ZOOLOGY-I

SECTION – C
Q NO. 14

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that contains a cell's hereditary

information and controls its growth and reproduction. It is the command center of a
eukaryotic cell and is usually the most notable cell organelle in both size and function.

Function
The key function of the nucleus is to control cell growth and multiplication. This
involves regulating gene expression, initiating cellular reproduction, and storing
genetic material necessary for all of these tasks. In order for a nucleus to carry out
important reproductive roles and other cell activities, it needs proteins and
ribosomes.

Protein and Ribosome Synthesis

The nucleus regulates the synthesis of proteins in the cytoplasm through the use of
messenger RNA (mRNA). Messenger RNA is a transcribed DNA segment that serves
as a template for protein production. It is produced in the nucleus and travels to the
cytoplasm through the nuclear pores of the nuclear envelope, which you'll read about
below. Once in the cytoplasm, ribosomes and another RNA molecule called transfer
RNA work together to translate mRNA in order to produce proteins.

Physical Characteristics
The shape of a nucleus varies from cell to cell but is often depicted as spherical. To
understand more about the role of the nucleus, read about the structure and function
of each of its parts.

Nuclear Envelope and Nuclear Pores

The cell nucleus is bound by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. This
membrane separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm, the gel-like
substance containing all other organelles. The nuclear envelope consists
of phospholipids that form a lipid bilayer much like that of the cell membrane. This
lipid bilayer has nuclear pores that allow substances to enter and exit the nucleus, or
transfer from the cytoplasm to the nucleoplasm.

The nuclear envelope helps to maintain the shape of the nucleus. It is connected to
the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in such a way that the internal chamber of the
nuclear envelope is continuous with the lumen, or inside, of the ER. This also allows
the transfer of materials as well.

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Chromatin

The nucleus houses chromosomes containing DNA. DNA holds heredity information
and instructions for cell growth, development, and reproduction. When a cell is
"resting", or not dividing, its chromosomes are organized into long entangled
structures called chromatin.

Nucleoplasm

Nucleoplasm is the gelatinous substance within the nuclear envelope. Also called
karyoplasm, this semi-aqueous material is similar to cytoplasm in that it is composed
mainly of water with dissolved salts, enzymes, and organic molecules suspended
within. The nucleolus and chromosomes are surrounded by nucleoplasm, which
cushions and protects nuclear contents.

Like the nuclear envelope, the nucleoplasm supports the nucleus to hold its shape. It
also provides a medium by which materials, such as enzymes and nucleotides (DNA
and RNA subunits), can be transported throughout the nucleus to its various parts.

Nucleolus

Contained within the nucleus is a dense, membrane-less structure composed of RNA

and proteins called the nucleolus. The nucleolus contains nucleolar organizers, the
parts of chromosomes carrying the genes for ribosome synthesis. The nucleolus helps
to synthesize ribosomes by transcribing and assembling ribosomal RNA subunits.
These subunits join together to form ribosomes during protein synthesis.

Q NO. 15

The Circulation of Blood

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The human circulatory system is really a two-part system whose purpose is to
bring oxygen-bearing blood to all the tissues of the body. When the heart contracts
it pushes the blood out into two major loops or cycles. In the systemic loop, the
blood circulates into the body’s systems, bringing oxygen to all its organs,
structures and tissues and collecting carbon dioxide waste. In the pulmonary loop,
the blood circulates to and from the lungs, to release the carbon dioxide and pick
up new oxygen. The systemic cycle is controlled by the left side of the heart, the
pulmonary cycle by the right side of the heart. Let’s look at what happens during
each cycle:

The systemic loop begins when the oxygen-rich blood coming from the lungs enters
the upper left chamber of the heart, the left atrium. As the chamber fills, it presses
open the mitral valve and the blood flows down into the left ventricle. When the
ventricles contract during a heartbeat, the blood on the left side is forced into
the aorta. This largest artery of the body is an inch wide. The blood leaving the
aorta brings oxygen to all the body’s cells through the network of ever smaller
arteries and capillaries. The used blood from the body returns to the heart through
the network of veins. All of the blood from the body is eventually collected into the
two largest veins: the superior vena cava, which receives blood from the upper
body, and the inferior vena cava, which receives blood from the lower body region.
Both venae cavae empty the blood into the right atrium of the heart.

From here the blood begins its journey through the pulmonary cycle. From the
right atrium the blood descends into the right ventricle through the tricuspid
valve. When the ventricle contracts, the blood is pushed into the pulmonary artery
that branches into two main parts: one going to the left lung, one to the right lung.
The fresh, oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium of the heart through the
pulmonary veins.

Although the circulatory system is made up of two cycles, both happen at the same
time. The contraction of the heart muscle starts in the two atria, which push the
blood into the ventricles. Then the walls of the ventricles squeeze together and
force the blood out into the arteries: the aorta to the body and the pulmonary
artery to the lungs. Afterwards, the heart muscle relaxes, allowing blood to flow
in from the veins and fill the atria again. In healthy people the normal (resting)
heart rate is about 72 beats per minute, but it can go much higher during strenuous
exercise. Scientists have estimated that it takes about 30 seconds for a given
portion of the blood to complete the entire cycle: from lungs to heart to body, back
to the heart and out to the lungs.

Q NO. 16

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SECTION – B
Q NO.3
Water ( H2O ) is polar because of the bent shape of the molecule. It also acts as
a polar solvent. it has one side that is positively charged and one side that is
negatively charged. The molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom. When two water molecules get close together, the polar forces
work to draw the molecules together. The oxygen atom of one water molecule
will bond with several hydrogen atoms of other water molecules
Q NO. 5
Lysosomes are sphere-shaped sacs filled with hydrolytic enzymes that have the
capability to break down many types of biomolecules. Lysosomes are known as
suicide bags of the cell because they contain lytic enzymes capable of digesting
cells and unwanted materials.
Q NO. 6
Birds are considered as glorified reptiles because it has long been known that
birds have arisen from reptiles. They are structurally similar to reptiles, aside
from the ability of flight because their characteristics are connected with it.

Q NO. 11
Human blood is red because of the protein hemoglobin, which contains a red-
colored compound called heme that's crucial for carrying oxygen through your
bloodstream. Heme contains an iron atom which binds to oxygen; it's this
molecule that transports oxygen from your lungs to other parts of the body.
Q NO. 13
The stomach is protected by the epithelial cells, which produce and secrete a
bicarbonate-rich solution that coats the mucosa. Bicarbonate is alkaline, a
base, and neutralises the acid secreted by the parietal cells, producing water
in the process.

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Q NO. 2

Q NO. 4

Questions No 7

Insect cuticle has some intriguing permeability properties. Many small insects,
terrestrial as well as aquatic, respire to a significant degree through the
general body surface as well as using the breathing tubes (tracheae) which so
typify arthropods. Some desert-living insects can absorb water from humid
air using a combination of capillary condensation between very fine hairs and
changing the hydrophilicity of the cuticle by controlling its charge density
with a salt solution (O’Donnell 1982). This is an extreme example of a general
phenomenon. The wax layer of the cuticle not only protects the insect from
desiccation but forms a barrier for penetration of topically applied pesticides,
which have to cross this hydrophobic boundary and then enter the
hydrophilic environment of the endocuticle and the body cavity of the insect.

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Permeability is also important for chemosensing. The hairs on antennae and
other sense organs have minute pores in the end so that the chemical to be
sensed can contact cell membrane more or less directly. There is no general
dermal chemical sensitivity since the exocuticle is chemically so inert.
Qno8:

Hydrolytic enzymes are the enzymes that catalyse the hydrolysis of various
bonds such as peptide, ester, glycosidic, ether, carbon-carbon bonds, carbon-
halide bonds and P-N bonds. They utilise water to break the bonds. They
break a larger molecule into smaller molecules.
Enzymes are proteins that help speed up metabolism, or the chemical reactions
in our bodies. They build some substances and break others down. All living
things have enzymes. Our bodies naturally produce enzymes.

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