MAT 101 LECTURE NOTE

ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
ALHIKMAH UNIVERSITY, ILORIN, KWARA
STATE, NIGERIA.

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 ELEMENTARY SET THEORY

Learning objectives: At the end of the topic, the students should be able to

• Identify and use set properties and notations;

• Perform any given Set operation;

• Define Cartesian product of Sets.

SETS

A set can be defined as a collection of items with distinct properties.

Example 1. The students of Al-Hikmah university constitute a set and every
student of Al-Hikmah is a member of this set.
Example 2. The set of students offering MAT 101 in Al-Hikmah University
is also another example of a set.
Example 3. The whole numbers 1, 2, 3, ... constitute a set and each whole
number is a member of this set.
Example 4. The numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, ... forms the set of even numbers.
Notation
Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C,... e.t.c. while the mem-
bers of the set are denoted by small letters a,b,c,d,... e.t.c. For example
A = {a, b, c, d} .

Sets representation may be by listing e.g. A = {1, 3, 5, 7} or by description

e.g. A = {x : x is an odd number between 1 and 7 inclusive} .
B = {x : x2 − 1 = 0} = {−1, 1} .

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C = {y : y 2 , y ∈ Z}, where Z is an integer (whole numbers)
D = {x : 3x + 1 = 5} = 34


E = {1, 4, 9, 16...}

When a set is defined by description, the symbol | or : is often used for

the phrase ”such that”. For example
Example 5. The set A = {n : n is a whole number} indicate that A is the
set of all element n such that n is a whole number.
The objects comprising a set are called the elements of the set and they
may be finite or infinite. The membership of a set is denoted by ∈. For
example given the set A = {a, b, c, d}, a ∈ A implies a is a member of the
set A or a belongs to A, while e ∈
/ A is read ’e is not a member of the set
A’ or e does not belong to the set A’.

Finite and Infinite Sets

A set is classified as finite if we could list all the elements of such a set.
However, if we could not list all the elements of a set because the list goes
on and on forever, the set is said to be infinite. Examples 1 and 2 above
are finite while 3 and 4 are infinite.
Singleton
A set with only one element is called a singleton. The set A = {1} is an
example of a singleton.
Empty Set (Null Set)
This is a set that contains no element. It is mathematically denoted by φ
or {}.

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Universal Set
The Universal set is the set that consist of all element under discuss in a
particular context. For instance, for the set students offering MAT 101 in
Alhikmah Uninversity, the set of all students in Al-Hikmah University is a
universal set.
Subset
A set B is called the subset of a set A if every element of the set B is also
an element of the set A. It is mathematically denoted by B ⊂ A or A ⊃ B.
Every set is a subset of itself. i. e. A ⊆ A. Also the empty set is a subset
of every set. i. e. φ ⊂ A for all A.
Proper Subset
B is called a proper subset of A if B ⊂ A and B 6= A. For example if
A = {1, 2, 3, 4} , B = {1, 2} then B ⊂ A.
Power Set
Let A be a non-emoty set, the power set of A is a set that contains all the
subset of A. It is denoted by P (A). For example, if A = {1, 2, 3}. The
power set of A is

P (A) = {{1} , {2} , {3} , {1, 2} , {1, 3} , {2, 3} , {1, 2, 3} , φ}

Cardinality of a Set
This is the number of elements in a particular set. e.g Given A = {1, 2, 3},
then the cardinality of A denoted by n(A) = 3.
If the number of element in a particular set A = n, then the number of
element in the power set of A is given by n(P (A)) = 2n .
Disjoint Sets

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Sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they do not have any element in
common. e.g. the set of students studying mathematics and microbiology
Alhikmah University.
Equal Sets
Two sets A and B are equal if they have the same members. i.e. A =
{a, b, c} and B = {a, b, c, b, c} . Moreso, if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, then A = B.

BASIC SET OPERATIONS

Set Difference
The difference of two sets A and B is the set consisting of elements in A
but not in B. It is denoted by A \ B. i. e.

A \ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B} .

Example. Given A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 3, 5, 7} ,

Then A \ B = {2, 4} and
B \ A = {5, 7}.
Complement of a Set
The complement of a set A is the set of elements in the universal set but
0
not in A. It is denoted by Ac or A .
Example: Given that U = {1, 2, 3, ...10}, and A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
Then Ac = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} .

Note the similarity between set difference and complement.

Intersection of Sets

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 The intersection of two sets A and B is a third set which consist of
common elements of set A and B. It is denoted by ∩. i.e.

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B} .

Example: Find the intersection of the sets A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B =

{1, 3, 4, 5}.
Solution:
A ∩ B = {1, 3, 4}

Union of Sets
The union of two sets A and B is a set that consist of elements of set A
or B or both.
A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B} .

Example: Find the union of A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 3, 4, 5}

Solution:
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} .

Laws of Algebra of Sets

1. The union and intersection are commutative and associative

• A ∪ B = B ∪ A; (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)

• A ∩ B = B ∩ A; (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

2. The union is distributive with respect to intersection and intersection

is distributive with respect to union.

• A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

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 • A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

3. De Morgans Law

• (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c ,

• (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c

Example 1: Prove that (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c .

Solution:
Let x ∈ (A ∪ B)c
⇒x∈
/ A∪B

⇒x∈
/ A and x ∈
/B

⇒ x ∈ Ac and x ∈ B

x ∈ Ac ∩ B c

⇒ (A ∪ B)c ⊆ Ac ∩ B c (1)

Let x ∈ Ac ∩ B c

⇒ x ∈ Ac and x ∈ B c

⇒x∈ / Bc
/ A and x ∈

⇒x∈
/ A∪B

x ∈ (A ∪ B)c

⇒ Ac ∩ B c ⊆ (A ∪ B)c (2)

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Equations (1) and (2) imply that (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c .
Example 2: Prove that (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c .
Let x ∈ (A ∩ B)c
⇒x∈A∩B

⇒x∈
/ A and x ∈
/B

⇒ x ∈ Ac and x ∈ B c

x ∈ Ac ∪ B c

⇒ (A ∩ B)c ⊆ Ac ∪ B c (1)

Let x ∈ Ac ∪ B c
⇒ x ∈ Ac and x ∈ B c

⇒x∈
/ A and x ∈
/B

⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ B)c

x ∈ Ac ∪ B c

⇒ Ac ∩ B c ⊆ (A ∩ B)c (2)

Equations (1) and (2) implies that (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c

VENN DIAGRAM

This is a pictorial representation of set using rectangles and circles.

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Example: In a school of 100 teachers, 35 teach physics and 45 teach math-
ematics1 10 teach mathematics and physics. How many teach either math-
ematics or physics and how many teach either of the two subjects?
Solution

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Let M be the set of teachers for mathematics and P the set of teachers for
Physics.
n(U ) = 100, n(M ) = 45, n(P ) = 35 n(P ∩ M ) = 10.
Number of teachers who teach mathematics only i. e. n(M ∩P 0 ) = 45−10 =
35
Number of teachers who teach physics only i. e. n(P ∩ M 0 ) = 35 − 10 = 25
Number of teachers who teach either mathematics or physics i. e. n(P ∪
M ) = 25 + 10 + 35 = 70
Number of teachers who teach neither mathematics nor physics i. e. n(P 0 ∪
M 0 ) = 100 − 70 = 30

Example: In a class of 30 students, 18 students speak English, 8 of the

students speak both English and French. If each student speak at least one
of the languages, how many speak french only? What is the total number
of students who could speak French?
Solution Let E be the set of students who English and F the set of stu-
dents who speak French.
n(U ) = 30, n(E) = 18, n(E ∩ F ) = 8.
Number of students who speak English only i. e. n(E ∩ F 0 ) = 18 − 8 = 10
Number of students who speak English and French i. e. n(E ∩ F ) = 8
Number of students who speak French only i. e. n(F ∩ E 0 ) = n(U ) − n(E ∩
F 0 ) − n(E ∩ F ) = 30 − 10 − 8 = 12
Total number of students who speak French i. e. = 12 + 8 = 20

Example: In a certain school, 52 pupils play football, 65 play table

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tennis abd 50 play basketball. 3 pupils play only football, 5 play only table
tennis, 12 play only football and table tennis and 6 play only table tennis
and basketball. How many pupils play all the three games? How many play
only football and basketball? How many play only basketball?
Solution
Let F be the set of pupils who play football, T the set of pupils who play
Table tennis and B the set of pupils who play basketball.
n(U ) = 30, n(F ) = 57, n(T ) = 5, n(B) = 50, n(F ∩ T 0 ∩ B 0 ) = 3,
n(T ∩ F 0 ∩ B 0 ) = 5, n(F ∩ T ∩ B 0 ) = 12, n(T ∩ B ∩ B 0 ) = 6’.

Let the number of pupils who play the there games be x, i.e. n(F ∩T ∩B) =
x,
number of pupils playing football and tennis only be y, i.e. n(F capB ∩T 0 ) =
y
and n(B ∩ F 0 ∩ T 0 ) = z.

Now n(F ) = n(T ) + n(F ∩ T ∩ B 0 ) + n(T ∩ B ∩ B 0 ) + n(F ∩ T ∩ B) = 57

i.e. 5 + 12 + 6 + x = 65 which implies x = 42.
n(F ) = n(F ∩ T 0 ∩ B 0 ) + n(F ∩ T ∩ B 0 ) + n(F ∩ T ∩ B) + n(F ∩ B ∩ T 0 ) = 57
i.e.
3 + 12 + 42 + y = 57

which implies y = 0.
n(B) = n(F ∩ B ∩ T 0 ) + n(F ∩ T ∩ B) + n(B ∩ F 0 ∩ T 0 ) + n(T ∩ B ∩ B 0 ) = 50
i.e. y + x + 6 + z = 50 which gives z = 2.

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CARTESIAN PRODUCT
Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of A and B is defined by

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}

Example:
Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}, find the Cartesian product of A and B.

A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)}

B × A = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)}

PRACTISE QUESTIONS
1. List the elements of the following Sets.
A = {x : 2x − 1and x is a positive integer less than10}
B = {x : x2 + 5x = −6}
C = {x : 2x : 1 ≤ x ≤ 10}
2. The set P and Q are such that P = {2, 4, 5} and {2, 3, 4, 7}. What is
p ∪ Q?
3. Given that P and Q are subset of the set of real number R, such that
P = {x : 0 ≤ x ≤ 3} and Q = {x : −2 ≤ x ≤ 5}. Find P ∪ Q and P ∩ Q.
4. Let A = {x : −2 ≤ x ≤ 2, x ∈ Z} and B = {x : x ∈ Z}. Find A ∩ B. 5.
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}. Find (A ∩ B) ∪ A.

SETS OF NUMBERS

Learning objectives:
At the end of the topic, the students should be able to

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• Identify the different sets of Numbers;

• use the principle of Mathematical induction to prove certain properties

of Natural Numbers.

1. Natural Numbers
N = {0, 1, 2, 3...}
N + = {1, 2, 3, 4...}

2. Z = {0, −1, +1, −2, +2...} integers

3. Rational numbers
n o
p +
Q = q : p ∈ z, q ∈ N

4. Irrational Numbers
These are numbers that have non-terminating and non-repeating dec-
√
imals e.g π, 2 e.t.c.

5. Real numbers
This includes the natural numbers, the integers, rational and irra-
tionals.
R+ = the set of positive real numbers = {x : x > 0}
Complex numbers.
The complex number is denoted by C. These are numbers of the form
a + ib where a and b are real numbers and i = −1. a is called the real
part of the number while b is called the imaginary part.

The Principles of Mathematical Induction

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Let S(n) be a statement concerning a natural number n. If S(1) is true
and the hypothesis that S(k) is true for a particular k is sufficient that
it is true for S(k + 1). Then S(n) is true for all positive integer.
Example 1
Prove by mathematical induction that:

n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ...n =
2

Solution
Let
n(n + 1)
S(n) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ...n = .
2
n(n+1) 1(2)
For n = 1, LHS is S(1) = 1 and the RHS = 2
= 2
= 1.
Therefore
LHS = RHS = 1.

Assume S(k) is true. i. e.

k(k + 1)
S(k) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ...k = .
2

Now for S(k + 1)

LHS = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k + (k + 1)

k(k + 1)
= +k+1
2
k(k + 1) 2(k + 1) (k + 1)
= + = (k + 2)
2 2 2
and
(k + 1)(k + 2)
RHS = = LHS
2

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 ⇒ S(n) is true for all integers

Example 2
Use the principle of mathematical induction to prove that the sum of
the cubes of the first n positive integers is 41 n2 (1 + n)2 .
Solution
Let
1
S(n) = 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + ... + n3 = n2 (1 + n)2
4
n
X 1
r3 = n2 (1 + n)2
r=1
4

i For n = 1
LHS=r3 = 1, therefor S(1) is true.
RHS = 41 (12 )(1 + 1)2 = 1
4
× 22 = 1

ii For n = k
Assume 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + ... + k 3 = 14 k 2 (1 + k)2
i.e assume S(k) is true.

iii For n = k + 1
LHS = 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + ... + k 3 + (k + 1)3
using the assumption, we have
LHS = 41 k 2 (1 + k)2 + (k + 1)3
1 2
4
k (1 + k)2 + 44 (k + 1)3
1
4
(1 + k)2 [k 2 + 4(k + 1)]
1
4
(1 + k)2 [k 2 + 4k + 4)]
= 41 (1 + k)2 (k + 2)2

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 RHS = 41 (k + 1)2 (k + 2)2

∴ S(k + 1) is true

∴ S(n) is true for all positive integers

Example 3
If 0 < b < 1, prove by mathematical induction that 0 < bn < 1 for all
positive integer n.
Solution
S(n) = 0 < bn < 1

i for n = 1
0 < b < 1 ⇒ 0 < b1 < 1

S(1) is true

ii for n = k
Assume if 0 < b < 1, then 0 < bk < 1

iii For n = k + 1

0 < bk < 1

0 < bk .b < b multiply through by b

0 < bk+1 < b < 1

∴ S(k + 1) is true

0 < bn < 1 for all positive integers

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Exercise
Prove the following by using the principle of mathematical induction

1.
n
X
(4r + 3) = 2n2 + 5n
r=1

2.
n
X 1
r2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
r=1
6

3.
1 1 1 1 n
+ + + ... + =
1·2 2·3 3·4 n(n + 1) n+1

SEQUENCES AND SERIES

Learning objectives:
At the end of the topic, the students should be able to

• Differentiate between Arthmetic and Geometric Progressions;

• Find the nth term of a progression given two terms of the progression;

• Find the sum of the nth terms of a progression;

• Find the sum to infinity of a geometric progression.

A sequence is a set of quantities a1 , a2 , ..., stated in a definite order and

each term formed according to a fixed pattern. Each element of the sequence
is called a term of the sequence and an is called the nth term or the general
term of the sequence e.g 2,4,6,8,...

ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE/PROGRESSION (AP)

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An arithmetic sequence is a sequence obtained by adding the common dif-
ference d to the preceding term i.e. a sequence of the form

a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d...

where a = 1st term, d = common difference. The general term of an arith-

metic progression is given by an = a1 + (n − 1)d where n is the term.

ARITHMETIC SERIES

An arithmetic series is obtained by adding the terms of an arithmetic se-

quence. E.g The sequence 16,48,80,112,... has the series 16+48+80+112+...
we use the notation Sn to denote the sum of the first n terms of a sequence.
n
X
Sn = aj = a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an
j=1

In the above sequence

1
X
S1 = aj = 16
j=1

2
X
S2 = aj = 16 + 48 = 64
j=1

3
X
S3 = aj = 16 + 48 + 80 = 144
j=1

These numbers are called the nth partial sums of the sequence.
Formula for nth partial sum

n
Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d]
2
n
[a + a + (n − 1)d]
2
18
 n
[a1 + an ]
2
n
[a + l]
2
EXAMPLE 1
Find 3 numbers in an arithmetic progression such that their sum is 27 and
their product is 504.
Solution
let the numbers be a, a + d, a + 2d
Sum =
a + a + d + a + 2d = 27

3a + 3d = 27
a+d=9 (1)

Product =
a(a + d)(a + 2d) = 504

a(a2 + 2ad + ad + 2d2 ) = 504

a(a2 + 3ad + 2d2 ) = 504

a3 + 3a2 d + 2ad2 = 504 (2)

solve 1 and 2 simultaneously, substitute (3) in (2)

(9 − d)3 + 3(9 − d)2 d + 2(9 − d)d2 = 504

(9 − d)(9 − d) = 81 − 9d − 9d + d2

= 81 − 18d + d2

(9 − d)(81 − 18d + d2 )

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 = 729 − 162d + 9d2 − (81d + 18d2 − d3 ) = 729 − 243d + 27d2 − d3

729 − 243d + 27d2 − d3 + 3d(81 − 18d + d2 ) + 2d2 (a − d) = 504

729 + 27d2 − 54d2 + 18d2 = 504

729 − 27d2 + 18d2 = 504

729 − 9d2 = 504

729 − 504 = 9d2

9d2 = 225
225
d2 = = 25 ⇒= ±5
9
therefore from (3) above a = 9 − d
a = 9 − 5 = 4 or a = 9 + 5 = 14.
When a = 4, a + d = 4 + 5 = 9
a + 2d = 4 + 2(5) = 14. Hence, the numbers are 4, 9, 14.
If x, y, z are three consecutive terms of an AP, then y = 12 (x+z) is called
the arithmetic mean of x and z.
EXAMPLE 2
Insert 3 arithmetic means between 8 and 18.
Solution
We find 3 numbers A, B, C such that 8, A, B, C, 18 will be an arithmetic
progression.
a1 = 8 (i)

a2 = a1 + d = A (ii)

a3 = a1 + 2d = B (iii)

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 a4 = a1 + 3d = C (iv)

a5 = a1 + 4d = 18 (v)

From (i) and (v) a1 = 8, d =?

a1 + 4d = 18

8 + 4d = 18
10
4d = 10 ⇒ d = = 2.5
4
a2 = a1 + d

a2 = 8 + 2.5 = 10.5

a3 = a2 + d

a3 = 10.5 + 2.5 = 13

a4 = a3 + d

a4 = 13 + 2.5 = 15.5

The arithmetic means are 10.5, 13, 15.5

GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (G.P)

Geometric progression sequence is a sequence obtained by multiplying the

preceding term by a common ratio r i.e. a sequence of the form a, ar, ar2 , ar3 ...arn−1
where a is the first term and r is the common ratio. The general term is
ak+1
denoted by an = arn−1 , a = 1st term and r = common ratio = ak
for all
k such that 1 ≤ k < n.

GEOMETRIC SERIES

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The sum Sn of the first n term of G.P is called a geometric series

a(1 − rn )
Sn = , r 6= 1.
1−r

Example 1
The 5th term of a G.P is 162 and the 8th term is 4374. Find the G.P.
Solution
Using the formula arn−1 , a5 = 162, a8 = 4374.

a5 = ar4 = 162 (i)

a8 = ar7 = 4374 (ii)

Then
ar7 4374
3
=
ar 162
r3 = 27 ⇒ r = 3

Substitute r = 3 in (i) and (ii)

ar4 = 162

a(3)4 = 162
162
81a = 162 ⇒ a = =2
81
a = 2, r = 3

∴ G.P. is 2, 6, 18, 54, ...

Example 2
Find the sum of the first 8 terms of the series 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 + 21 + ...

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Solution

a2 4 1
r= = =
a1 8 2
a3 2 1
r= = =
a2 4 2
1 a(1 − rn )
a = 8, r = , Sn =
2 1−r
a(1 − r8 )
S8 =
1−r
(1 − ( 21 )8 )
=8
1 − 12
8(1 − ( 21 )8 )
= 1
2
 
1 2
=8 1− 8 ×
2 1
 
1
= 16 1 −
256
 
255 255 15
= 16 = = 15
256 16 16
Example 3
If the sum of the first n terms of sequence is given by
 
1
Sn = 9 1 − n
3

i Find the first and second terms of the sequence

ii Find the nth term of the sequence

Solution

23
 i
S1 = a1

S 2 = a1 + a2

S3 = a1 + a2 + a3
 
1
S 1 = a1 = 9 1 −
3
 
2 18
=9 = = 6.
3 3
a2 = S2 − S1
 
1
=9 1− 2 −6
3
 
1
=9 1− −6
9
 
8
=9 −6=8−6=2
9

ii
an = Sn − Sn−1
   
1 1
9 1 − n − 9 1 − n−1
3 3
 
1 1
9 1 − n − 1 + n−1
3 3
 
1 1
9 − n + n−1
3 3
 
1 1
9 n−1 − n
3 3
 
1 1
9 n−1 − n
3 3

24
  
9 1 1
−
3n 3−1 1
9 9
[3 − 1] = [2]
3n 3n
32 2
n
= n−2
3 3

25
 Where
they are

GEOMETRIC MEAN

Let x, y, z make 3 consecutive terms of a G.P. We call y the geometric mean

between x and z. i.e. x, y, z becomes G.P.

a=x

ar = y

ar2 = z
ar y
r= =
a x
2
ar z
r= =
ar y
y z
=
x y
y 2 = xz
√
y = ± xz.

Thus geometric mean between any 2 numbers is the square of the product
of the 2 numbers. e.g. insert 4 geometric means between 5 and 1215.
Solution
5, A, B, C, D, 1215

a=5 (i)

ar = A (ii)

ar2 = B (iii)

ar3 = C (iv)

ar4 = D (iv)

26
 ar5 = 1215 (iv)

From (i) and (ii)

ar5 = 1215
1215
r5 =
5
r5 = 243 ⇒ r = 3

Therefore
A = 5 × 3 = 15

B = 5 × 9 = 45

C = 5 × 27 = 135

D = 5 × 81 = 405

Consider the infinite series

1 1 1
1+ + + + ...
2 4 8
1
G.P. with a = 1, r = 2

a(1 − rn ) 1(1 − 21n ) 1(1 − 1  

2n
) 1
Sn = = 1 = 1 =2 1− n
1−r 1− 2 2
2
1
If n is large, 2n will be very large and 2n
will be very small. i.e. as
1
n −→ ∞, 2n
−→ 0.
The sum of all the terms in the infinite series is given by S∞ = limiting vale
of Sn as n −→ ∞. i.e.

S∞ = limn−→∞ Sn = 2(1 − 0) = 2

27
 More generally, the limiting value of Sn as n becomes lager given that
a(1 − rn )
Sn = and r < 1
1−r
is
a
S∞ =
1−r
Example 1
Find the sum to infinity of the series 20+4+0.8+0.16+...
Solution
4 1
a = 20, r = =
20 5
a
S∞ =
1−r
20
=
1 − 15
20 5
= 4 = 20 × = 25.
5
4
Example 2
Express a re-occurring decimal 0.31 as a fraction in its lowest term
Solution
0.313131=0.31+0.0031+0.000031+... GP with

a = 0.31
0.0031 1 0.000031 1
r= = = =
0.31 100 0.0031 100
a 0.31 0.31 31 99 31 100 31
S∞ = = 1 = 99 = ÷ = × =
1−r 1 − 100 100
100 100 100 99 99
Example 3
A sequence of numbers is given by the following recursive formula

ar+1 − ar = 3r2 .

28
Solution
a1 = 3, d = ar+1 − a1 = 3r2

Therefore, the sequence

3, 3 + 3r2 , 3 + 6r2 , 3 + 9r2 , 3 + 12r2 , ... 3 + 3(k + 1)r2

a a+d a + 2d a + 3d a + 4d

To test the validity of the sequence

for n = 1
a1 = 3
for n = k, Assume ak = 3 + 3(k − 1)r2
for n = k + 1
L.H.S
ak+1 = ak+d

ak+1 = ak+d

ak+1 = 3 + 3(k − 1)r2 + 3r2

= 3 + 3(k − 1 + 1)r2

= 3 + 3kr2

R.H.S.
3 + 3(k − 1)r2

3 + 3(k − 1 + 1)r2 = 3 + 3kr2

Exercise

1. Find the sum of integers between 4 and 1000 inclusively excluding

those which are multiples of 3 and 7

29
 2. Express the following re-occurring decimals as fractions in their lowest
term 0.11111 and 2.121212.

Solution

1.
n = 1000 − 4 = 996 a = 4, L = 1000
n
(a + L)
2
996 996
= (4 + 1000) = (1004) = 499992
2 2
Sn1 = 499992

multiples of 3 are 6,9,12,15...999

999
n= − 1 = 333 − 1 = 332
3
332
Sn2 = (6 + 999) = 166(1005) = 166830
2
multiples of 7 are {7, 14, 21, 28, 35, ...994}

994
a = 7, L = 994, n = = 142
7
142 142
Sn3 = (7 + 994) = (1001) = 71071
2 2
Sn = Sn1 − Sn2 − Sn3 = 499992 − 166830 − 71071 = 262091

2. 0.11111

0.11111 = 0.1 + 0.01 + 0.001 + 0.0001 + ....

0.001 1
r= =
0.01 10
30
 0.01 1
=
0.1 10
 
a
S∞ =
1−r
 
0.1
S∞ = 1
1 − 10
 
0.1
= 1
1 − 10
0.1 9
= 9 = 0.1 ÷
10
10
10 1
= 0.1 × =
9 9

3.
2.121212 = 2.1 + 0.021 + 0.00021 + ...
0.00021 1
r= =
0.021 100
 
a
S∞ =
1−r
2.1
= 1
1 − 100
2.1
= 99
100
99
= 2.1 ÷
100
100 210
= 2.1 × =
99 99

THEORY OF QUADRATIC EQUATION

Learning objectives:
At the end of the topic, the students should be able to

31
 • Determine the nature of the roots of quadratic equations;

• Obtain the sum and product of roots of quadratic equations using

from the coefficients;

• Derive quadratic equations from given roots.

A quadratic equation in x is an equation of the form

ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 6= 0

Solution

i Factorization

ii Completing the squares

iii Formula method

Solution of a quadratic equation is called a root of the equation

NATURE OF ROOTS

Consider the equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0

whose discriminant is D = b2 − 4ac.

TYPES OF ROOTS

i If the discriminant is greater than 0. i.e. positive then, there are two
different real roots

32
 ii If the discriminant is equal to zero, then there are two equal roots

iii If the discriminant is less than zero, i.e. there are no real roots (com-
plex roots)

Examples

1. Find the discriminant and hence determine the nature of root of (a)
x2 + 8x + 6 = 0 (b) −4x2 + 2x − 5 = 0 (c) 2x2 − 8x + 8 = 0

Solution

(a)
x2 + 8x + 6 = 0

a = 1, b = 8, c = 6

82 − 4 × 1 × 6 = 64 − 24 = 40 > 0 two different real roots

(b)
−4x2 + 2x − 5

a = −4, b = 2, c = −5

22 − 4 × 20 = 4 − 80 = −76 < 0 Complex root

(c)
2x2 − 8x + 8

a = 2, b = −8, c = 8

−82 − 4 × 2 × 8 = 64 − 64 = 0 two equal roots

33
2. Find the values of k for which the equation x2 + (k + 9)x + k 2 + 15 = 0
has equal roots.

Solution

For equal root b2 − 4ac = 0, a = 1, b = k + 9, c = k 2 + 15

D = (k + 9)2 − 4(1)(k 2 + 15)

= k 2 + 18k + 81 − 4k 2 − 60 = 0

= −3k 2 + 18k + 21 = 0

Divide all through by -3 Using factorization

k 2 − 6k − 7 = 0

k 2 − 7k + k − 7 = 0

k(k − 7) + 1(k − 7) = 0

(k − 7)(k + 1) = 0

k − 7 = 0, k + 1 = 0 =⇒ k = 7, k = −1

SUM AND PRODUCT OF ROOTS OF A QUADRATIC

FUNCTION

Let α and β be the roots of a quadratic equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0 (1)
√ √ √
−b ± b2 − 4ac −b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
x= , i.e. α = , β=
2a 2a 2a
34
 Sum of roots α + β
√ √
b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
−b +
α+β = +
2a 2a
√ √
−b + b2 − 4ac − b − b2 − 4ac
2a
−2b −b
α+β = =
2a a
Product of roots αβ
 √  √ 
−b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
αβ =
2a 2a
√
b2 − ( b2 − 4ac)2
4a2
b2 − (b2 − 4ac )
=
4a2
b2 − b2 + 4ac
=
4a2
4ac c
=
4a2 a
c
∴ αβ =
a
If α and β are the roots of equation (1), it implies that x = α or x = β

x − α = 0 or x − β = 0

(x − β)(x − α) = 0

x2 − (α + β)x + αβ = 0

Any quadratic equation in x is always in the form

x2 − (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0

Example

35
1. If α and β are roots of 3x2 +6x−2 = 0. Find the value of α2 +β 2 , (αβ)2
and hence find the quadratic equation whose roots are α2 and β 2 .
Solution
3x2 + 6x − 2 = 0

a = 3, b = 6, c = −2
−b −6
α+β = = = −2
a 3
(α + β)2 = (α + β)(α + β) = α2 + 2αβ + β 2

(α + β)2 − 2αβ = α2 + β 2

α2 + β 2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ
 
2 −2 8
= (−2) − 2 =
3 3
 2
−2 4
(αβ)2 = =
3 9
x2 − (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0

If the roots are α2 and β 2 , then the equation is

x2 − (α2 + β 2 )x + α2 β 2 = 0

The new equation is

16 4
x2 − x+ =0
3 9
multiply through by 9

9x2 − 48x + 4 = 0

36
2. Given that α and β are the roots of the equation 2x2 + x − 5 = 0.
1 1
Find the equation whose roots are α2
and β2

Solution

a = 2, b = 1, c = −15
−b −1
α+β = =
a 2
c −5
αβ = =
a 2
 
1 1 1
x2 − 2
+ 2 x+ =0
α β αβ 2
1 1 β 2 + α2
+ =
α2 β 2 α2 β 2
(β + α)2 − 2αβ
=
(αβ)2
2
− 12 − 2 − 25 1
+ 10



4 2
= =
− 52 25
4
21 25 21 4 21
= ÷ = × =
4 4 4 25 25
1 1 4
=
2 =
(αβ)2 −5 25
2
21 4
x2 − x + =0
25 25
multiplying through by 25, we have 25x2 − 21x + 4 = 0

1 1
3. Find the equation whose roots are α2
and β2
if α and β are the roots
of the equation 4t2 − 3t − 2 = 0.
Solution

a = 4, b = −3, c = −2

37
 −b 3 c −2 −1
α+β = = , αβ = = =
a 4 a 4 2
we have
t2 − (sum of roots)t + product of roots = 0
3 2 −1



1 1 (α + β)2 − 2αβ − 2 25
sum of roots = 2 + 2 = 2 2
= 4
2 2 =
α β α β −1 4
2
1 1 1 1
Product of roots = 2 · 2 = = =4
α β (αβ)2 −1 2 1


2
= 1
4

From (1) above,

 
2 25
t − t + 4 = 0 =⇒ 4t2 − 25t + 16 = 0
4

BINOMIAL EXPANSION

Learning objectives:
At the end of the topic, the students should be able to

• Expand binomials with positive integral index using Pascals Triangle

and the Binomial Theorem;

• Expand binomials with negative and fractional index using the Bino-
mial Theorem.

The Binomial expansion is given by

(x + y)0 = 1

(x + y)1 = x + y

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2

38
 (x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2 y + 3y 2 x + y 3

(x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3 y + 6x2 y 2 + 4xY 3 + y 4

For example, using Pascals triangle, expand (c + 2y)5

Solution

(c + 2y)5 = c5 + 5c4 (2y) + 10c3 (2y)2 + 10c2 (2y)3 + 5c(2y)4 + (2y)5 =

c5 + 10c4 y + 40c3 y 2 + 80c2 y 3 + 80cy 4 + 32y 5

BINOMIAL THEOREM

If a and b are any real numbers and n is a positive integer, then

n
X
n n
(a + b) = Cr an−r br =
r=0

an +n c1 an−1 b +n c2 an−2 b + ... +n cn−1 abn−1 + bn

Example
Expand (c + 2y)5 by the binomial and use your result to evaluate (1.02)5
Solution

(c+2y)5 = 5C0 c5 (2y)0 +5C1 c4 (2y)1 +5C2 c3 (2y)2 +5C3 c2 (2y)3 +5C4 c(2y)4 +5C5 c0 (2y)5

39
 = c5 + 5c4 (2y) + 10c3 (2y 2 + 10c2 (2y)3 ) + 5c(2y)4 + (2y)5

= c5 + 10c4 y + 40c3 y 3 + 80c2 y 3 + 80cy 4 + 32y 5

(1.02)5 = (1 + 0.02)5
0.02
where c = 1, 2y = 0.02 y = 2
= 0.01

(1 + 0.02)5 = 1 + 10(0.01) + 4(0.01)2 + 80(0.01)3 + 80(0.01)4 + 32(0.01)5

= 1 + 0.1 + 0.0004 + 0.00008 + 0.0000008 + 0.0000000032 = 1.1041 to 4dp

Binomial Theorem for Negative or Fractional Integral Index

When the index is fractioned or negative, it can be shown that

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + ...
2! 3!

Converges if −1 < x < 1 ie. |x| < 1 and the limit of the sum is (1 + x)n

Example
1
Find the first 3 terms of the expansion of (3−x)2
and state the value of x for
which the expansion is valid
Solution

1 −2
h h x ii−2 −2
 x −2
= = (3 − x) = 3 1 − = 3 1 −
(3 − x)2 3 3

−2 −2
 x −2
= (3 − x) = 3 1−
3
  x  (−2)(−3)  x 2 
= 3−2 1 + (−2) − + −
3 2! 3
2x x2
 
= 3−2 1 + +
3 3

40
 2x x2
 
1
= 1+ +
9 3 3
1 2x x2
= + +
9 27 27
 
it is valid if  x3  < 1 ⇒ |x| < 3 ⇒ −3 < x < 3
1
(2) Obtain the first 5 terms in the expansion of (1 + x) 2 . Hence, find the
square root of 1.03 correct to 5 decimal places.
Solution
1 1
− 1 x2 12 1
− 1 12 − 2 x3 21 1 1 1







1 1 2 2 2 2
−1 2
−2 2
− 3 x4
(1+x) = 1+ x+
2 + +
2 2! 3! 4!
1 1 1 5 4
= 1 + x − x 2 + x3 − x
2 8 16 128
1 1 1 1 5 4
(1 + x) 2 + = 1 + x − x2 + x3 − x
2 8 16 128
1 1 0.03 (0.03)2 (0.03)3 5(0.03)4
(1.03) 2 = (1 + 0.03) 2 = 1 + − + −
2 8 16 128
1 + 0.015 − 0.0001125 + 0.0000016875 − 0.00000003164

1 + 0.015 − 0.0001125 + 0.0000017 = 1.01489 ≈ 1.0149

TRIGONOMETRY

When a line OP rotates from a position OX to some other position OP ,

the angle P OX is said to be positive if the sense of rotation is anticlockwise
and negative if the sense of rotation is clockwise. The first diagram is
< P OX = 100o and the second is < P OX = −49o .

41
 Angles are measured in degrees (360o = one rotation of OP = 360o ) or
in radians.
π radians = 180o
π
1o = radians
180
e.g.
37 × π
37o = radians = 0.6458 radians
180
180o
 
π π
radians = × = 15o
12 12 π
Trigonometric Ratios for Acute Angles

y x y r r x
sinθ = , cosθ = , tanθ = , cosecθ = , secθ = , cotθ = ,
r r x y x y

42
 1 1 1 y y x sinθ
∴ cosecθ = , secθ = , cotθ = , tanθ = = ÷ =
sinθ cosθ tanθ x r r cosθ
x x y cosθ
cotθ = = ÷ =
y r r sinθ
Also by applying the Pythagoras theorem to figure 1.

2 2x2 y 22
x +y =r ⇒ 2 + 2 =1
r r

i.e.
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1

This may be written as

sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ

or
cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ
y2 x2 + y 2 r2
1 + tan2 θ = 1 + = = = sec2 θ
x2 x2 x2
∴ 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
x2 y 2 + x2 r 2
1 + cot2 θ = 1 + 2
= 2
− 2 = cosec2 θ
y y y
1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ

Example
If sinθ = √1 and 0o ≤ θ ≤ 90o , find the values of the other trigonometric
3

ratios of the angle θ.

Solution
cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ

therefore,
1 2
cos2 θ = 1 − =
3 3
43
therefore r
2
cosθ =
3
r √
sinθ 1 2 1
tanθ = = ÷√ =√
cosθ 3 3 2
√
1 3
secθ = =
cosθ 2
1 √
cosecθ = = 3
sinθ
√
r
cosθ 2 1
cotθ = = ÷√ = 2
sinθ 3 3
Trigonometric Ratios for any Angle

A complete rotation of the arm OP is divided into 4 quadrants.

1st quadrant 0 < θ < 90o

44
 y x y
sinθ = cosθ = tanθ =
r r x
2nd quadrant 90o < θ < 180

sin(180o − θ) = sinθ

cos(180o − θ) = −cosθ

tan(180o − θ) = −tanθ

In the third quadrant

45
 sin(180o + θ) = −sinθ

cos(180o + θ) = −cosθ

tan(180o + θ) = −tanθ

In the 4th quadrant

46
 sin(360o − θ) = −sinθ

cos(360o − θ) = cosθ

tan(360o − θ) = −tanθ

Example
Find the value of (a) sin155o (b) tan312o (c) cos25o
Solution

sin155o = sin(180o − 25o ) = sin25o = +0.4226

cos250o = cos(180o + 70o ) = −cos70o = −0.3420

tan312o = tan(360o − 48o ) = −tan48o = −1.106

Complementary Angles

Angles are complementary if their sum is 90o

α and β are complementary angle α = 90o − β and β = 90o − α

x
sinα = = cosβ = cos(90o − α)
1
47
 y
cosα = = sinβ = sin(90o − α)
1
therefore
cos72o = sin18o

Special Angles

0o , 90o

If θ decreases to 0o , then y decreases to 0 and x tends to 1.

y
sin0o = cos90o = =0
1
y 0
tan0o = = =0
x 1
y
cos0o = sin90o = x = 1 , tan90o = not define
0
For 30o , 60o , we have

48
 Triangle ABC is an equilateral triangle of side 2 units
√ √
AD = 22 − 12 = 3
1
sin30o = cos60o =
2
√
3
cos30o = sin60o =
2
1 √
tan30o = √ , tan60o = 3
3
For 45o , we have

49
 1
sin45o = cos45o = √
2
tan45o = 1

For 180o , we have

sin180o = sin(180 − 0)o = sin0o = 0

cos180o = cos(180 − 0)o = −cos0o = −1

tan180o = tan(180 − 0)o = −tan0o = 0

For 270o , we have

sin270o = sin(360 − 90)o = −sin90o = −1

cos270o = cos(360 − 90)o = cos90o = 0

tan270o = tan(360 − 90)o = −tan90o = undefined

Examples

1. Find the values of (a) sin120o (b)cos240o (c)tan315o

Solution
√
o o o 3
sin120 = sin(180 − 60) = sin60 =
2
1
cos240o = cos(180 + 60)o = −cos60o = −
2
tan315o = tan(360 − 45)o = −1

50
 4tan75o 1
2. Given that 1−tan2 75o
= cos150o
, find tan75o in surd form.
Solution
√
o o o 3
cos150 = cos(180 − 30) = −cos30 = −
2

Hence
4tan75o 2
2 o
= −√
1 − tan 75 3
tan75o 1
2 o
=− √
1 − tan 75 2 3
Let tan75o = t
t 1
2
=− √
1−t 2 3
√
2 3t = −1 + t2
√
t2 − 2 3t − 1 = 0
√ √
2 3 ± 16 √
∴ t= , 3±2
2
√ √
t = 3 + 2 or 3 − 2
√
but 3 − 2 is negative and tan75o must be positive. Hence, t =
√
tan75o = 2 + 3

Graph of Trigonometric Functions

θ 0 30 45 60 90 180 270 360

√
1 √1 3
sinθ 0 2 2 2
1 0 -1 0
√
3 1 1
cosθ 1 2
√
2 2
0 -1 0 1
√
tanθ 0 √1 1 3 ∞ 0 ∞ 0
3

51
52
 Solution of Trigononmetric problems

1. Solve 1 + cosθ = 2sin2 θ

1 + cosθ = 2sin2 θ

cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1

∴ sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ

1 + cosθ = 2(1 − cos2 θ)

1 + cosθ = 2 − 2cos2 θ)

2cos2 θ + cosθ − 1 = 0

Let cosθ = y

2y 2 + y − 1 = 0 ⇒ (2y − 1)(y + 1) = 0 ⇒ 2y = −1, or y = −1

1
y=or y = −1
2
 
1 −1 1
cosθ = , θ = cos = 60o
2 2
or
θ = 360o − 60o = 300o

If cosθ = −1, then θ = 180o

Addition Formulae

Sin(A + B) = SinACosB + SinBCosA

Sin(A − B) = SinACosB − SinBCosA

53
 Cos(A + B) = CosACosB − SinASinB

Cos(A − B) = CosACosB + SinASinB

T anA + T anB
T an(A + B) =
1 − T anAT anB
T anA − T anB
T an(A − B) =
1 + T anAT anB
Double Angle Formulae

If A = B, then

Sin2A = Sin(A + A) = SinACosA + CosASinA = 2SinACosA

Also
Cos2A = CosACosA − SinASinA = Cos2 A − Sin2 A

But
Sin2 A = 1 − Cos2 A

∴ Cos2A = Cos2 A − (1 − Cos2 A) = Cos2 A − 1 + Cos2 A = 2Cos2 A − 1

or
Cos2 A = 1 − Sin2 A

Cos2A = 1 − Sin2 A − Sin2 A = 1 − 2Sin2 A

T anA + T anA 2T anA
T an2A = T an(A + A) = 2
=
1 − T an A 1 − T an2 A
∴
Sin2A = 2SinACosA

Cos2A = Cos2 A − Sin2 A = 2Cos2 A − 1 = 1 − 2Sin2 A

2T anA
T an2A = .
1 − T an2 A

54
Find the following without using tables or calculator
(i) Sin165o (ii) Cos75o (iii) Sin75o (iv) Cos15o (v)Sin120o (vi) T an105o
Examples
Sin70o = 2Sin35o Cos35o
π π π π π
Cos = Cos2 − Sin2 = 2Cos2 − 1 = 1 − 2Sin2
5 10 10 10 10
Half Angle Formulae

1
If A = 2
in the double angle formula

A A 2A 2A 2A 2A 2T an A2
SinA = 2Sin Cos , CosA = Cos −Sin = 2Cos −1 = 1−2Sin , T anA = .
2 2 2 2 2 2 1 − T an2 A2

Example If Sinα = − 45 , 180o < α < 270o , evaluate the following: Sin2α, Cos2α, tan2α.
Solution
 2 r
4 9 9 3
Cos2 α = 1 − = , Cosα = =±
5 25 25 5

Since 180o < α < 270o , Cosα = − 53

  
4 3 27
Sin2α = 2SinαCosα = 2 − − =
5 5 25

For Cos2α, we have

 2  2
2 2 3 42 9 16 7
2
Cos2A = Cos A−Sin A ⇒ Cos2α = Cos α−Sin α = − − − = − =−
5 5 25 25 25

We recall that

Sinα −4 4 5 4
T anα = = 53 = − × − =
Cosα −5 5 3 3

2T anα 2 34 8
3
8
T an2α = = = = − 37
1 − T an2 α 4 2 1 − 16


1− 3 9 9

55
 8 9 24
− × =−
3 7 7
(2) If Cos2A = 54 , find T anA where A is an acute angle.
Solution
4
Cos2A = 2CosA − 1 ⇒ = 2CosA − 1
5
9 3
Cos2 A = ⇒ CosA = √
10 10
Also

4 1 1
Cos2A = 1 − 2Sin2 A ⇒ = 1 − 2Sin2 A ⇒ Sin2 A = ⇒ SinA = √
5 10 10

Therefore,
√
SinA 1 3 1 10 1
T anA = =√ ÷√ =√ × =
CosA 10 10 10 3 3

Factor Formulae
Product and Sum
1
SinαCosβ = [Sin(α + β) + Sin(α − β)]
2
1
CosαSinβ = [Sin(α + β) − Sin(α − β)]
2
1
CosαCosβ = [Cos(α + β) + Cos(α − β)]
2
1
SinαSinβ = [Cos(α − β) − Cos(α + β)]
2
Examples Express Cos3θSin2θ as a sum or difference.
Solution
Using the 2nd difference, α = 3θ, β = 2θ

1 1 1 1
Cos3θSin2θ = [Sin(3θ+2θ)−Sin(3θ−2θ)] = [Sin5θ−Sinθ] = Sin5θ− Sinθ
2 2 2 2

56
Let α + β = u and α − β = v
Adding the two equations , we have

u+v
2α = u + v ⇒ α =
2

Subtracting the equations, we have

u−v
2β = u − v ⇒ β =
2
u+v u−v
Replacing α with 2
and β with 2
in the product and sum identities and
multiplying both sides by 2 leads to the following identities

U +V U −V
SinU + SinV = 2Sin Cos
2 2
U +V U −V
SinU − SinV = 2Cos Sin
2 2
U +V U −V
CosU + CosV = 2Cos Cos
2 2
U +V U −V
CosU − CosV = −2Sin Sin
2 2
Example
Express Cos3θ − Cos5θ as a product.
Solution
U +V U −V
CosU − CosV = −2Sin Sin
2 2
U = 3θ V = 5θ

Therefore

3θ + 5θ 3θ − 5θ
Cos3θ−Cos5θ = −2Sin Sin = −2Sin4θSin(−θ) = 2Sin4θSinθ
2 2

57
Verify that
Sin4θ + Sin2θ
= −Cotθ
Cos4θ − Cos2θ
Solution
2Sin 4θ+2θ 4θ−2θ



Sin4θ + Sin2θ 2
Cos 2
= 4θ+2θ

4θ−2θ


Cos4θ − Cos2θ −2Sin 2
Sin 2
2Sin3θCosθ Cosθ
= =− = −Cotθ
−2Sin3θSinθ Sinθ

58