Furthermore, with the increase of the pollutant source
height, the maximum decreased percent of pollutant mass frac-
tion are 3.97%, 4.47%, 6.63% and 1.21%, 3.95%, 6.22% at the
height of the ground and the pedestrian level, respectively.
• Under the wake effect of the rooftop wind turbine, the turbu-
lent fluctuation behind the building is reduced, and the mixing
effect is weakened, resulting in the weakened spanwise pollu-
tant dispersion. Besides, the rooftop wind turbine weakens the
downwash movement of the building, which enhances the pol-
lutant dispersion in the vertical direction.
• The higher the released pollutant source, the less the pollutant
is affected by the building wake vortex. Therefore, for high pol-
lutant sources, the initial pollutant mass fraction and the con-
centration decay rate of pollutant are larger. In addition, the
effect of the rooftop wind turbine on the concentration decay
rate of pollutant sources at different heights in the streamwise
Fig. 13. Profiles of the maximum mass fraction of pollutant. direction is almost negligible.

Declaration of Competing Interest

rate of pollutant sources at different heights in the streamwise di-
rection is almost negligible. The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
In summary, the effects of the rooftop wind turbine on the cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
dispersion of air pollutant immersed in the building wake are influence the work reported in this paper.

6
S. Zhang, H. Yang, B. Du et al. Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Letters 11 (2021) 100296

Acknowledgments Appendix A. Grid independence study

The research is supported by the National Natural Science Foun-
dation of China (Nos. 11772128 and 11772266) and the State Key
Laboratory for Alternative Electrical Power System with Renewable
Energy Sources (No. LAPS202107).
Figure A1a-A1d show the results of the grid independence
study, and the schematic of the validation case is shown in Fig. 1.
Four sets of grids, with 9 grid nodes, 17 grid nodes, 26 grid nodes,
and 33 grid nodes arranged around the building in each direction,
are employed to study the grid resolution. As shown in Fig. A1a-
A1d, the velocity profile at different streamwise locations of the
case with 17 grid nodes around the building is the same as the ve-

Fig. A1. Profiles of the velocity at different streamwise locations of cases with different grid nodes around the building. (a) Inlet, (b) 0.5h in front of the building’s leeward
side, (c) 0.5h behind the building’s leeward side, and (d) 1.5h behind the building’s leeward side.

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S. Zhang, H. Yang, B. Du et al. Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Letters 11 (2021) 100296

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