Renewable Energy 190 (2022) 1041e1054

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Development of a centrifugal sprayer-based solar HDH desalination

unit with a variety of sprinkler rotational speeds and droplet slot
distributions
Reda A. Khalaf-Allah , Gamal B. Abdelaziz , Mohamed G. Kandel , Ammar S. Easa *
Mechanical Department, Faculty of Technology and Education, Suez University, Suez, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Water is one of the most important natural components of all life. Concerning the issue of water scarcity,
Received 28 October 2021 desalination is a suitable solution to remove salts from salty water to increase freshwater resources. The
Received in revised form present work experimentally analyses a Solar HDH system performance using a centrifugal humidifier at
24 March 2022
different rotating sprinkle speeds with various distributions of droplet slots. The effect of droplet slot
Accepted 3 April 2022
distributions, rotating sprinkler speed, airflow rate, and feedwater flow rate on freshwater productivity
Available online 8 April 2022
are examined. The findings demonstrated that increasing the rotating sprinkler speed from 600 rpm to
1000 rpm increased about three times the daily freshwater productivity. Also, the maximum daily
Keywords:
Solar desalination
freshwater productivity was found at the specimen of one longitudinal line having 37 droplet slots.
Humidification dehumidification Increasing feedwater flow rate enhances hourly productivity by about 71% with 0.051 kg/s, 42% with
Centrifugal humidifier 0.047 kg/s, 39% with 0.039 kg/s, and about 15% with 0.031 kg/s of feed water. Furthermore, at an airflow
Rotating sprinklers rate of about 0.044 kg/s, the highest hourly/daily productivity is 185%/139% higher than at 0.019 kg/s.
Droplet slots © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction plate accumulator leads to a condensation process. in the distillate

Everything on Earth depends on water, one of the most vital
components in the natural world. Freshwater deficiency is one of
humanity's most significant issues today. Further reasons were
increasing demand for agricultural and industrial products and a
need to find new methods of meeting those demands. As a result,
desalinating saltwater is the ideal approach. Desalination removes
salts from salty water to get fresh water. To create about one
thousand cubic meters of freshwater daily, it needed to burn ten
thousand tonnes of fuel every year. Due to its affordability and
availability, renewable energy in desalination is a suitable meth-
odology [1]. A basic humidification-dehumidification (HDH) salt
removal system uses saline water evaporation followed by
condensation to produce freshwater; therefore, it comprises a
dehumidifier, humidifier, and a heater. So long as renewable energy
and low-grade fuels can be used to power HDH systems. Dehu-
midification using saltwater increases vapor volume when feed-
water is warmed in a solar collector then sprayed into a humidifier.
In contrast, airflow to the humidifier after being heated by the flat
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Ammar.saad60@suezuniv.edu.eg (A.S. Easa).
tank [2,3]. HDH solar desalination technology with free jets and hot
air streams has been investigated experimentally by Ref. [4].
Enhancing freshwater productivity was regulated using hot air
stream, nozzles situations, and nozzle diameter. The outcomes
observed that the freshwater productivity had been improved us-
ing the thin horizontal-downward nozzles. Jet humidification
generates freshwater around 5.6 L m
2 of collector area per day at a
32.8% efficiency, at roughly 0.030063 $.L
1 on average. The exper-
imental examination of a heat pump-driven HDH salt removal
system produced about 145e288 L per day [5]. The cost of fresh-
water utilizing a heat pump-driven HDH desalination approach is
about 0.0203 $.L
1. Additionally, the vapor compression system
requires much maintenance because of the many reciprocating
elements [6]. The expense of water treatment was one of the sig-
nificant hurdles to freshwater production technologies.
Even though the installation costs of renewable energy were
rather costly, the operational costs are pretty cheap. The solar HDH
salt removal has been explored experimentally by Ref. [7]. Solar
emission, hot airflow, and water spray were evaluated to determine
suitable productivity utilizing ultrasonic humidifiers. The findings
showed that using an ultrasonic humidifier enhances freshwater
productivity by about 14.6%. Furthermore, it produced about 45 L

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.04.019
0960-1481/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R.A. Khalaf-Allah, G.B. Abdelaziz, M.G. Kandel et al.
per day at the cost of 0.0144 $.L
1. An adapted hybrid desalination
system powered by solar technology has been tested by Ref. [9]. The
solar still and air humidifier dehumidifier were studied using a
solar heater. The outcome concluded that the system produces
about 18 L day
1 per square meter at about 0.0081 $.L
1. Experi-
ment with multiple dryers with a desalination system [9]. The
manufacturing of freshwater, drying up the items, and power
reduction have been studied. The use of multiple solar dryers and
increased airflow enhance the performance. The result indicated
that the system creates about 29.55 L m
2 per day. Tests have been
carried out with an indirect evaporative cooling chiller and an S-
HDH system of desalination [10]. Temperature, cooling load, and
collected productivity have all been documented along with the
system's overall efficiency and average performance. The outcome
designated that the system produces about 38.65 L per day. Under
various situations, a hybrid desalination system with six wicks of
solar distillers and HDH units was evaluated by Ref. [11]. As a
packaging medium, cellulose wood and pad aspen were chosen to
be tested at several water rates. The results outcome that the
method produces about 132 L per day. The humidification tech-
nique utilizing high-frequency ultrasonic waves was studied by
Ref. [12]. Level water, atomizer number, operating time, and feed-
water were investigated. The findings consequence that the tech-
nique produces about 4.41 L per day. The efficiency of an HDH
method driven by household air conditioning for freshwater crea-
tion has been studied experimentally [13]. Rates of wastewater,
humidity ratio, Air temperature, and coolant fluid rates have been
investigated. Also, cellulose paper and Polyvinyl were used to
enrich the surface area of the humidification to recognize the op-
timum water productivity. The results confirmed that the use of
waste heat of household air conditioner produces about 7.1 L per
hour, the cost is about 0.0409 $.L
1.
A hybrid solar desalination technique using HDH and four SS.
has been examined by Ref. [14]. Using HDH with drain hot water for
solar stills enhances the system GOR and efficiency for one S.S by
50% and 90%. Overall, it produced 66.3 L.day
1 of output and cost
0.34 $.L
1. On the other hand, HDH-based seawater desalination has
been studied by Ref. [15]. The effect of supply seawater temperature
and supply air rate on freshwater productivity was determined via
experiments. The productivity was determined to be about
2.45 kg h
1 at the cost of about 0.047 $.L
1. Heat pump performance
was examined in the HDH water desalination plant [16]. There was
an experimental investigation into saline water and air tempera-
ture and rate. The findings indicated that productivity was about
22.3 kg h
1 and price of 0.051 $.L
1. The experimental investigation
of a hybrid HDH desalination system powered by a heat pump [17].
Humidifier relative humidity, feedwater rate, and airflow were
tested. The experimental findings indicate that the productivity
was about 2.79 kg h
1 at the cost of about 0.0114 $.L
1. The desa-
lination of HDH utilizing corrugated packaging in a humidifier was
investigated [18]. Feedwater rate, air rate, and cooling water flow
were tested experimentally. Results revealed that freshwater pro-
duced was about 15 L h
1 at the cost of about 0.01 $.L
1. The effi-
ciency of an HDH operating via a solar-air heater has been studied
[19]. The temperatures of sprayed water, air, and the relative hu-
midity of the air were studied. When freshwater production is
improved, the exit air temperature and the relative humidity rise.
Studies on the desalination HDH systems using natural and forced
air circulation has been investigated [20]. Experimentally, the air
position (up, down, and up-down) and inflow water temperature
were investigated. Results revealed that freshwater produced is
about 23.6 L h
1. The HDH desalination system using Photovoltaic
(PV) has been investigated [21]. Results showed that the freshwater
produced was about 2.28 L m
2 of PV. A desalination system using
PV was also investigated [22]. The cooling water flow rate,
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Renewable Energy 190 (2022) 1041e1054
feedwater flow rate, cooling water intake temperature, and nano-
particle volume were all experimentally investigated. It was
observed that the highest freshwater productivity was about
41.8 L.day
1. HDH system driven by heat pump (HP) was investi-
gated by Ref. [23]. Ambient wet bulb temperature (WBT), feed-
water, airflow rates, speed of the compressor, and saturation
temperature were examined. It was found that freshwater pro-
ductivity was about 1.08 L h
1, and the operating cost was about
0.019 $/L.
The desalination of humidificationedehumidification using a
hybrid heat pump and free flow has been investigated [24]. The
system's airflow rate and circulation were examined. It was found
that increases in air flow rate were helping to occur the best
evaporation, and freshwater productivity was about
1.38 kg h
1 m
2. The performance of an HDH desalination system
powered by low-grade waste heat energy was examined [25].
Airflow rate, temperature, humidifier surface area, and stuffing
material kinds (pall rings (diameter ¼ 16 mm and 25 mm), tri-pack
rings, snowflake rings, and saddle rings) were examined. The re-
sults found that the maximum freshwater productivity is about
1.398 L h
1 when used with a 16 mm pall ring humidifier. A hybrid
desalination HDH system was investigated by Ref. [26]. The effect of
airflow rate, solar reflector, water flow rate, and the water tem-
perature was investigated. It was found that solar reflector saves
energy consumption by about 16.5% daily, and productivity was
about 72 kg.day
1. Experimental evaluations of the HDH's desali-
nation system performance have been performed [27]. Two-stage
operation from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. and from 1 p.m. to 5 p.m. after the
humidifier's input has been preheated. The results indicate that the
productivity was about 22 L.day-1. and costs 0.0578 $.L
1 during the
two-stage operation. A humidification desalination unit has
experimented with an ultrasonic humidifier with hot air [28].
Water level, airflow rate, number of the atomizer, and high fre-
quency were tested. The result shows that freshwater productivity
increases as the atomizer number and water level increase. Also,
the maximum productivity reaches 7.72 kg.day
1 with a cost of
about 0.03437 $.L
1.
Desalination methods that use the HDH approach were among
the most promising. Over the years, the HDH technique has been
utilized for desalination, researched, and refined. From the review
mentioned above and up to the author's knowledge, it is essential
to increase the performance of the HDH scheme by adjusting the
sequence.
A novel method of humidification involving the use of a cen-
trifugal sprayer is proposed in the present work. Hence, the present
work aims to investigate the performance of a solar HDH desali-
nation system using a centrifugal humidifier experimentally. The
use of a centrifugal sprayer increases the number of water droplets
and decreases the volume of the droplets. A large count of droplets
with a compact volume leads to a large contact surface area be-
tween the droplet and the hot air. Due to that, the evaporation of
the droplet happens rapidly. Freshwater productivity, cost, the
rotational speed of the humidifier, the number of humidifier
droplet slots, airflow rate, and feed water rate are examined in the
present work.
2. Experimental approach
Based on the HDH desalination technique, the seawater desali-
nation system has been developed. The current experiments were
investigated in July, August, and September of 2021 from 8:00 to
17:00 in Suez, Egypt (29.9668N 32.5498E) [29]. Along with devel-
oping the humidification dehumidification system, air moisture
content rises with an ever-increasing temperature. One kilogram of
dry air transports about 0.670 kg of extra vapor when its
R.A. Khalaf-Allah, G.B. Abdelaziz, M.G. Kandel et al.
Fig. 1. A schematic sketch of the proposed test rig with the measuring system.
temperature rises from 60 to 85 Celsius, as an example. The cur-
rent experimental approach is shown in Fig. 1. It has five significant
structures: the solar seawater heating structure, capable of pro-
ducing hot seawater, the solar air heating structure that produces
hot air, a centrifugal humidifier that generates humidified air, a
dehumidifier that produces freshwater, and a measuring system
that records such parameters to estimate the performance of the
desalination technique. The explanations of those structures are as
follows:
2.1. Soler seawater heating loop structure
With a solar water heating loop, the goal is to heat the salty
water using the sun's rays instead of the electricity dependence
technics. The solar water heating loop consists of four components
and their connection, as seen in Fig. 2: evacuated tube solar col-
lector, water pump, gate valve, and flow meter. The evacuated tube
solar collector combines a stainless steel insulated water tank and
twenty evacuated tubes. The tubes have an exterior diameter of
58 mm, an interior diameter of 47 mm, and 2100 mm in length. The
heated water tank has a volume of 200 L. The slope angle of the
evacuated tubes is about 25 (suitable in Suez-Egypt), [4,29,30]. The
seawater storage tank feeds the humidifier section with hot
seawater using the water pump through connecting pipeline. A
gate valve controls the flow rate of hot seawater. The rate at which
hot seawater flows is monitored with a digital flowmeter.
Fig. 2. A diagram of the solar seawater heating loop's construction.
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Renewable Energy 190 (2022) 1041e1054
2.2. Solar air heating system
Before entering the humidifier, the air is warmed using a solar
air heating system to enhance the evaporation rate in the interior of
the humidifier and lower the relative humidity value to absorb the
most incredible quantity of water vapor throughout the humidifi-
cation procedure. As displayed in Fig. 3, the solar air heating system
consists of three components and their connection; flat plate solar
collectors, air blower, and digital anemometer. The flat plate solar
collector is made from galvanized steel sheets with dimensions of
0.80 m  1 m and a high of m with a 0.1 mm thickness which has a
slope angle of 25 , and It is painted black to absorb the sun's rays.
Moreover, the collector's top surface is insulated with 5 cm of glass
wool to minimize heat loss, and the whole assembly is encased in
5 mm of glass. An air blower moves air from the outside to a flat
plate solar collector.
2.3. Humidifier
The humidifier for the solar HDH Desalination system serves as
its brain, which feeds the desalination system with humid air
loaded with the maximum possible amount of water vapor. As seen
in fig, the centrifugal humidifier consists of a rectangular shell and
centrifugal sprayer. 4. The humidifier shell is constructed from
galvanized steel sheets with general dimensions of 0.60 m  0.60 m
and a high of 1.0 m with a 0.001 mm thickness. The Humidifier
Fig. 3. The air heating loop schematic diagram.
R.A. Khalaf-Allah, G.B. Abdelaziz, M.G. Kandel et al.
sprayer is selected to be a centrifugal sprayer. Furthermore, the
front side of the humidifier shell is made of plastic, which allows
seeing the humidification progression. The outer surface of the
humidifier shell was installed with 0.05 m thickness for glass wool
insulation to avoid energy loss. The humidifier shell has three en-
trances for hot air and one for hot water to the sprayer. Moreover,
there are two exits for discharged water. The present study focused
on the centrifugal sprayer. As seen in Fig. 4, the sprayer consists of
three main parts; drive mechanism, feed hot water system, and
rotating sprinkler (test specimen). The centrifugal sprayer is driven
via an alternating current (AC) motor connected to a centrifugal
sprayer using a flexible coupling. An autotransformer controls the
motor to operate at various speeds. Feed hot water system is used
to supply the rotating sprinkler with hot seawater.
The rotating sprinkler has many droplet slots responsible for the
atomization of seawater water inside the humidifier. The present
study uses seven test specimens for rotating sprinklers. Each
specimen has identical dimensions as planned in Fig. 5. The droplet
slots distribution is considered in manufacturing the rotating
sprinkler. Fig. 6 gives the droplet slots distributions of the seven
investigated specimens. The droplet slots are distributed around
the rotating sprinklers in the form of longitudinal lines. Each line
has 37 droplet slots. The distance between the middle of droplet
slots and between rows is 0.01 m. The distribution of droplet slots of
each one is as follows; one longitudinal line in Specimen no.1, three
longitudinal lines distributed circumferentially with a revolving
angle of 120 between each line in specimen no.2, six longitudinal
lines with a revolving angle of 60 in specimen no.3, nine longi-
tudinal lines with a revolving angle of 40 in specimen no.4, twelve
longitudinal lines with a revolving angle of 30 in specimen no.5.
2.4. Dehumidifier
The dehumidifier utilizes a crossflow heat exchanger to
condense the water vapor in the humid air. The crossflow heat
exchanger has two passes, one for the humid air and another for
external natural convection. The overall dimension of the dehu-
midifier is 0.60  0.80  0.60 m and made from galvanized steel
sheets with 0.005 m thickness.
2.5. Measuring system
Several parameters are examined in the experimental imple-
mentation to study the productivity of the solar desalination unit.
Fig. 4. A schematic sketch of the proposed humidifier.
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Renewable Energy 190 (2022) 1041e1054
Air temperature before and after humidifier shells, humid air
temperature of dehumidifier, and hot seawater temperature before
or after the dehumidifier has been recorded. The mass air and warm
sea waters flow rates were also recorded. In addition, the produced
solar intensity and freshwater are recorded. Table (1) lists the po-
sitions of the measuring tools in the proposed approach and their
accuracy. Moreover, the experimental test rig attached with the
necessary measuring techniques is elaborated in Fig. 1.
Relative humidity was measured using Brannan-thermo-
humidity meter ranging from 0 to 100% with an accuracy of ±1%.
And the solar intensity was measured by the TENMARS TM-207
solar power meter ranging from 0 to 2000 W. m
2 with an accu-
racy of ±10 W m
2. The air velocity was measured using a BENE-
TECH GM8908 anemometer ranging from 0 to 30 m s
1 with an
accuracy of ±0.05 m s
1. A digital UNI-T UT372 tachometer mea-
sures the speed of the motor with a range of 0: 99999 rpm with an
accuracy of 0.04% ±2dgt. The water flow rate was measured by a
digital FS300A flow meter with a range of 1e60 L min
1 and ac-
curacy of ±2%. The freshwater productivity was measured by
Graduated cylinder and ±10 mm3 accuracy. A UT203 clamp multi-
meter measured the electric power with a range of 0:750 V for volt
and 0:40 A for current and accuracy of ±0.1 V, with the accuracy of
±0.01A. The temperature was recorded using a K-type PK Precision
thermometer with a range of
200:1370  C and accuracy of ±0.2%
dgþ1  C.
2.6. System operation
The feedwater flow and airflow rates were kept fixed at
0.051 kg/s and 0.044 kg/s, respectively. For wholly tests, the oper-
ation progress, corresponding to Fig. 7, can be summarised in a few
steps: (i) Fill the evacuated tube solar collector saline water; (ii)
Installing measurement devices in the places to be measured; (iii)
Select the test specimen of the centrifugal sprinkle; (iv) Adjust the
speed of the centrifugal sprayer; (v)The feedwater flow rate is
adjusted by using a gate valve. (vi) The airflow rate is adjusted by
changing the fan power input. (vii) Run pump to feed the centrif-
ugal sprayer with saline water; (viii) Run the air blower; (ix) Run
the motor of the centrifugal sprayer. After the system has
completed its function, the state is steady for about 15 min. In 1 h
step period, direct reading began to collect results data. Fig. 8 shows
the flow algorithm of the procedure of the applied experiment
stages.
R.A. Khalaf-Allah, G.B. Abdelaziz, M.G. Kandel et al. Renewable Energy 190 (2022) 1041e1054

Fig. 5. Photograph and a schematic drawing for rotating sprinklers (dimensions in mm).

Fig. 6. A schematic drawing of the droplet slots distributions of the rotating sprinkler.

2.7. Experimental procedure
The proposed desalination system was constructed and assem-
bled as indicated in Fig. 7, and practical experiments are being
carried out using several procedures. The experiment is started by
feeding hot water from the evacuated tube solar collector through
an insulated pipe using a 0.5 hp pump to the centrifugal sprinkles.
Then the rotating sprinkles force the droplet to accelerate centrif-
ugally in the humidifier shell. Also, the air is forced to the solar air
heater using a 0.5 hp blower and passes to the humidifier shell
through the pipeline. After the hot air and sprayed water droplets
enter the humidification shell, the sprayed water droplets come
into touch with the hot air, causing the water droplets to evaporate
and the hot air to become saturated with moisture. Following that,

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R.A. Khalaf-Allah, G.B. Abdelaziz, M.G. Kandel et al. Renewable Energy 190 (2022) 1041e1054

Table 1
Measuring devices and their positions.

Item Position Measuring device Accuracy

Temperature In the evacuated tube solar collector water tank K type thermometer ±1%
Temperature At the inlet of the centrifugal sprayer K type thermometer ±1%
Temperature At the outlet of the humidifier shell K type thermometer ±1%
Temperature At the solar air collector's intake K type thermometer ±1%
Temperature At the solar air collector's outlet K type thermometer ±1%
Temperature At the middle of the humidifier shell K type thermometer ±1%
Temperature Before the inlet of the dehumidifier shell K type thermometer ±1%
Temperature At the middle of the dehumidifier shell K type thermometer ±1%
Temperature Fresh water at the exit of the dehumidifier K type thermometer ±1%
Temperature At the outer surface of the dehumidifier shell K type thermometer ±1%
Water flow rate At the centrifugal sprayer inlet Digital flow meter ±3%
Air velocity At the solar air collector's outlet Digital anemometer ±0.05 m s
1
Motor Speed At the motor Shaft Digital tachometer 0.04% ± 2
Humidity At the solar air collector's intake Digital humidity meter ±1%
Humidity At the solar air collector's outlet Digital humidity meter ±1%
Humidity At the middle of the humidifier shell Digital humidity meter ±1%
Humidity At the middle of the dehumidifier shell Digital humidity meter ±1%
Humidity At the exit of the dehumidifier shell Digital humidity meter ±1%
Humidity Between humidifier and dehumidifier shells Digital humidity meter ±1%
Radiation Ambient Solar Power Meter ±10 W m
2
Productivity At the exit of the dehumidifier shell Graduated cylinder ±10 mm3

Fig. 7. A photograph of the experimental setup.

the wet air flows to the dehumidification space, where it makes
contact with the dehumidifier's surface, and the moisture content
in the air condenses during the dehumidification process. The
condensed water is then collected and measured in a graduated
cylinder.
2.8. Maintenance instruction and guideline
maintenance, such as; checking evacuated tube solar collector
leaks, cleaning flat plate solar collector surfaces, cleaning evacuated
tube solar collector surfaces, and removing the large particles from
the water. Further, there is some predictive maintenance, such as;
checking the level of vibration, clearance, noise, and fatigue of the
motor, bearing, pump, blower, and coupling.

Early replacement of components and the resulting reduction in 3. Data reduction

useful life is costly. It incurs extra fees or penalties if the mainte-
nance periods are too short. The question is how successfully we
can predict when a functional breakdown occurs, how breakdowns
Qact
are analyzed, and the reasons identified. The proposed work in- ε¼ (1)
Qmax
cludes processes and recommendations for maintaining the current
desalination system's components. There is some preventive In a humidifier, heated water is placed in contact with the hot
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R.A. Khalaf-Allah, G.B. Abdelaziz, M.G. Kandel et al. Renewable Energy 190 (2022) 1041e1054

Fig. 8. Flow algorithm of the procedure of the applied experiment stages.

air, and the air is humidified by evaporating the water, resulting in

high humidity air. So, the first law of thermodynamics defines the a2 ¼ 1:1262 þ 5:4178*10
2 S
2:2719*10
4 S2 (5)
effectiveness of the humidifier as the ratio of actual heat transfer to
maximize heat transfer.
Then, the system energy balance can be expressed as follows a3 ¼ 1:2026*10
2
5:5366*10
4 S þ 1:8906*10
6 S2 (6)
[31].
a4 ¼ 6:8774*10
7 1:517*10
6 S þ 4:268*10
9 S2 (7)
: : : : :
m si Cpsi T2 þ m a h7 ¼ m a h9 þ m fw Cpfw T10 þ m so Cso T3 (2)
where S represents salinity (ppm) and Ts denotes seawater tem-
Saline water's specific heat can be determined as follows [32]: perature ( C).
The density of saline water rs was calculated as follows [33].


rsw ¼ rfw þ S 0:6680:44S þ 10
6 300P
2400PS þ Ts ð80
3Ts
3300S
13O þ 47PSÞ (8)

Cps ¼ a1 þ a2 Ts þ a3 T 2 s þ a4 T 3 s (3) And the enthalpy of air is calculated as follows.

where a1, a2, a3, and a4 are calculated as follow:

h ¼ 2:82*10
5 T 3 a þ 0:00615T 2 a þ 1:32T4 þ 10:5 (9)
The centrifugal sprinkler must be driven by a motor that uses
a1 ¼ 4206:8
6:6197 S þ 1:228*10
2 S2 (4)
the same calculated energy as the blower and pump. The power
used by the motor, blower, and pump is determined using the
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R.A. Khalaf-Allah, G.B. Abdelaziz, M.G. Kandel et al. Renewable Energy 190 (2022) 1041e1054

following equation: Table 3

The standard uncertainties of measuring device.
W ¼i  V (10) Measuring device Accuracy Rang Standard Uncertainty

The efficiency of a system is determined as the ratio of the total K type thermocouple ±1%
270:1372  C 5:77*10
3
latent heat of vaporization in water provided to the total input Flow meter ±3% 1:60 L min
1 0:0173
power as follows [8],: Anemometer ±0.05 0:30 m s
1 0:0288
Tachometer 0.04% ± 2 0:9999 rpm 0:02309
Humidity meter ±1% 0:100% 5:77*10
3
m:dis *hfg
hS ¼ (11) Solar Power Meter ±10 0:2000 W m
2 5:773
WM þ WB þ Wp þ Asc *IðtÞ
The input energy of the system is calculated as follows [34,35],:
and the measurement range and accuracy.


: Furthermore, the following equations may assess the uncer-
Qin ¼ mfw *cp;fw * Tfw;in
Tfw;o (12)
tainty in any experimental outcome [29].
GOR is the ratio of the latent heat of evaporation generated by
the system to the total energy needed to run [36]. R ¼ G (X1, X2, X3, …. …. …... Xn) (17)
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2  2  
mdis *hfg 2 vR vR vR
GOR ¼ : (13) DR ¼ D1 þ D2 þ D3 þ … þ …
Qin vX1 vX2 vX3
 
vR
þ Dn (18)
Total capital cost vXn
Cost per litter ¼ (15)
Annual fresh water total*life time
where R indicates the experimental result, R is the uncertainty
associated with the result, and D1 ; D2 ; D3 … reflect the uncertainties
hfg ¼ 2501:897149
2:407064037 Tw þ 1:192217*10
2 T 2 w
associated with the independent variables X1, X2, X3, …. …...Xn.

1:5863 *10
5 T 3 w Table 4, on the other hand, summarises the experimental finding's
(14) estimated uncertainties.

The latent heat of evaporation of saline hfg was determined as

follows [15]:
The capital cost of the suggested approach is recorded in
Table (2). Neglecting the driven power and using the alternative
photovoltaic system to drive the motor, pump, and blower, the cost
of freshwater productivity can be calculated as follows [4]:
Therefore, the price per liter of freshwater production is
0.0106$/L. The present work has a capital value of about 924 US $.
However, capital costs will drop by about 35% when mass pro-
duction is applied. As a result, freshwater production costs are
reduced.
5. Results and discussion
In the current work, the droplet slots plurality was examined for
the same slot's bore of 2.0 mm. The effect of rotating sprinkler
speed on freshwater productivity at different droplet slots was
investigated. Also, the effect of airflow rates on freshwater pro-
duction is examined. Moreover, the effect of hot water flow rate on
freshwater productivity was studied.
5.1. Effect of droplet slots plurality on freshwater productivity at
various speeds

4. Uncertainty analysis The number of droplet slots studied at seven values: one lon-
gitudinal line has ten droplet slots, one longitudinal line has 20
To determine the measurement's uncertainty. The following droplet slots, one longitudinal line has 37 droplet slots, three lon-
equation is used to compute standard uncertainty [15]: gitudinal lines has 111 droplet slots, six longitudinal lines has 222
droplet slots, nine longitudinal lines has 333 droplet slots, and
a
U ¼ pffiffiffi (16) twelve longitudinal lines has 444 droplet slots. As seen in Fig. 9, the
3 increase in the number of droplet slots increases the daily fresh-
In where U represents the standard uncertainty, and a repre- water productivity due to the increase in the water droplets. The
sents the accuracy of the measuring device. However, Table 3 shows maximum daily freshwater productivity was found at the specimen
the estimated standard uncertainty of the measuring instruments of one longitudinal line having 37 droplet slots. At different rotating
sprinkler speeds, the greater the number of droplet slots decreases
the daily freshwater productivity. Then the water droplets increase
Table 2 with increasing the number of droplet slots, which makes the most
HDH system's initial investment costs.
of the water droplet break on the humidifier bottom when it comes
Item Price (US $) out from the rotating sprinkler. Furthermore, the droplets that
Feedwater solar collector 97
Air solar collector (Air solar collector) 25
Humidifier shell 50 Table 4
Centrifugal sprayer 25 The uncertainties of experimental results.
Dehumidifier 50
Uncertainties Values
Motor 40
Pump 20 Uh 0.000288
Blower 17 UAsc 0.008333
Photovoltaic system 600 UGOR 0.239378
Total cost 924 UQ :in 0.239244

1048
R.A. Khalaf-Allah, G.B. Abdelaziz, M.G. Kandel et al. Renewable Energy 190 (2022) 1041e1054

Fig. 9. Effect of droplet slots plurality on freshwater productivity at various speeds.

survived to get out of the rotating sprinkler to the humidification
area have a heavyweight and fall without their total evaporation.
5.2. Effect of rotating sprinkler speed on freshwater productivity at
different droplet slots
The rotating sprinkler speed was studied at five values:
600 revolutions per minute, 700 revolutions per minute, 800 rev-
olutions per minute, 900 revolutions per minute droplet slots, and
1000 revolutions per minute. Fig. 10 showed that the increase in the
rotating sprinkler speed increases the hourly productivity. As
noticed in noon duration, increasing the rotating sprinkler speed
from 600 rpm to 1000 rpm increases hourly productivity by about
twice. Fig. 11 showed that the rotating sprinkler speed increases the
daily freshwater productivity.
Increasing the rotating sprinkler speed from 600 rpm to
1000 rpm increases the daily freshwater productivity about three
times. One can say at the same feedwater flow rate. The increase of
the rotating sprinkler speed increases the number of water droplets
and increases the speed of water droplets. Moreover, increasing the
water droplets number decreases the size and the weight of the
generated droplets. However, the high-velocity water droplets and
small sizes generated at high rotating sprinkler speed have more
evaporation. The water droplet velocity increases by reducing the

Fig. 10. The effect of rotating sprinkler speed on hourly productivity at different droplet slots.

1049
R.A. Khalaf-Allah, G.B. Abdelaziz, M.G. Kandel et al.
Fig. 11. The effect of rotating sprinkler speed on accumulated productivity at different droplet slots.
pressure and saturation temperature. It is lower than the humidi-
fier space temperature, enhancing the saline evaporation rate.
Slope-linear analysis with data sets was discovered by Ref. [37].
However, it is essential to point out that the rise in freshwater
productivity due to rotating sprinkler speeds 600, 700, 800, 900,
and 1000 kg/s are 0.000094, 0.0001, 0.00022, 0.000046, and
0.000083, respectively.
5.3. Impact of airflow rate on freshwater production
The proposed desalination system tests the hot airflow rate at
five values: 0.044, 0.038, 0.031, 0.025, and 0.019 kg/s at a fixed
feedwater rate at 0.051 kg/s. The findings show that when the
airflow rate rises, the air solar collector's output temperature de-
creases. At the outlet of the flat plate solar collector, at noon, air
temperature increases for all airflow values. In addition, the
Fig. 12. Effect of airflow rate on freshwater productivity.
1050
Renewable Energy 190 (2022) 1041e1054
increase in airflow rate enhances the heat transfer rate in the solar
collector and causes air temperature decreases in the outlet of the
solar collector. Heat transfer rates increase when the temperature
of the sprayed water rises substantially in response to the increased
solar radiation at noon, resulting in more entrained water vapor
and an improvement in the air temperature leaving the humidifier.
The heated air combines with the water vapor produced by a
centrifugal humidifier. As a result, the air gets more humid. Fig. 12
shows the productivity of freshwater at different airflow rates. It is
recognized that raising the airflow rate leads to increased hourly
productivity since both the heat and mass transfer coefficients rise,
as do the evaporation and condensation rates. Additionally, the
maximum hourly/daily productivity occurs at an airflow rate of
0.044 kg/s with a 185%/139% increase than at ¼ 0.019 kg/s. Notably,
freshwater production has increased due to airflow rates 0.044,
0.038, 0.031, 0.025, and 0.019 kg/s are 0.000066, 0.0002, 0.00025,
R.A. Khalaf-Allah, G.B. Abdelaziz, M.G. Kandel et al. Renewable Energy 190 (2022) 1041e1054

Fig. 13. Effect of feedwater flow rate on freshwater productivity.

Fig. 14. System efficiency and gain output ratio at noon duration of different specimens and various sprinkles speeds.

0.00022, and 0.000074 respectively. 0.000045, 0.00005, 0.000056, 0.000061, and 0.00022 respectively.

5.4. Effect of feedwater flow rate on freshwater productivity 5.5. System efficiency and gain output ratio

The feedwater flow rate at five values 0.051, 0.047, 0.039, 0.031,
and 0.025 kg/s is tested in the proposed desalination system at a
fixed airflow rate at 0.044 kg/s. As the feedwater flow rate rises, the
contact area between the airflow and the feedwater spraying flow
increases the heat transfer coefficients and mass. Fig. 13 demon-
strates the impact of the feedwater flow rate on the hourly and
accumulated productivity. Flow rate rising is accomplished by
enhancing the hourly productivity by about 71% at 0.051 kg/s, 42%
at 0.047 kg/s, 39% at 0.039 kg/s, and about 15% at 0.031 kg/s of feed
water. The increase in accumulated freshwater productivity due to
feedwater rates 0.051, 0.047, 0.031, 0.039, 0.031, and 0.025 kg/s are
1051
The GOR and the system efficiency at noon duration of each
specimen at various speeds are shown in Fig. 14. The increase in the
sprinkler rotating speed from 600 rpm to 1000 rpm increases the
GOR and system efficiency by about 185% and 165%. The maximum
GOR and system efficiency are found when using specimen No.3 at
a sprinkler rotating speed of 1000 rpm, about 1.45 and 49%.
5.6. Comparison between present and previous results
Experimental investigation into cascade solar still with an HDH
system was carried out by Ref. [38]. An S-HDH desalination system
R.A. Khalaf-Allah, G.B. Abdelaziz, M.G. Kandel et al. Renewable Energy 190 (2022) 1041e1054

Table 5
Comparison between present and previous studies.

Ref Approach Daily production (kg) Computed cost ($/L) GOR System efficiency %

Present work Solar HDH with centrifugal sprayer 7.99 0.0106 1.45 48
[29] HDH with heat pump 7.72 0.0112 1.54 33.84
[8] SS-HDH 6.15 0.0081 2.57 39
[40] Bubbling HDH 7.99 0.027 e 71
[39] SS with solar PV 7.87 e e 30
[31] HDH 5.55 0.0981 31.54 e
[38] SS-HDH 4.18 e 0.97:1 31.54
[41] HDH-thermosyphon 6.275 0.028 e 65
[42] HDH-nanofluid-PCM 6.52 0.011 e 68
[43] HDH-heat pipe 8.7 0.012 e 60

Fig. 15. Result comparison with previous ones.

was investigated experimentally by Ref. [31]. A Peltier-based hybrid
PV active solar still was explored by Ref. [39]. A bubbling HDH
desalination system was studied by Ref. [40] Table 5. Listed the
approach, daily production, and computed cost of the present and
previous works. Fig. 15 reveals a good satisfactory trending be-
tween current results and previous works. The evaluation between
present work and previous ones concluded that the suggested
humidification technique discovers an improvement in accumu-
lated productivity of 91%, compared to the work investigated by
Ref. [38], 43%, compared to the work investigated by Ref. [31], 29%,
compared to the work investigated by Ref. [8] and 1%, compared to
the work investigated by Ref. [39].
6. Conclusions and future recommendation
A solar HDH desalination system using centrifugal sprayer at
different rotating sprinkler speeds and various were studied at
29.9668 N, 32.5498 E, Suez, Egypt. The effect of rotating sprinkler
speeds, droplet slots number and their distributions, feedwater
rate, and airflow rate on hourly and daily productivity are exam-
ined. The experimental results conclude that:
1052
1. More droplet slots decrease daily freshwater productivity at
different rotating sprinkler speeds.
2. The highest daily productivity was found at specimen No three
of one longitudinal line having 37 droplet slots.
3. The increase in the rotating sprinkler speed increases the hourly
productivity; increasing the rotating sprinkler speed from
600 rpm to 1000 rpm increases the hourly productivity by about
twice.
4. The maximum hourly/daily productivity occurs at an airflow
rate of 0.044 kg/s with a 185%/139% increase than at ¼ 0.019 kg/
s.
5. Flow rate rising enhancing the hourly productivity by about 71%
at 0.051 kg/s, 42% at 0.047 kg/s, 39% at 0.039 kg/s, and about 15%
at 0.031 kg/s of feed water.
6. The evaluation between the present work and previous ones
concluded that the suggested humidification technique im-
proves accumulated productivity.
7. The present work focuses on the rotational speeds of sprinklers
and the distributions of droplet slots. In the future, it is sug-
gested to investigate the influence of the droplet slot diameter at
high speeds and the effect of the centrifugal inclination angle.
R.A. Khalaf-Allah, G.B. Abdelaziz, M.G. Kandel et al.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Reda A. Khalaf-Allah: Conceptualization, Writing e original
draft, Resources, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation,
Writing e review & editing, Supervision. Gamal B. Abdelaziz:
Conceptualization, Writing e original draft, Resources, Methodol-
ogy, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing e review & editing,
Supervision. Mohamed G. Kandel: Methodology, Writing e review
& editing, Formal analysis, preparing the experimental approach,
Investigation. Ammar S. Easa: Conceptualization, Writing e orig-
inal draft, Resources, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation,
preparing the experimental approach, Writing e review & editing,
Supervision.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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