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Subject: Wireless Network Subject Code: EC803(A)

Unit III
Introduction to wireless sensor network (WSN), WSN-Architecture, Coverage and
placement, Topology management in WSN, Applications, Mobile WSN, Technologies for
sensor nodes & networks, operating environment, Under water WSN, Security of WSN,
MAC, Routing and Transport protocols for WSN.

3.1 Introduction to wireless sensor network (WSN):

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) can be defined as a self-configured and infrastructure-less wireless
networks to monitor physical or environmental conditions, such as temperature, sound, vibration, pressure,
motion or pollutants and to cooperatively pass their data through the network to a main location or sink
where the data can be observed and analysed. A sink or base station acts like an interface between users and
the network. One can retrieve required information from the network by injecting queries and gathering
results from the sink. Typically a wireless sensor network contains hundreds of thousands of sensor nodes.
The sensor nodes can communicate among themselves using radio signals. A wireless sensor node is
equipped with sensing and computing devices, radio transceivers and power components. The individual
nodes in a wireless sensor network (WSN) are inherently resource constrained: they have limited processing
speed, storage capacity, and communication bandwidth. After the sensor nodes are deployed, they are
responsible for self-organizing an appropriate network infrastructure often with multi-hop communication
with them. Then the onboard sensors start collecting information of interest. Wireless sensor devices also
respond to queries sent from a “control site” to perform specific instructions or provide sensing samples. The
working mode of the sensor nodes may be either continuous or event driven. Global Positioning System (GPS)
and local positioning algorithms can be used to obtain location and positioning information.

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) enable new applications and require non-conventional paradigms for
protocol design due to several constraints. Owing to the requirement for low device complexity together with
low energy consumption (i.e. long network lifetime), a proper balance between communication and
signal/data processing capabilities must be found.

3.2Wireless Sensor Network Architecture

The most common wireless sensor network architecture follows the OSI architecture Model. The architecture
of the WSN includes five layers and three cross layers. Mostly in sensor n/w, we require five layers, namely
application, transport, n/w, data link & physical layer. The three cross planes are namely power
management, mobility management, and task management. These layers of the WSN are used to accomplish
the n/w and make the sensors work together in order to raise the complete efficiency of the network.

Types of WSN Architectures

The architecture used in WSN is sensor network architecture. This kind of architecture is applicable in different
places such as hospitals, schools, roads, buildings as well as it is used in different applications such as security
management, disaster management & crisis management, etc. There are 2 types of wireless sensor
architectures: Layered Network Architecture, and Clustered Architecture. These are explained as following
below.

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a)Layered Network Architecture

This kind of network uses hundreds of sensor nodes as well as a base station. Here the arrangement of
network nodes can be done into concentric layers. It comprises five layers as well as 3 cross layers which
include the following (Shown in Figure1).
The five layers in the architecture are:
• Application Layer
• Transport Layer
• Network Layer
• Data Link Layer
• Physical Layer
The three cross layers include the following:
Power Management Plane
Mobility Management Plane
Task Management Plane
These three cross layers are mainly used for controlling the network as well as to make the sensors function as
one in order to enhance the overall network efficiency. The above mentioned five layers of WSN are discussed
below.

Figure 1:Wireless Sensor Network Architecture

Application Layer

The application layer is liable for traffic management and offers software for numerous applications that
convert the data in a clear form to find positive information. Sensor networks arranged in numerous
applications in different fields such as agricultural, military, environment, medical, etc.

Transport Layer

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The function of the transport layer is to deliver congestion avoidance and reliability where a lot of protocols
intended to offer this function are either practical on the upstream. These protocols use dissimilar
mechanisms for loss recognition and loss recovery. The transport layer is exactly needed when a system is
planned to contact other networks.

Providing a reliable loss recovery is more energy-efficient and that is one of the main reasons why TCP is not
fit for WSN. In general, Transport layers can be separated into Packet driven, Event-driven. There are some
popular protocols in the transport layer namely STCP (Sensor Transmission Control Protocol), PORT (Price-
Oriented Reliable Transport Protocol and PSFQ (pump slow fetch quick).

Network Layer

The main function of the network layer is routing, it has a lot of tasks based on the application, but actually,
the main tasks are in the power conserving, partial memory, buffers, and sensor don’t have a universal ID and
have to be self-organized.

The simple idea of the routing protocol is to explain a reliable lane and redundant lanes, according to a
convincing scale called a metric, which varies from protocol to protocol. There are a lot of existing protocols
for this network layer, they can be separated into; flat routing and hierarchal routing or can be separated into
time-driven, query-driven & event-driven.

Data Link Layer

The data link layer is liable for multiplexing data frame detection, data streams, MAC, & error control, confirm
the reliability of point–point (or) point– multipoint.

Physical Layer

The physical layer provides an edge for transferring a stream of bits above the physical medium. This layer is
responsible for the selection of frequency, generation of a carrier frequency, signal detection, Modulation &
data encryption. IEEE 802.15.4 is suggested as typical for low rate particular areas & wireless sensor networks
with low cost, power consumption, density, the range of communication to improve the battery life. CSMA/CA
is used to support star & peer to peer topology. There are several versions of IEEE 802.15.4.V.

The main benefits of using this kind of architecture in WSN is that every node involves simply in less-
distance, low- power transmissions to the neighboring nodes due to which power utilization is low as
compared with other kinds of sensor network architecture. This kind of network is scalable as well as
includes a high fault tolerance.

b)Clustered Network Architecture

In this kind of architecture (Figure 2), separately sensor nodes add into groups known as clusters which
depend on the “Leach Protocol” because it uses clusters. The term ‘Leach Protocol’ stands for “Low Energy
Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy”. The main properties of this protocol mainly include the following.

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Figure2:Clustered Network Architecture

This is a two-tier hierarchy clustering architecture. This distributed algorithm is used to arrange the sensor
nodes into groups, known as clusters. In every cluster which is formed separately, the head nodes of the
cluster will create the TDMA (Time-division multiple access) plans. It uses the Data Fusion concept so that it
will make the network energy efficient. This kind of network architecture is extremely used due to the data
fusion property. In every cluster, every node can interact through the head of the cluster to get the data. All
the clusters will share their collected data toward the base station. The formation of a cluster, as well as its
head selection in each cluster, is an independent as well as autonomous distributed method.

3.3 Coverage and Placement of WSN:

Optimum sensor node placement in a monitored area is needed for cost-effective deployment. The positions
of sensor nodes must be able to provide maximum coverage with longer lifetimes. One of the ways in
provisioning maximum coverage with longer lifetime is through the use of some sort of wireless sensor
network (WSN) deployment mechanism. This can be done by utilizing an effective planning mechanism in
arranging the limited number of sensor nodes. WSN for target monitoring applications such as landslide
monitoring, forest fire detection, and precision agriculture can be implemented with a fixed number of sensor
nodes that are deployed to monitor one or more locations within a monitored area. For cost-effective
deployment, it is critically important to determine optimal locations for these sensor nodes. The locations of
the sensor nodes strongly affect the energy consumption, operational lifetime, and sensing coverage. Thus,
careful sensor node placement is needed.

There is a tradeoff between energy consumption of sensor nodes and network coverage. Closer sensor nodes
will reduce the energy consumption but the network coverage will become smaller. A Voronoi diagram as
shown in Figure 3 in their technique known as Node Network Voronoi (NNV) and Edge Network Voronoi (ENV)
as a solution for WSN coverage determination and optimization of energy. In Voronoi diagram, a partition of
sensor nodes that are points inside a polygon are closer to the sensor node inside the polygon than any
other sensor nodes. Thus, one of the polygon vertices is the farthest point of the polygon to the sensor node
inside it. This method can be used as a sampling method for WSN coverage where if the polygon vertices are
covered, then the area is fully covered. Voronoi diagram is chosen as they believed that grid-based
deployment strategies are likely to face problems such as misalignment and misplacement where it requires
the sensor nodes to be placed accurately at the grid points. Furthermore, the computational complexity of the
Voronoi diagram is controlled only by the number of sensor nodes.

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Figure: 3 A Voronoi diagram for WSN coverage determination and optimization of energy.

3.4 Topology management in WSN:

In topology management of Wireless sensor network, energy efficiency is the primary factor. Most
sensors depending on the requirement are battery powered and hence conserving the energy of these sensors
is very crucial. One straightforward approach is to turn off the radio of the sensor, thereby conserving
energy. However, it is also important that a node must function to receive packets directed to it and help in
other high level routing and control protocols. In a power conserving topology control algorithm for multi-hop
ad-hoc WSN, we save power through routing coordination. There should be a minimum delay between nodes
forwarding packets from source to destination than if all nodes being awake and the non-participating nodes
should have radios turned off. The backbone is reflected by the paths that can function without interference.

In a network, it is not always productive to have every node with maximum power transmission having
the energy constraint property. Topology control is used in wireless sensor networks to ensure that there are
sufficient activated nodes connected with each other in order to deliver the data to the sink while the
needless nodes are turning off to reduce energy consumption.

The topology control protocol allows each node to regulate its transmission energy. Each node should
be able to control its transmission power. However, despite having the transmission power control, this
should not disturb the node’s connectivity i.e., the algorithm should make sure that adjacent nodes are
reached which are immediately linked within high transmission power range.

WSN topology focuses to set up an optimized network for data transfer on the premise of meeting the
requirements of network coverage and connectivity by controlling power, selecting backbone node and
eliminating unnecessary communication link. The WSN network could be star, cluster, mesh, or hybrid
topology . The first network applied in Wireless Sensor Network was the star network, which was a single-
hop wireless sensor network and had the characteristics of low power consumption and simple structure.
However, the disadvantage was that the whole network could be rendered non-functional if the central
node were attacked, which was the bottleneck of the network. Next in line was the cluster network, which is
a multi-cluster network with cluster heads. Each cluster head receives data from their respective clusters and
then forward this data to the base station after aggregating the data. The cluster network gave way to quite a
number of algorithms, which used this design. The next was the mesh network with the ability of better fault

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tolerance. In this networks all nodes are equal in the sense that they can transmit to any neighbor node and
then forward to the base station. Apart from the ones mentioned above, there are also hybrid networks,
which are a combination of two or three single topology together. Now a day, researchers of topology control
focus on mesh networks because of its reliability factor, which provide multiple paths between two nodes.
Different data transmission routes could improve the network connectivity. However, multiple paths
architectures have high power consumption.

The main target of WSNs is to decrease the power consumption and increase the network lifetime since the
energy consumption is proportional to distance in the power of communication. The nodes are divided into
equivalence classes based on the geographical properties in a lot of topology management algorithms such as
GAF, DGAF, ASCENT, etc. Each class has its own representative node and only these turning their radio
transmitters ON and carry out the routing functions thereby conserving energy. The remaining nodes either
turn their radios OFF or enter into sleep mode depending on the algorithm.

The GAF algorithm which is based on energy model takes also into consideration the energy consumed in idle
time which is also relatively high and hence proposes energy optimization by turning the radio of the sensor
node OFF.

3.5 Applications of wireless sensor network (WSN):

Wireless sensor networks have gained considerable popularity due to their flexibility in solving problems in
different application domains and have the potential to change our lives in many different ways. WSNs have
been successfully applied in various application domains such as:

a)Military applications: Wireless sensor networks be likely an integral part of military command, control,
communications, computing, intelligence, battlefield surveillance, reconnaissance and targeting systems.

b)Area monitoring: In area monitoring, the sensor nodes are deployed over a region where some
phenomenon is to be monitored. When the sensors detect the event being monitored (heat, pressure etc), the
event is reported to one of the base stations, which then takes appropriate action.

c)Transportation: Real-time traffic information is being collected by WSNs to later feed transportation models
and alert drivers of congestion and traffic problems.

d)Health applications: Some of the health applications for sensor networks are supporting interfaces for the
disabled, integrated patient monitoring, diagnostics, and drug administration in hospitals, tele-monitoring of
human physiological data, and tracking & monitoring doctors or patients inside a hospital.

e)Environmental sensing: The term Environmental Sensor Networks has developed to cover many
applications of WSNs to earth science research. This includes sensing volcanoes, oceans, glaciers, forests etc.

f)Structural monitoring: Wireless sensors can be utilized to monitor the movement within buildings and
infrastructure such as bridges, flyovers, embankments, tunnels etc enabling Engineering practices to monitor
assets remotely with out the need for costly site visits.

g)Industrial monitoring: Wireless sensor networks have been developed for machinery condition-based
maintenance (CBM) as they offer significant cost savings and enable new functionalities. In wired systems, the
installation of enough sensors is often limited by the cost of wiring.

h)Agricultural sector: using a wireless network frees the farmer from the maintenance of wiring in a difficult
environment. Irrigation automation enables more efficient water use and reduces waste.

Some other major areas are listed below:

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Air pollution monitoring, Forest fires detection, Greenhouse monitoring, Landslide detection

3.6 Mobile WSNs

These networks consist of a collection of sensor nodes that can be moved on their own and can be interacted
with the physical environment. The mobile nodes can compute sense and communicate. The mobile wireless
sensor networks are much more versatile than the static sensor networks. The advantages of MWSN over the
static wireless sensor networks include better and improved coverage, better energy efficiency, superior
channel capacity, and so on.

3.7 Technologies for sensor nodes & networks

Introduction: Wireless sensor network is a modern information technology which integrates sensors,
wireless communication, low-power embedded components and distributed data processing. Wireless
communication technology is employed to transmit data to the terminal. It owns an extensive range of
applications in various fields including military, agriculture, aviation, medical, etc. Here, we concentrate on
two of key technologies, location-awareness and data fusion.

1. Location-awareness technology

Location awareness could provide positioning functions similar to global positioning system (GPS), while
the former is able to work indoor. For multi-agent wireless networks, location awareness is an
indispensable technology which guarantees significance of the observed data by enabling agents to obtain
accurate observation messages. In this way, agents’ interactions with external environment or adjacent
nodes are actualized . Location aware algorithms are divided into range-free localization algorithms and
range-based ones, and the former includes DV-HOP algorithm, centroid algorithm and ATIP algorithm . The
DV-HOP algorithm requires hop distance between target node and anchor nodes as well as the distance
per hop to calculate overall distance. Then distances from at least three anchor nodes are required in
order to achieve tri-edge measurement or multi-edge measurement utilized as a way of positioning.
algorithm is capable of avoiding errors from additional hardwares and is relatively unexacting to
implement because it does not need direct ranging.

The centroid algorithm selects several anchor nodes within the communication range of the target
node as particles, and the centroid of polygon constituted by them is utilized as the target’s position. This
algorithm is reputed as the most classic range-free localization approach.

The ATIP algorithm takes advantage of anchor nodes’ locations within the target communication range
to compose various triangles in the location area. The range of positioning is determined by the spaces
overlapping mostly by these triangles, and the location of the target node is defined by the centroid of the
formative polymath. Range-based localization algorithm includes received signal strength indication(RSSI)
ranging mechanism based on received signal strength, time of arrival(TOA) ranging mechanism based on
time, and angle of arrival(AOA) measuring mechanism based on arrival direction . RSSI ranging mechanism
can utilize the attenuation model in which signal energy attenuation rate is inversely proportional to the
square of distance, and calculate the distance in combination with the intensity of transmitted signal as
well as the received signal. The application scope of this mechanism is relatively comprehensive for its
low price, but its accuracy is lower when nodes density is low. TOA ranging technology, whose accuracy is
higher than that of RSSI, can roughly estimate the distance between the transceivers by the arrival time of
the signal. However, requirements for the hardware and high energy consumption restrict its further
applications. AOA measuring mechanism serves as complementary mechanism of the two ranging
schemes above, which provides azimuth or angle rather than distance messages to neighboring sensors.

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Implementation of this mechanism requires the support of multiple antennas, and hence, it demands high-
performance hardware, also leading to limitation of large-scale applications.

2. Data fusion of WSN Wireless sensor network is composed of a plurality of sensor nodes with spatial
distribution. Asynchronous clocks, observations asynchrony as well as information transmission delay
is unavoidable.
3. Consequently, considerable data from homogeneous or heterogeneous sensor nodes is processed
when these sensors cooperate to complete the same task. Precisely speaking, specific algorithms are
employed to analyze and fuse the data for the purpose of eliminating redundant data in the network,
replenishing missing data by using redundant messages and reducing data traffic in the network. This
kind of information integration analysis technology in wireless network is data fusion technology.

3.8 Operating environment for WSN:

WSNs operate in a distributed environment, where senor nodes communicate with other nodes in the
network. All WSN OSs provide an Application Programming Interface (API) that enables application program to
communicate. It is possible that a WSN is composed of heterogeneous sensor nodes, therefore the
communication protocol provided by the OS must also consider heterogeneity. In network-based
communication, the OS should provide transport, network, and MAC layer protocol implementations.

3.9 Under Water WSNs

More than 70% of the earth is occupied with water. These networks consist of several sensor nodes and
vehicles deployed underwater. Autonomous underwater vehicles are used for gathering data from these
sensor nodes. A challenge of underwater communication is a long propagation delay, and bandwidth and
sensor failures. Underwater, WSNs are equipped with a limited battery that cannot be recharged or
replaced. The issue of energy conservation for underwater WSNs involves the development of underwater
communication and networking techniques.

3.11 Security of WSN

Applications of WSNs are numerous and growing, which range from indoor deployment scenarios in the home
and office to outdoor deployment in adversary’s territory in a tactical battleground. However, due to
distributed nature and their deployment in remote areas, these networks are vulnerable to numerous
security threats that can adversely affect their performance. Random failure of nodes is also very likely in
real-life deployment scenarios. Due to resource constraints in the sensor nodes, traditional security
mechanisms with large overhead of computation and communication are infeasible in WSNs. Design and
implementation of secure WSNs is, therefore, a particularly challenging task.

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) consist of hundreds or even thousands of small devices each with sensing,
processing, and communication capabilities to monitor the real-world environment. They are envisioned to
play an important role in a wide variety of areas ranging from critical military surveillance applications to
forest fire monitoring and building security monitoring in the near future . In these networks, a large number
of sensor nodes are deployed to monitor a vast field, where the operational conditions are most often harsh
or even hostile. However, the nodes in WSNs have severe resource constraints due to their lack of processing
power, limited memory and energy. Since these networks are usually deployed in remote places and left
unattended, they should be equipped with security mechanisms to defend against attacks such as node

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capture, physical tampering, eavesdropping, denial of service, etc. Unfortunately, traditional security
mechanisms with high overhead are not feasible for resource constrained sensor nodes.

The traditional security issues like secure routing and secure data aggregation, security mechanisms deployed
in WSNs also should involve collaborations among the nodes due to the decentralized nature of the networks
and absence of any infrastructure. In real-world WSNs, the nodes can not be assumed to be trustworthy
apriori. Researchers have therefore, focused on building a sensor trust model to solve the problems which are
beyond the capabilities of traditional cryptographic mechanisms . Since in most cases, the sensor nodes are
unattended and physically insecure, vulnerability to physical attack is an important issue in WSNs. A number
of propositions exist in the literature for defense against physical attack on sensor nodes .

The most important security requirements in WSN are listed below:

(a) Data confidentiality: The security mechanism should ensure that no message in the network is
understood by anyone except intended recipient. In a WSN, the issue of confidentiality should address the
following requirements : (i) a sensor node should not allow its readings to be accessed by its neighbors unless
they are authorized to do so, (ii) key distribution mechanism should be extremely robust, (iii) public
information such as sensor identities, and public keys of the nodes should also be encrypted in certain cases to
protect against traffic analysis attacks.
(b) Data integrity: The mechanism should ensure that no message can be altered by an entity as it
traverses from the sender to the recipient.
(c) Availability: This requirements ensures that the services of a WSN should be available always even in
presence of an internal or external attacks such as a denial of service attack (DoS). Different approaches have
been proposed by researchers to achieve this goal. While some mechanisms make use of additional
communication among nodes, others propose use of a central access control system to ensure successful
delivery of every message to its recipient.
(d) Data freshness: It implies that the data is recent and ensures that no adversary can replay old
messages. This requirement is especially important when the WSN nodes use shared-keys for message
communication, where a potential adversary can launch a replay attack using the old key as the new key is
being refreshed and propagated to all the nodes in the WSN. A nonce or time-specific counter may be added
to each packet to check the freshness of the packet.
(e) Self-organization: Each node in a WSN should be self-organizing and self-healing. This feature of a
WSN also poses a great challenge to security. The dynamic nature of a WSN makes it sometimes impossible to
deploy any pre-installed shared key mechanism among the nodes and the base station . A number of key pre-
distribution schemes have been proposed in the context of symmetric encryption . However, for application of
public-key cryptographic techniques an efficient mechanism for key-distribution is very much essential. It is
desirable that the nodes in a WSN self-organize among themselves not only for multi-hop routing but also
to carryout key management and developing trust relations

3.11 MAC
MAC protocols affect the efficiency and reliability of hop-by-hop data transmission. Existing MAC protocols
such as the IEEE 802 series standard may not be completely suitable for WSNs because of energy efficiency.
General MAC protocols can result in a waste of energy in the following ways :

 Since a wireless channel is shared in a distributed manner, packet collision cannot be avoided. The
collided packets require retransmission and result in energy waste.
 Most distributed wireless MAC protocols require control messages for data transmission (e.g., request-
to-send/clear-to-send in the IEEE 802.11 distributed coordination function). Control messages
consume energy.

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2. All the nodes cache the interest. When a node senses that an event matches the interest, it sends the data
relevant to the event to all the interested nodes. Sink will also get the initial data and ‘‘reinforce’’ one of
source nodes by resending the interest at a higher rate.

3. After the reinforcement propagation, the source nodes send data directly on the reinforced path. The
performance of a routing protocol can be expressed through such measures as computational overhead,
communications overhead, path reliability, path length, convergence rate, and stability.

Transport Protocols

The following factors should be considered carefully in the design of transport protocols: a congestion control
mechanism and especially, a reliability guarantee. Since most data streams are convergent toward the sink,
congestion is likely to occur at nodes around the sink. Although a MAC protocol can recover packet loss as a
result of bit error, it has no way to handle packet loss as a result of buffer overflow. Therefore, transport
protocols should have mechanisms for loss recovery; to guarantee reliability, mechanisms such as ACK and
selective ACK used in the TCP would be helpful. At the same time, reliability in WSNs has a different meaning
than that of traditional networks where correct transmission of every packet is guaranteed. For some
applications, WSNs need to receive packets correctly only from a certain area, not necessarily from every
sensor in that area. For certain applications, only a certain ratio of successful transmissions from a sensor
node is sufficient. These observations can be utilized to design more efficient transport protocols. It is more
efficient to have a hop-by-hop mechanism for congestion control and loss recovery since packet loss can be
reduced and energy may be conserved. The hop-by-hop mechanism can also lower the buffer requirement at
the intermediate nodes. Transport control protocols for WSNs should also avoid packet loss as much as
possible since packet loss translates to waste of energy. Furthermore, it should guarantee fairness so that
individual nodes can achieve their fair throughput.

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