CHAPTER 1: THE ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Learning Objectives
1. To state the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the universe
2. To describe the different hypotheses explaining the origin of the solar system
3. To explain the current advancements/ discoveries on the solar system.
4. To recognize the uniqueness of the earth, being the only planet in the solar system with
properties necessary to support life
5. To describe the four subsystems of the earth
6. To identify and describe the layers of the earth

Lesson 1.1: UNIVERSE AND SOLAR SYSTEM

Universe is an all space-time, matter and energy including the solar system, all stars and
galaxies and content of intergalactic space, regarded as a whole. There are three various theories
explaining the origin of the universe;

Steady State Theory. It states that the counting of the galaxies in our Universe is constant and
new galaxies which are forming continuously are filling the empty spaces which are created by
those heavenly bodies which have crossed the boundary lines of observable Universe. This theory
proposes that the overall structure of the universe is always the same at any point in time and
space. This structure is maintained even when certain events, such as birth of new stars, occur. It
is balanced by the death of old stars.

Pulsating Theory: In this theory it is assumed that there is continuous expansion and contraction
in universe. It proposes that the universe will keep expanding more and more then slowly it stop.
Then it will start to contract due to gravitation. This contraction will continue until the universe
become more compact and will later explode and expand again.

Big Bang Theory: It proposes that the entire universe was once condensed in a very small and
compact particle called primeval nucleus. It is estimated that about 20 billion years ago, primeval
nucleus suddenly exploded in a big bang. The force of this explosion caused matter to scatter in
any direction forming a universe.

Biblical Belief on the Formation or Creation of the Universe

“Genesis 1:1 - In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. “
The very first claim made in the Bible is that there was a beginning. Since Genesis 1
describes how God created the universe, and in a certain sequence, there is no doubt that he did
that exactly. God created the universe. 1

PREPARED BY: BERNADETH CAYAOS | INSTRUCTOR I

 SOLAR SYSTEM
Just a part of the vast universe is our solar system. It is located somewhere in Milky Way
Galaxy. It consists of the sun being at the center, minor and major planets and other celestial bodies like
satellites, comets, asteroids and meteoroids.

ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

There are major theories that explain the origin of the solar system.
1. Nebular Hypothesis Theory. According to this theory, the sun and other celestial bodies
orbiting around it were formed from a nebula- a spinning cloud of gases. These clouds are
gravitationally unstable, and matter coalesces within them to smaller denser clumps, which
then rotate, collapse, and form stars.
2. Accretion Theory. Accretion is the gradual increase in the size of an object by the buildup of
matter due to gravity. The accretion theory says that a protosun passing through a cloud of
interstellar materials pulled this material along causing it to swirl around the protosun. As the
protosun evolved into the sun, the material it accreted gradually formed the planets and other
revolving bodies.
3. Tidal Theory. According to this theory, the time when the sun about to form (protosun), a large
body passing around it may have drawn some gaseous materials from it. The mass of gaseous
materials drawn did not completely escape gravitational pull of the protosun. It continued to
spin around it, eventually becoming denser and gradually formed into planetesimals. These
planetesimals give rise to the planets and their satellites.
Space exploration by means of manned and unmanned spacecrafts give us information about
the solar system and beyond. Achieving spaceflight enabled humans to begin to explore the solar
system and the rest of the universe, to understand the many objects and phenomena that are better
observed from a space perspective, and to use for human benefit the resources and attributes of the
space environment.

Lesson 1.2: EARTH AND EARTH SYSTEM

Earth is the only planet in the solar system capable of supporting life. Complex and brilliant
combination of gases, composition and structure of earth are some of the reasons why it can sustain
life.

EARTH SUBSYSTEM
Earth is a very complex place. The earth consists of four distinct yet connected spheres.
All of the processes on Earth are driven by four “spheres”, which we describe individually, but
are really all connected.

PREPARED BY: BERNADETH CAYAOS | INSTRUCTOR I

GEOSPHERE
The Geosphere describes all of the rocks, minerals and ground that are found on and in Earth.
This includes all of the mountains on the surface, as well as all of the liquid rock in the mantle below us
and the minerals and metals of the outer and inner cores. The continents, the ocean floor, all of the
rocks on the surface, and all of the sand in the deserts are all considered part of the geosphere.
Basically, if it looks like solid ground, it's part of the 'ground' sphere.

HYDROSPHERE
Planet Earth has been called the "Blue Planet" due to the abundant water on its surface Over
70 percent of the surface area of the earth is covered by water. All the earth’s water, solid or in liquid
form, those that are contained in glaciers, rocks, soil and the air, comprise the earth’s hydrosphere.

SOURCES OF WATER
Ocean. A big portion of earth’s water is found in ocean. The oceans cover more than 70 percent of the
Earth's surface and contain 97 percent of the Earth's water. If the ocean's total salt content were dried,
it would cover the continents to a depth of 5 feet.
Together with the atmosphere, oceans regulate global temperatures, shape weather and
climate patterns, and cycle elements through the biosphere.

Ocean Structure and Composition

Like the atmosphere, the oceans are not uniformly mixed
but are structured in layers with distinct properties. Pressure
increases with depth as the weight of the overlying air and water
increase. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 pounds per
square inch, and pressure increases by an additional atmosphere
for every 10 meters of descent under water.
Layers of the ocean
The Epipelagic, or sunlight, zone (so called because most visible light in the oceans is found
here) comprises the first 200 meters below the surface, and is warm and mixed by winds and wave
action.
At a depth of about 200 meters, the Continental Shelf (the submerged border of the continents)
begins to slope more sharply downward, marking the start of the Mesopelagic, or twilight zone. Here
water temperature falls rapidly with depth to less than 5°C at 1,000 meters. This sharp transition, which
is called the thermocline, inhibits vertical mixing between denser, colder water at depths and warmer
water nearer the surface. About 18 percent of the total volume of the oceans is within this zone. Below
1,000 meters, in the Bathypelagic, or midnight, zone, water is almost uniformly cold, approximately 4°C.
No sunlight penetrates to this level, and pressure at the bottom of the zone (around 4,000 meters depth)
is about 5,880 pounds per square inch. Little life exists at the Abyssopelagic (abyssal) zone, which
reaches to the ocean floor at a depth of about 6,000 meters. Together, these cold, deep layers contain
about 80 percent of the total volume of the ocean. The deepest layer of the ocean is the Hadal Zone
or Trench Zone. The deepest trench on earth is Mariana Trench,3 also called Marianas Trench, lies in
the floor of the western North Pacific Ocean.

PREPARED BY: BERNADETH CAYAOS | INSTRUCTOR I

 INLAND WATERS
Household, commercial and agricultural water supply mainly come from inland bodies
of water. Two major inland waters are described below.
1. Rivers
A volume of a fresh flowing water across the surface of the land usually to the sea.
Rivers flow in channels.
2. Lakes
A reservoir of relatively still water that is surrounded by land. It is formed from the
accumulation of large amounts of water in natural or artificial depressions on the surface
of the land. Other inland waters include ponds, spring, stream, wetlands, floodplains
and reservoirs.

GROUNDWATER
It is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock. It is stored
in and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers. It results from
the accumulation of water penetrating through small openings called pores in the rocks or soil. This
process is known as percolation.
Groundwater supplies drinking water, used for irrigation to grow crops and an important
component in many industrial processes.

A MASSIVE BODY OF ICE

About 2 percent of earth’s waters is in a form of solid, a massive body of ice called glaciers.
Deposited snow that falls during winter season piles up yearly. This accumulated snow transforms the
lower layers into solid ice.

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE (WATER CYCLE)

Water on earth is continuously moving. It endlessly circulating
through the hydro- logic cycle. As water goes in a cycle, it changes its
states. From liquid to ice to gas and back again.

Sun heats water causing the water to evaporate. Rising air currents take the water vapor up in
the atmosphere. The vapor rises into the air where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into
clouds.
Air currents move the cloud. Cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation.
Most of the precipitation return to the oceans.

PREPARED BY: BERNADETH CAYAOS | INSTRUCTOR I

ATMOSPHERE
A very huge envelope of air that
surrounds the earth and pulled by the
gravitational force of the earth is called
atmosphere. The earth’s atmosphere is
primarily composed of 78 percent nitrogen and
21 percent of oxygen. Other gases like argon,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone,
hydrogen, helium and other inert gases make up
the remaining 1 percent.
The earth’s atmosphere is made up of different layers as shown in the table
below.

BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is where all forms of life exist. Since life exist in the air, in water and on the
ground, its boundaries overlap other “sphere” because life can be found everywhere on earth. The
biosphere is sometimes thought of as one large ecosystem — a complex community of living and
nonliving things functioning as a single unit.

INNER PART OF THE EARTH

The planet Earth is made up of different layers: the very thin, brittle
crust, the mantle, and the core; the mantle and core are each divided into
two parts. Although the core and mantle are about equal in thickness, the
core actually forms only 15 percent of the Earth's volume, whereas the
mantle occupies 84 percent. The crust makes up the remaining 1 percent.

PREPARED BY: BERNADETH CAYAOS | INSTRUCTOR I

Crust
The crust is the outermost part of the earth and is very thin compared to the other
layers. It is a part where the living organisms dwell in. It forms a very thin continuous layer that extends
underneath the ocean and continents.

2 KINDS of CRUST
1. Continental crust is mostly composed of different types of granites. Geologists often refer to the
rocks of the continental crust as “sial” which stands for silicate and aluminum, the most abundant
minerals in continental crust.
Cratons are the oldest and most stable part of the continental lithosphere and are found deep
in the interior of most continents.
2. Oceanic crust is mostly composed of different types of basalts. Rocks of the oceanic crust are
referred to as “sima” which stands for silicate and magnesium, the most abundant minerals in oceanic
crust.

The Mantle
It is the mostly-solid bulk of Earth’s interior. The mantle lies between Earth’s dense, super-
heated core and its thin outer layer, the crust. It is made up of silicates, magnesium oxide, iron,
aluminum, calcium, sodium, and potassium. The mantle is divided into two layers: the upper mantle
and the lower mantle.

Mantle Plumes
A mantle plume is an upwelling of superheated rock from the mantle. Mantle plumes are the
likely cause of “hot spots,” volcanic regions not created by plate tectonics.

The Core
It is the dense center and hottest part of earth. The core is made almost entirely of iron and
nickel.
The Gutenberg discontinuity is the boundary between the core and the mantle. The core is
made of two layers:
a) Outer Core - borders the mantle. Bullen discontinuity is the hottest part of the core.
b) Inner Core- is a hot, dense ball of iron. The temperature of the inner core is far above
the melting point of iron.
Bullen discontinuity is the boundary separating these two layers.

PREPARED BY: BERNADETH CAYAOS | INSTRUCTOR I

Earth’s Magnetic Field
Earth’s magnetic field protects the planet from the charged particles of the solar wind. Without
the shield of the magnetic field, the solar wind would strip Earth’s atmosphere of the ozone layer that
protects life from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

References
The Origin of the Universe by John D. Barrow The
Origin of the Universe by Stephen Hawking
http://www.minerals.net/resource/what_is_a_mineral.aspx
https://flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/rocks_minerals/index.htm
https://www.esa.int/esaKIDSen/SEMX4EBE8JG_OurUniverse_0.html
Iakushova, A. F. Dinamicheskaia geologiia. Moscow, 1970.
\Gorshkov, G. P., and A. F. Iakushova. Obshchaia geologiia, 3rded. Moscow, 1973.

PREPARED BY: BERNADETH CAYAOS | INSTRUCTOR I