ELE1501 - STUDYGUIDE Online Material 2018 v2 PDF

MO001/4/2021
STUDY GUIDE
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING I
ELE1501 or EEA1501
Semesters 1 & 2
Department of Electrical & Mining

Engineering
IMPORTANT INFORMATION:
This is a blended module, which means that your module is

available online on myUnisa, but you will also receive
certain online content and tutorial letters in printed format.
Please go onto myUnisa and activate your myLife email and

ensure that you have regular access to the myUnisa module
site ELE1501/21/S1 OR ELE1501/21/S2 and
EEA1501/21/S1 OR EEA1501/20/S2 (depending on which
semester you are registered for).
© 2020 University of South Africa
All rights reserved
Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020 6016
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
We would also like to encourage you to participate in the discussions forum on myUnisa online. This
module has been designed to facilitate easy communication with your lecturer, your e-tutors, as well as
with your fellow students, using the Discussions tool on myUnisa. Please take note that module- related
discussions will also be available on the ELE1501/EEA1501 e-tutor site that you are linked to. We
therefore urge you to participate in the discussions with your e-tutor and other students in your group on
the e-tutor site first, and to actively participate in the subject under discussion.
You may start by introducing yourself to your fellow students in the Students' Lounge, which you will
find under the Discussions tool. You can also use the Students' Lounge to organise yourselves into study
groups, or to engage in informal discussions or networking related to this module. Note, however, that
all other Discussions are reserved for academic or work-related discussions.
This module site is intended to support your learning experience. All your study material is available on
this site, so you don’t need to wait to begin your studies. Regular access to this module site is vitally
important for your success in the ELE1501/EEA1501 module. Please take full advantage of the support
we provide, which you can access through the following menu options found on the left-hand side of the
module site screen:
Menu Option Description
FAQs Selecting this option gives you access to questions and answers relating to
general matters concerning your studies, as well as module-related
information.
Announcements From time to time you will be alerted to important module-related issues
by means of an announcement. The announcement will appear on the
module site, but you will also receive an e-mail notification about the
announcements.
Assignments This menu option allows you to submit assignments online and to monitor
your assessment results. Your assignment submissions can be done online
and must be submitted in PDF, and not Word format. There
is a free Adobe download on the myUnisa homepage to enable you to do
this.
Select this menu option to discuss matters related to this module with your
lecturer and fellow students. We will use the Discussions to share and
Discussions
explore important issues about ELE1501/EEA1501. At the beginning of
each week, a new Discussion will be opened with a topic which should be
discussed by students during that week, and on which your lecturer will
comment by the end of the week. We will provide you with a list of the
Discussions in an announcement.
Official Study Material Here you can access all the study materials for ELE1501/EE1501. You
will find
the study guide, Tutorial Letter 101/3/2021, other tutorial letters, as well
as previous examination papers for this module.
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
Schedule Select this option for information about important dates, such as
assignment submission and examination dates. This will help you to plan
your study schedule and to manage your time so that you can keep up
with all the learning activities for this module.
Additional Resources Selecting this option gives you access to all the material additional to the
official study material.
We trust that our module site and the online environment will enrich your learning experience and that
you will enjoy the module.
All the best with your studies!
Your lecturer for
ELE1501/EEA1501.
CS Shoba
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
Frequently asked questions

About ELE1501 Question 1: What is the purpose of ELE1501?
Answer:
The purpose of this module is to equip students with the basic knowledge, skills,
attitudes and competencies to analyse and solve elementary problems relating to
the fundamentals of electricity and mechanics in electrical engineering.
Question 2: What are the outcomes for ELE1501?
Answer:
For this module, there are several specific outcomes that you need to accomplish
by the end of the semester, or on completion of this module (ELE1501). We have
also formulated several learning outcomes for each study unit in the study guide
to assist you in achieving the following broader specified outcomes for this
module:
The specific outcomes for this module are to enable students to:
 obtain the basic knowledge and understanding of the fundamentals of
electricity and mechanics;
 understand the effects of electric current, electric circuit resistance and
applications, and perform basic direct current (DC) electric network analysis;
 explain the theory, operation and application of a capacitor, determine the
capacitance of a capacitor, calculate the capacitance, charge, energy and time
of growth and decay in a simple circuit with capacitors connected in series or
in parallel;
 state the characteristics of magnetic field lines, determine the direction and
magnitude of the induced electromagnetic fields (EMF), discuss
electromagnetic inductions as used for the production of electromotive forces,
and solve problems related to unknowns such as time and magnetic flux;
 analyse and discuss the characteristics of magnetic circuits, calculate the
values for magnetic circuit flux, and compare electrical and magnetic circuits;
 describe inductance and the factors that determine the inductance of a coil,
solve problems on inductance based on the relationship between the number
of turns, the conductor, current and magnetic flux and time, mutual inductance
due to two or more coils connected in series on the same former, determine
the rate of growth and decay of current voltage in magnetic circuits, and
perform calculations on the energy stored in inductive circuits.
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
Question 3: How is ELE1501 assessed?

Answer:
There are two assignments per semester which have to be submitted for ELE1501.
Students who submit the first assignment of the semester before or on the date of
submission will be admitted to the examination. This assignment mark will be
taken into account for the semester mark. It will constitute 10% of the semester
mark. Thus, the first assignment is compulsory for admission to the examination.
If you fail to submit your first assignment, you will not be permitted to sit for the
examination.
The mark obtained for the second assignment will also be taken into account for
your semester mark.
Thus, students who submit the first and the second assignments of the semester
will obtain admission to the examination, and both their assignments will be taken
into account for their semester marks.
The semester mark constitutes 20% (first assignment 10% and the second
assignment 10%) of the final mark. Remember, you need to obtain at least 40%
in the examination before your semester mark will be taken into account.
How will this work in practice?
Your semester mark constitutes 20% (Assignment 01 counts 10% and
Assignment 02 counts 10%) of your final mark.
Your examination mark constitutes 80% of your final mark.
Your final mark for the module will thus be calculated as follows: 20%
(semester mark) + 80% (examination mark) = 100% (final mark).
Study material Question 1: Will I receive study material for ELE1501?
Answer:
Yes, you will receive all the study materials for ELE1501 by post. Since this
module is presented in an online mode as well, all your study materials, except
the practical developmental kits, will also be available under the Official Study
Material menu option on myUNISA.
Question 2: What study material will I receive in the post or will be available
on myUnisa for ELE1501?
Answer:
 Study guide for Electrical Engineering1 (ELE1501)
 Tutorial Letters 101 and 301
 Other tutorial letters (which you will receive or will become available on
myUnisa during the course of the semester)
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
Question 3: Will I receive my practical kits by post?

Answer:
YES
Question 4: What do I do if my study material is misprinted and/or
incomplete?
Answer:
You have two options. You can contact the Department of Despatch and request
that a new copy be sent to you, or you can access and download an electronic copy
from myUnisa under the Official Study Material menu option. You can also
contact the Department of Despatch via e-mail at despatch@unisa.ac.za or via
SMS, using the number 43579.
Question 5: Are there prescribed textbooks or recommended books for
ELE1501?
Answer:
YES
This can be found under the MENU: Prescribed Books on myUNISA
Assignment Question 1: Where do I find the assignments for the first semester of
Matters ELE1501?
Answer:
You will find the assignments for the first semester in Tutorial Letter 101 for
both semester 1 and semester 2.
If you are registered for the first semester, make sure that you submit the
assignments for the first semester before the due date.
Question 2: Where do I find the assignments for the second semester of
ELE1501?
Answer:
You will find the assignments for the second semester in Tutorial Letter 101,
pertaining only to the second semester.
If you are registered for the second semester, make sure that you submit the
assignments for the second semester before the due date.
Question 3: Do I have to do my assignment in the space provided in
Tutorial Letter 101?
Answer:
No, you do not have to complete your assignment using the space provided in
Tutorial Letter 101. You are welcome to type your answers, leaving enough
space for the markers to add their comments. You can also write your answers,
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
leaving enough space for the markers to add their comments.

Question 4: How do I submit my assignment?
Answer:
You may submit written assignments and multiple-choice question assignments
either electronically via myUnisa or by post.
Question 5: What do I do if I want to submit my assignment online via
myUnisa on the submission date and the myUnisa site is unavailable?
Answer:
Submit your assignment before the due date, because if you wait until the last day
of submission, you may encounter problems with the myUnisa site as thousands
of other students may also be trying to submit their assignments on the last day.
Question 6: What happens if I submit a wrongg assignment for ELE1501?
Answer:
Unisa receives hundreds of thousands of assignments every day. If you submit
another module’s assignment for ELE1501, your assignment will not reach the
Department of Electrical Engineering or the lecturer in charge of the module. Your
assignment will be returned to you without being marked. Please ensure that you
submit the correct assignment for ELE1501.
Examination Question 1: Will I receive a scope for the examination?

Matters Answer:
No, we will not provide you with a scope for the examination. However, to help
you in your preparation for the examination, we will upload previous question
papers on myUNISA under the menu: Official Study materials. You will be able
to access and study the format of previous examination papers, and prepare for
the examination using these questions papers.
Question 2: Where can I get previous examination papers and their
memoranda?
Answer:
One of the most frequently asked questions relates to previous examination papers
and/or memoranda. Please note that the lecturers for ELE1501 will not provide
you with any previous examination papers or memoranda.
Bear in mind that the examination papers that are posted on myUnisa from time
to time, are posted without the input of the lecturers. We believe that the study
material contained in this module has been developed with the purpose of
providing students with adequate examples of the different types of questions
that may be asked in the examination. In this regard we refer you to all the
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
activities and related feedback in the study guide, as well as to all the
assignments and related feedback.
Question 3: Will I pass if I only study the assignments and the questions in
previous examination papers?
Answer:
Unfortunately, our experience is that ever since previous examination papers have
been made available to students, our pass rate has dropped. This is because many
students study only these examination papers and then hope to pass. After all, the
purpose of studying is to gain sufficient knowledge of a particular field, which is
demonstrated by passing an examination. By merely studying previous
examination papers/assignments and by "spotting", the very purpose of studying
is defeated because your knowledge of that particular field will always be
inadequate.
Question 4: I have requested a re-mark of my examination paper two months
ago. Can you tell me when I will receive the outcome?
Answer:
Please contact the Department of Examinations. This Department is responsible
for the administration of the re-marking of examination scripts by external
markers from other universities. Unfortunately, the lecturers cannot assist you
with any information. You can contact the Department of Examinations via e-
mail at exams@unisa.ac.za or via SMS, using the number 43584.
Communication Question 1: Whom should I contact with regard to administrative queries?
with UNISA and
lecturers for Answer:
ILW1501 Your Tutorial Letter 101contains the contact details for the various administrative
departments at Unisa, including the assignments, examinations and financial
divisions. Details can also be found in the myStudies @ Unisa- brochure which
you received with your study package. Below are some contact details:
Directorate/Business unit Short SMS E-mail address

code
Student Admissions and 43578 study-info@unisa.ac.za

Registrations
Student Assessment 43584 For examinations:

Administration
exams@unisa.ac.za
For assignments:
assign@unisa.ac.za
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
Despatch 43579 despatch@unisa.ac.za
Finance 31954 finan@unisa.ac.za
ICT (myUnisa & myLife) 43582 myUnisaHelp@unisa.ac.za
myLifeHelp@unisa.ac.za
Question 2: Whom should I contact with regard to academic queries?

Answer:
All queries that are not of a purely administrative nature (in other words,
queries of an academic nature, and especially regarding the content of this
module) should be directed to the lecturers for ELE1501.
You can also use Discussion 2: Ask your lecturer (under Discussions in the
menu option) to ask any module-related/academic questions. We will respond
to your questions once a week.
Question 3: Whom should I contact regarding queries about general
student issues?
Answer:
If you need to contact the University about matters that are not related to the
content of this module, please consult myStudies@Unisa, which contains an A–
Z guide with the most relevant study information. This booklet contains
information on how to contact the University (for example, to whom you can
write with different queries, important telephone and fax numbers, addresses
and the times when certain facilities are open).
Always provide your name, student number and module code when you contact
the University.
Student Support Question 1: Does the module ELE1501 have e-tutors?
Services
Answer:
Yes, there are e-tutors for the module ELE1501. You will be notified by the
University once you have been allocated an e-tutor. The e-tutors will assist you
with content-related enquiries and with general enquiries regarding the
assignments and the examination. The e-tutors are only available online via the
myUnisa website for this module.
Question 2: Are there any official study groups for ELE1501?
Answer:
No, there are no official study groups for ELE1501. However, we strongly
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
recommend that you form your own study groups with fellow students living in
your vicinity.
To form study groups, you can share your contact details with fellow students on
the Student Lounge under Discussion 2: Fellow student contact detail. Contact
students who live near you and invite them to form a study group.
Question 3: Are there any discussion classes for ELE1501?
Answer:
No, there are no discussions classes scheduled for this module, because you have
e-tutors who will assist you during the semester with content-related enquiries as
well as revision before the examination. We also suggest that you
use the Discussions tool if you have any questions.
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
Discussions ELE1501
Forum 1: Discussion 1: Introduce yourself

Student Lounge Introduce yourself to your fellow students and briefly say what you hope to
achieve by studying this module.
Use this forum to
discuss general Discussion 2: Fellow student contact details
matters among
Use this space to share your contact details with your classmates.
yourselves
Discussion 3: Study Groups
Use this space to form study groups among yourselves.
Forum 2: Discussion 1: Module-related queries
Queries to If you have any module-related queries, you can post your questions here. Please
lecturers type the nature of your query clearly in the subject heading of your post. Posts that
Use this forum to are not related to module content will be deleted.
discuss any
module-related We will respond once a week.
matter with your Discussion 2: Assignments
lecturer
Please use this space to discuss any major problems you have with the completion
of your assignment.
We will respond to your queries once a week.
Forum 3: Discussion 1: Revising the study guide
Preparation for
Please use this space to discuss any questions or problems you have with the
the examination revision of the study material for this module. Please indicate clearly what study
Use this forum to unit you are referring to in your question.
discuss any
Discussion 2: Examination
questions you
have regarding Please use this space to discuss any questions or problems you have with the
the revision of the preparation for your examination.
study material We will respond to your queries once a week.
and in preparing
for the exams
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
Study Unit 1
Fundamentals of electricity and mechanics
CONTENTS
OVERVIEW
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.1 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
1.2 SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
1.3 PREFIXES AND SYMBOLS FOR MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES
1.4 THE UNIT OF FORCE
1.5 THE UNIT OF WORK OR ENERGY
1.6 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
1.7 THE UNIT OF POWER
1.8 THE UNIT OF TORQUE
1.9 THE KILO-WATT HOUR [KWH]
1.10 EFFICIENCY
1.11 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT FORMULAE
1.12 CONCLUSION
1
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
OVERVIEW
Electrical engineering technology is a subject which is closely related to the technologies of mechanics, heat,
light and sound. For instance we use electrical motors to drive machines like cranes, we use electric heaters to
keep warm, we use electric lamps, perhaps to read this guide, and we use the radio to listen to our favourite music.
In this section we will review the fundamental elements of which you should have an understanding. We will
use this to develop a basic understanding of electrical engineering technology. We will also look at the concepts
of work, energy and power, since the underlying notion is that electricity is the means to deliver energy to a
particular point of application. Thus we are able to operate an electric train, and yet the power source may be
many kilometres away. It is electricity that delivers the energy to make things happen.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
1. select and apply the appropriate International System of Units (SI) of measurement, including prefixes
denoting multiplication and division;
2. analyse the efficiency of a basic cascaded application involving various elements of electrical systems,
including motors, pumps, turbines, generators and gearboxes;
3. identify the relevance of efficiency to energy and power through basic calculations and formulae, and solve
problems related to the transfer of energy from potential to kinetic to electrical energy in a hydro power plant
by considering the losses occurring in the cascaded system.
You should spend approximately 20 hours, or a period of two weeks, on this unit.
This study unit can also be studied in conjunction with paragraphs 1.1 to 1.7 of the recommended textbook:
Hughes Electrical and Electronics Technology, 10th Edition.
1.1 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
[For more information refer to paragraph 1.1 of the textbook]

Prior to the introduction of standardised (international) units, measurements were often approximated. Long journeys
were often measured by the number of days required to cover such a distance on horseback, while short distances were
measured in strides or even in feet.
Along with the development of science and technology, more accurate units were required and hence the SI units
were developed. All units used in the various technological fields can be derived from the seven base units. Table
1.1 below shows the SI base units.
Quantity Quantity Quantity Unit

Symbol Unit Symbol
Length l metre m
Mass m kilogram kg
Electric Current A Ampere A
Time t seconds s
Temperature T Kelvin K
Luminous Intensity Iv Candela cd
Amount of Substance n mole mol
2
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
Table 1.1: Basic SI Units

In questions, certain values are often not given in the relevant SI unit (or one of its derivatives), and it is therefore
important that students first convert the value before entering it into an equation. If this is not done, the answer
calculated will not be an SI unit (or derivative) and this often leads to errors.
1.2 SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
In order to establish some standard in the use of symbols, abbreviations and definitions, all users of this text should
abide by the set guidelines as far as possible. The guidelines are as follows:
Some unit symbols, for example the volt, is the same for singular and plural, namely 1 volt, 2 volt, etc.
The product of two units, i.e. a compound unit symbol, should be expressed without a space between the units, for
example the units of a Newton metre is written as Nm.
There should be no space in a unit symbol involving a multiple and a sub-multiple unit, i.e. a milliampere is
expressed as mA. Table 1.2 below shows some of the derived SI units.

Symbol Unit Symbol
Area a square metre m2
Force F Newton N
Weight F Newton N
Energy E or W Joule J
Watt hour Wh
Real Power P Watt W
kiloWatt kW
Torque T Newton metre Nm
Volume V cubic metre m3
Temperature:
– Thermodynamic T Kelvin K
– Celsius t or  degree Celsius °C
Resistance Ohm Ohm Ω
Resistivity ρ Ohm metre Ωm
Specific heat
capacity c Joule/kilogram
Kelvin J/Kg.K
Current:
– steady state or
rms value I Ampere A
– instantaneous
value i Ampere A
– maximum
value IMax Ampere A
3
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
Reactance X Ohm* Ω
Reluctance S Ampere/weber A/Wb
Apparent Power S Volt-Ampere VA
Capacitance C Farad F

Symbol Unit Symbol
Charge or quantity
of electricity Q Coulomb C
Potential difference:
– steady state or
rms value V Volt V
– instantaneous
value v Volt V
– maximum
value Vm Volt V
Electric field
strength E Volt/metre V/m
Electric flux
density D Coulomb/square
metre C/m2
Permittivity:
– Free space or
Electric constant εo Farad/metre F/m
– Relative
permittivity εr _ _
– Absolute
permittivity ε Farad/metre F/m
Electromotive
force:
– steady state or
rms value E Volt V
– instantaneous
value e Volt V
– maximum
value EMax Volt V
Inductance:
– Self
inductance L Henry H
– Mutual
inductance M Henry H
Magnetic field
strength H Ampere/metre A/m
Magnetic flux
density B Tesla T
Magnetomotive
force F Ampere A
4
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
Permeability:
– Free space or
Magnetic constant µo Henry/metre H/m
– Relative
permeability µr _ _
– Absolute
permeability µ Henry/metre H/m
Frequency f Hertz Hz
Table 1.2: Derived SI Units
1.3 PREFIXES AND SYMBOLS FOR MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES

Powers which are multiples of 3, are the most popular ones to use in the field of electrical engineering. Powers of ±
1 and ± 2 are preferred in volume calculations, and at times area calculations. Set your calculator to the engineering
mode when solving problems in these notes. Also limit your answers to four digits maximum. Table 1.3 below
shows the most popular multiplyingfactors.
Multiplying Prefix Symbol

factor
1012 Tera T
109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
10-2 centi c
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro µ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
Table 1.3: Symbols for multiplication factors
From To Factor From To Factor

mm m 103 m m mm 103 mm
mm2 m2 106 m2 m2 mm2 106 mm 2
mm3 m3 109 m3 m3 mm3 109 mm3
cm m 102 m m cm 102 cm
cm2 m2 104 m2 m2 cm2 104 cm 2
cm3 m3 106 m3 m3 cm3 106 cm 3
Table 1.4: Conversion table
5
ELE1501/EEA1501/MO001/4/2021
Example 1.1
15mm2  5103  3103

 15 106
35mm3  35 103 1103 1103

 35 109 m3
Activity 1.1
The answers to these activities will be given at the end of this learning unit. Please do the activity on your
own first, before you look at the answer at the back. By doing it on your own first, you will prove that you are
able to apply the new knowledge.
A container of uniform shape filled with water, has a base of 40cm2 and a height of 200mm. Calculate the volume of
water the vessel can hold in m3 . (V = 800 x 10-6m3)
1.4 THE UNIT OF FORCE

The SI unit of force is the Newton [N], named after the English philosopher and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton
(1642-1727).
It is defined as the force which will give a mass of 1 kg an acceleration of 1 metre per second squared. Therefore we
can state that for a body to be accelerated or decelerated, a force must act upon it.
F  ma [N]
Where;
F= Force in Newton
m= Mass in kilograms
a= Acceleration in metres per second squared
If a body is to be accelerated vertically from the earth’s surface, the force of gravity has to be overcome. The force
exerted by a mass due to the earth’s gravitational pull, is called weight. This force varies at different points on the
earth’s surface. Since the force of gravity varies, we will assume that for the remainder of this book that the force of
gravity is equal to 9.81m.s-2.
Example 1.2
Calculate the acceleration if a force of 100 N is applied to a mass of 65kg on a horizontal plane.
6
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
F  ma
F Force
a 
m
65kg
100

65
Figure 1.1
 1. 538m.s 2
Example 1.3
Calculate the mass of an object suspended from a rope exerts a force of 44N.
F  ma
F
m 
a
44

9.81 Weight
 4.485kg
Figure 1.2
Activity 1.2
Calculate the force acting upon the cable if a 200kg load is suspended from a steel cable.
(F = 1962N)
1.5 THE UNIT OF WORK OR ENERGY
The SI unit of work is the Joule [J]. This unit is named after the English physicist James Joule (1818-
1889). Joule is defined as the work done when a force of one Newton moves an object through a distance
of one meter. Note that the symbol "E" is more popular when denoting energy. "W" is used when we
talk about work done.
E  Fs [J]
Where:
F= Force in Newton
s= Distance in metres
7
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work, and is therefore measured in the same units as work.
Energy can exist in many forms.
For example, water in a dam has the potential for doing work as the water falls to a lower level. The falling
water will have a mass m and will fall a distance h and will be accelerated at the rate of the force of gravity
g.
F  mg
E  Fs
 mgh [J]
Therefore Potential Energy is:
Ep  mgh [J]
Where:
m= mass in kilograms
g= acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m.s-2)
h= height in metres
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body in motion. This can be determined by calculating the
amount of work required to bring the body to a complete standstill.
If we accelerate a stationary body of mass m, expressed as:
v
a 
t
Therefore, the average velocity must be the maximum velocity/2, and the distance travelled must then be
average velocity x time, expressed as:
Since Work = mass x acceleration x distance, then
E  mas
v vt
 m 
t 2
Where:
m= Mass in kilograms
v= Velocity in metres per second
8
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Example 1.4
Calculate the work/energy in lifting a 70kg through a height of 40m.
F  mg
 70  9.81
 686.7N
E  Fs
 686.7  40
Figure 1.3
 27468J
Example 1.5
A dam contains 1 million litres of water 400m above sea level. Calculate the potential energy of the water.
(Fact: 1 litre of water has a mass of 1kg).
Ep  mgh
 106  9.81 400
 3.924 109 J
Example 1.6
A motor vehicle with a mass of 850kg is moving at a velocity of 100km/h. Calculate its kinetic energy.
Note: Firstly we have to convert km/h to m.s-1 (derived SI units).
100km  100 1000 m

 100 103 m
1hour  3600 s

100km / h  100 103  3600
 27.28m.s1
Activity 1.3
Calculate the potential energy of the water in the storage tank, if the tank contains 10 kilolitres.
(Ep = 2.94 MJ)
9
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
The answers to these activities will be given at the end of this learning unit. Please do the activity on
your own first, before you look at the answer at the back. By doing it on your own first, you will prove
that you are able to apply the new knowledge.
Water
30 m
Figure 1.4
1.6 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Energy can exist in many forms and can be changed from one form to another (i.e. electrical energy to
heat energy), but it can never be destroyed or created.
Example 1.7
An object with a mass of 10kg is dropped from a 250 metre crane. Calculate the maximum velocity the
object will achieve. Ignore friction due to air.
Ep  mgh
 10 9.81 250
 24525J
Figure 1.5
For the conservation of energy, all the potential energy must be converted to kinetic energy.
10
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
1.7 THE UNIT OF POWER
Power is defined as the rate of doing work, and the SI unit is the Watt [W], named after the Scottish
engineer James Watt (1736-1819). The Watt is said to be equal to one joule per second.
E
P  [W]
t
Where:
E = Energy in Joule
t = time in seconds
The Watt is often inconveniently small and so the kiloWatt or even MegaWatt is mostly used.
Where 1 kilowatt = 1000 or 103 Watt

1 Megawatt = 1 000000 or 106 Watt
It is preferable to state that the time taken to do work is proportional to the amount of power available. Let’s
take an example: Assume a motor vehicle has to cover a distance of 1km and the energy or work required to
move the vehicle is 1MJ. If the vehicle has a 50kW motor, the time taken to cover the 1km distance would
be:
E
t 
P
1106

50103
 20s
If, however, the vehicle is now fitted with a 100kW motor, the time taken to cover the same distance
would be:
E
t 
P
1106

100103
 10s
It can now be seen that the amount of work (Joule) required to perform a specific task remains constant,
but the time taken to do the task is dependent upon the amount of power available.
Example 1.8
Calculate the time taken to pump 1 kilolitre of water 10 metres in height if the power available is 100W.
Assume 1 litre of water has a mass of 1kg.
11
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Ep  mgh
 103  9.81 10
 98.1 103 J
Figure 1.6
Ep
t 
P
98.1103

100
 981s
Activity 1.5
One thousand litres of water is pumped through a height of 20m in a period of 30min. Calculate the
work done (energy consumed) and the power required.
(Ep = 196.2kJ; P = 109W)
Example 1.9
A man with a mass of 69kg climbs a flight of 600 stairs. If each step has a height of 0.15m, and it takes
the man 10 minutes to reach the top. Calculate the work done by the man and the power exerted.
Totalheight
 600  0.15
 90m
Ep  mgh
 69  9.81 90
 62.92 103 J
Figure 1.7
Ep
P 
t
62982

10  60
 101.5W
12
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
1.8 THE UNIT OF TORQUE
If a force is applied at right angles to the lever in figure 1.8, the torque or turning moment at the pivot
point is:
T  Fr [Nm]
Where:
F= Force in Newton
r= radius in metres
Fig. 1.8: Force in downward motion
However, not all forces are perpendicular (i.e. at right angles) to the lever, as can be seen in figure 1.9.
r
A
B F
Fig. 1.9: Force in angular motion
In figure 1.9 we have to calculate the perpendicular component of the force acting upon the lever in
order to calculate torque. This is done using straightforward trigonometry.
Adj
Cos 
Hyp
AB

AF
 the vertical comp onent
AB  AF .Cos
 F.Cos

Torque is then said to be:
T  Fr.Cos

If a force is maintained at right angles to the lever for 1 revolution, then we can calculate the work done
as follows:
E  Fs
 F 2r
13
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
but
E
P 
t
2 (Fr )  No.of revolutions

t
Since
Fr T
We are left with
P  2nT [W]
2NT
 [W]
60
Where:
n = revolutions per second

N = revolutions per minute.
Example 1.10
A force of 50N applied at right angles to a lever gives a torque of 270Nm. Calculate the radius of the
lever.
14
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
T  Fr
T
r 
F
270

50
 5.400m
Example 1.11
Referring to figure 1.9, calculate the torque if a force of 40N is applied at a radius of 30cm and an angle
 of 35°. If the power applied to the lever is 500W, calculate the rate at which the lever rotates.
T  Fr.Cos
 40  0.3 Cos35
 9.83Nm
P  2nT
P
n 
2.T
500

2 9.83
 8rev / sec
1.9 THE KILO-WATT HOUR [kWh]
We have already discussed the fact that energy is measured in Joules, but this unit is inconveniently
small for most applications.
The kWh is the product of power in kW and time in hours. This does not strictly comply with the SI
units, but it is the unit by which most of us are charged for the electricity we consume.
Cost = kWh consumed x Tariff (cost per kWh)
1kWh  1000W  3600s

 3.6 106 Ws
And since Ws is the same as one Joule we can state that:
1kWh  3.6 106 J
15
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Example 1.12
A 750Watt motor drives a swimming pool pump for 8 hours a day. If the motor operates for 365 days (1
year), calculate the total operating tariff. (1kWh costs 18cents).
Firstly, we must convert the power to kilowatts.
750
 0.75kW
1000
Next, we must calculate the total time the motor is running in hours.
Yearly  8hour  365day s

 2920hours
We then calculate the kWh product.
EOUT  0.75 2920

 2190kWh
If 1 kWh costs 18 cents, then 2190 kWh will cost:
Cost  EOUT cos t / kWh

 2190kWh  R0.18
 R39.42kWh
Example 1.13
Calculate the operating cost of an electric heater that is rated at 2500 Watt and is switched on for 4
hours. Also calculate the energy consumed in Joule.
(1kWh = 18 cents).
Cost  kW  h  Tarif
 2.5  4  R0.18
 R1.80
Activity 1.5
The work performed in lifting an object 20m high is 15Wh. Calculate the mass of the object.
(m = 275kg)
1.10 EFFICIENCY
16
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Not all energy supplied to a system is converted to usable energy. If we take an electric motor, for example,
not all the electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy. Some of the energy is converted to heat,
which is wasted energy.
How good a system is at converting input energy to output energy is termed the efficiency of the system.
The symbol for efficiency is  and is calculated by:
EOUT
  100%
EIN
POUT
  100%
PIN
Another useful formula is:
POUT  PIN  PLOSS

EOUT  EIN  ELOSS
Where:
POUT = Output power

PIN = Input power
In figure 1.10, we can see a cascaded system that has three different components and three different
efficiencies.
POUT (system 1) = PIN (system 2) and POUT (system 2) = PIN (system 3)
PIN(1) PIN(2) PIN(3)

System 1 System 2 System 3
POUT(1) POUT(2) POUT(3)
η1 η2 η3
Figure 1.10: Cascaded system of efficiencies

𝜂 𝜂 𝜂
𝜂 = 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥100%
100 100 100

We can calculate the total efficiency of the system by firstly dividing the efficiency of each component
by 100%. We then multiply the three components, and then multiply the result by 100%.
Example 1.14
An electric motor has an efficiency of 85% and needs to deliver 5kW mechanical output power.
Calculate the required input power.
17
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
18
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
POUT
PIN  100%

5000
 100%
85
 5882W
Example 1.15
An electric motor drives a gearbox, which in turn drives a water pump. Their efficiencies are 80%, 95%
and 70% respectively. If the power input to the motor is 10kW calculate the power output of the pump.


𝜂 𝜂 𝜂
𝜂 = 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥100%
100 100 100

80 95 70
𝑋 𝑋 𝑋100% = 53.2%
100 100 100
t 0 [C]
Temperature of substance
T  273.15 [K]
Force on an object
F  ma [N]
 mg [N]
Area of a circle
 d2 2
a   [m ]
 4 
 r2 [m2 ]
Circumference of a circle   d [m]
19
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Torque T  Fr [Nm]
Force of gravity g  9.81 [m.s2 ]
Potential energy Ep  mgh [J]
Kinetic energy E  1 mv 2 [J]

k 2
Output power motor

2NTsh
POUT  [W]
60
POUT  2nTsh [W]
Efficiency
EOUT
  100%
EIN
POUT
  100%
PIN
𝜂 𝜂 𝜂
𝜂 = 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥100%
100 100 100
T  



1.12 CONCLUSION
From this study unity you will have observed that energy is interchangeable. You will also have learned how
potential energy from water in a reservoir can be used as force to turn a turbine at a certain speed to develop
kinetic energy, and how the turning shaft generates electrical energy in the generator. All these stages are
reduced in a cascaded network where we evaluate the losses in a system. You will also be able to calculate
the power, energy and cost of producing electrical power.
20
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
NOTES
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
21
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 1.1
Vol  Area  height

 40 10 4  200 103
 800 10 6 m3
Activity 1.2
F  mg
 200  9.81
 1962N
 1.962kN
Activity 1.3
Ep  mgh
 10000  9.81 30
 2.943 106 J
 2.943MJ
Activity 1.4
Ep  mgh
 1000  9.81 20
 196.2 103 J
 196.2kJ
E
P  p
t
196200

30  60
 109W
22
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Activity 1.5
15Wh  15W  3600s

 54000Ws
 54000J
Ep  mgh
54000
m 
9.81 20
 275kg
23
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Study Unit
2
Effects of electric current
CONTENTS
OVERVIEW
LEARNING OUTCOMES
2.1 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
2.2 ELECTRIC CURRENT DIRECTION
2.3 THE HEATING EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT FLOW
2.4 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE IN A CIRCUIT
2.5 OHM'S LAW
2.6 APPLICATIONS OF THE HEATING EFFECT
2.7 THE CHEMICAL EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
2.8 ANODE AND CATHODE
2.9 MAGNETIC EFFECT
2.11 CONCLUSION
2.12 ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES
24
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
OVERVIEW
When you plug in your kettle at home to make a cup of coffee, do you ever consider how much energy,
time and money you spend? Are you aware that boiling water is an electrochemical process? A
household kettle represents a simple resistance circuit. By applying voltage from the mains supply,
current will flow in the resistor element, thereby producing heat. The heat generated by the resistor
element is transferred to the water in the kettle.
In this Unit, we will move beyond a simple household kettle to heavy industry applications in order to
determine how much energy is used in the smelting industry. In this study unit you will also learn how
a battery works, the chemical reaction that produces electricity and the losses inside the battery due to
internal resistance.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After having studied this study unit, you should be able to:
1. differentiate between conductors and insulators;

2. calculate and solve basic problems on the heating effects of electrical current flow;
3. explain the relationship between heat and temperature using the Celsius and Kelvin scales;
4. apply Ohm’s Law to evaluate the relationship between current, voltage and resistance;
5. differentiate between an anode and cathode, and
6. describe different types of dc sources, such as batteries, generators, and solar cells.
This study unit can also be studied in conjunction with paragraphs 1.7 to 2.8 of the recommended
textbook (Hughes Electrical and Electronics Technology 10th Edition), except the
electrochemical equivalent topics, which are covered in full in this study guide.
2.1 CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
In 1829 Stephen Gray discovered conductors and insulators. He found that brass wire allows electricity to
pass through it, while silk would not allow electricity to pass through it. With a wire (brass) suspended by
silk threads, he was able to transmit electricity over a distance of about 280 metres. Gray's discovery was
the key to the progress made over the following 100 years in the science of electricity.
25
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Materials such as copper and silver are known to be good conductors (or poor insulators). Rubber and glass,
on the other hand, are good insulators (or poor conductors). Materials such as silicon and germanium, doped
with a certain amount of impurity-elements/atoms, can have their conductive properties improved,
depending on the density of the impurity-atoms in a segment (or portion) of silicon or germanium material.
The term semiconductor is used to state that a piece of silicon or germanium has impurity-atoms as a
permanent part of its constitution.
The insulating property of oil and fibrous materials, such as paper and cotton, is influenced by the amount
of moisture they contain. Water is generally regarded as a poor conductor of electricity. However, if a
voltage is to be applied between two points by means of two electrodes submerged in a volume of water
kept in a container, the strength of the current between the two electrodes will depend on the amount of
voltage applied between the two points and the amount and type of impurities present in the water. For
example, if salt is added to water, the overall conductivity of the water increases depending on the amount
of salt added to the water.
2.2 ELECTRIC CURRENT DIRECTION
Electric current is basically the flow of electricity from one point to another. Benjamin Franklin came up
with the theory that electric current flows from positive to negative (also called conventional current flow)
and this was universally accepted for a considerable period of time. Eventually, however, it became
apparent that this theory was incorrect since electrons actually move from negative to positive due to the
fact that electrons have a negative charge (electron flow). The flow direction is not very important to us,
so we will assume, for the remainder of this study guide, that electric current flows from positive to negative,
i.e. conventional current flow.When electric current flows from one point to another, three phenomena can
be observed. They are:
(i) the heating effect,

(ii) the magnetic effect, and
(iii) the chemical effect.
2.3 THE HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT FLOW
2.3.1 The Heating Effect
When electric current flows through a material,

the material will produce heat. A typical example
of this is an electrical home heater. Figure 2.1
alongside represents a heating element which SW1
will produce heat when the switch SW1 is closed
and current starts to flow. This is due to an
applied emf or voltage.
Figure 2.1
26
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
2.3.2 Thermal Energy
The SI unit for thermal energy is the Joule. Mechanical, electrical and thermal energies are interchangeable
and are expressed in joules. Different materials or substances absorb different amounts of heat to raise the
temperature of such a material or substance by one degree. The specific heat capacity [c - joules per
kilogram Kelvin] of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature [t - in
degrees Celsius] of a substance with a mass [m - in kilogram] of 1 kg of the substance by 1C. The heat
required to raise the temperature of [m - in kilograms] of a substance by t degrees with value c is:
Heat required  mct [J]
Where:
m = mass in kilograms
c = specific heat capacity in Joule per kilogram Kelvin
t = change in temperature (C or K)
Example 2.1
Calculate the energy required to raise the temperature of 6kg of water from 10°C to 25°C. The specific
heat capacity of water is 4190J/kg K.
Increasein Temperature
 25 10
 15C
 15K
EOUT  mct
 6  4190 15
 377kJ
Another important parameter to consider is the specific latent heat of fusion [slhf] and is specified in units
of kiloJoule per kilogram [kJ/kg]. To determine the amount of heat energy required to melt matter, the
following equation is applied:
Heat required  mct slhf [J]
The SI unit for temperature is Kelvin, where zero Kelvin is equal to -273.15C. Since in this course, we
only deal with temperature change, and since a 1K change is equal to 1C change, we will use the degree
Celcius scale.
27
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Example 2.2
An electric furnace is used to melt 10kg of

aluminium with an initial temperature of 20C.
Take the melting point of aluminium to be =
660C, c = 950J/kg K and the slhf = 387kJ/kg.
Determine the power (heat energy) required to
accomplish the conversion in 20 minutes.
Assume the efficiency of the furnace to be 75
percent.
Figure 2.2
Heat required  mct slhf [J]

 10  950  640 387000 10
 9.95 106 J
EOUT
E IN  100%

9.95 106
 100
75
 13.27MJ
E IN
P 
t
13.267 106

20  60
 11.00kW
Substance Specific Heat Capacity (J/kg.K)

Water 4190
Copper 390
Iron 500
Aluminium 950
Brass 370
Table 2.1
2.3.3 Heating Effect and Power in an Electrical Circuit
28
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Any practical electrical circuit offers some resistance to the flow of current (electrons) in the circuit. The
amount of electrical energy (or work done) to overcome the resistance against the flow of current in an
electric circuit, is converted into heat or heat energy. Resistance in an electrical circuit can be compared to
friction in a mechanical system, such as the engine of a motor vehicle.
James Prescott Joule discovered the laws relating to what is known as the heating effect. The unit of
energy, namely the joule (J), was named after him. From his research by means of an experiment, he
found that the heat generated in a wire (or in a resistance for that matter) was proportional to:
– The square of the current in the circuit namely I2 ampere, multiplied by the resistance value R
ohms and the time period t seconds for which the current flows in the circuit.
– The heat energy in an electric circuit = I2Rt Joule
The unit of resistance is the ohm, which is named after the German physicist George Simon Ohm. The
ohm () is defined as that resistance in which a current of 1 ampere (A) flows for 1 second (s) and
generates 1 joule (J) of thermal energy. It is also worth remembering that power is given as P = I2 x R
watts, i.e. the heat energy equation without the time factor t in seconds.
Example 2.3
A current of 5 ampere is sustained in a 1.3 ohm resistor for 6 minutes. The resistor is placed inside 0.44
litres of water in a container. The water equivalent of the vessel and heater is 0.017kg. Calculate the heat
generated in kiloJoule, and determine the rise in temperature of the water. Ignore any loss of heat and
assume the specific heat capacity of water to be 4190 Joule per kilogram Kelvin [J/(kg.K)].
The heat generated in the resistor is:
E OUT  I2 Rt
 52 1.3  6  60
 11.7 103 J
NB: The mass of 1 litre of water is equal to 1 kilogram (kg).

Total equivalent mass of the water, vessel and heater:
m  (0.44  0.017)
 0.457kg
Heat generated in resistor = heat absorbed
Heat in theresistor  mct

11.7 10  0.457  4190  t
3
t  6.11K
 6.11C
29
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Power is expressed as Joule per second, or Watt, where Joule relates to the heating effect of current in a
conductor (or a resistance) over a certain time period, using the statement:
Heat energy generated = I2Rt [J]
James Watt referred to 1 Watt as being equal to 1 Joule per second, in mathematic terms.
Example 2.4
The heater element of an electric heater has a resistance of 50. If a current of 4A flows in the element,
calculate:
a) the power consumed by the heater in kiloWatt;

b) the amount of energy used over a 4 hour period in kiloWatt hours;
c) the amount of energy used over a 4 hour period in MegaJoule; and
d) the cost to be paid by the consumer for the energy used if the rate is given as (75c/kWh).
a)
PIN  I2 R
 42  50
 800W
 0.8kW
b)
E IN  P t
 0.8 103  4
 3.2kWh
c)
E IN  3.2kWh  3.6 106
 11.52MJ
d)
Cost  kWh  Tarif
 3.2  R0.75
 R2.40
30
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
2.4 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE IN A CIRCUIT
[Refer to paragraph 2.6 of the textbook]
There are numerous ways of describing the fall

of potential (also known as a volt drop or a
potential difference) in an electric circuit. One V
way to explain potential difference is to use a

length of wire consisting of 60% copper and
40% nickel, called Eureka wire. Eureka wire
has a much higher resistance than copper wire
of the same length and diameter. The length of
wire is Rx is connected to the terminals of a
battery (voltage source - E) as shown in figure
2.3.
Figure 2.3
The voltmeter is connected to a point which can move or slide along the length of the wire. A current flows
in the wire due to the emf source. By moving the slider along the wire from left to right, the voltage readings
on the voltmeter vary from maximum to minimum voltage values respectively.
Note: the wire resistance is at a maximum on the left hand side of the diagram because the wire-length is
at its maximum. As the slider is moved towards the right, the resistance of the wire decreases to a minimum
value of zero. Since the voltage is found to be at a maximum over the full length of wire and vice versa, it
is said that the potential difference is proportional to the resistance of the wire. In terms of circuit
parameters:
V  Rx
Hence the general statement: Potential difference or volt drop is proportional to resistance.
2.5 OHM'S LAW
In 1827 Dr. G.S. Ohm discovered that the current

(measured with an ammeter) in a conductor was
at all times proportional to the potential
difference across the conductor (measured with a
voltmeter). A circuit, as in figure 2.4, with an
ammeter connected in series with the wire, can
be used to confirm Ohm’s Law. (Resistance of
Eureka wire is hardly affected by changes in
temperature). A basic circuit shown in figure 2.4
can also be used to prove that Ohm’s Law holds
true for electrical circuits of a similar type as
found regularly in the practical world. Figure 2.4
31
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
In the most basic way, we can conclude the following using a circuit, such as the one in figure 2.4, with
R kept constant while V is varied:
I is found to vary in proportion to V (I is proportional to V). If V is constant and R is varied, I is

found to vary inversely proportional to R (I is inversely proportional to R). Thus I is equal to V/R.
V
I  [A]
R
Therefore
V  IR [V]
and
V
R  []
I
Definition of Ohm’s Law: The unit of potential difference (measured in volts) is taken as the volt drop across a 1
ohm resistor with a current of 1 ampere flowing in the 1 ohm resistor.
(Count Alessandro Volta, an Italian physicist, was the first to produce an electric battery, hence the unit
of voltage was named after him).
To expand a little further: If we manipulate the equation for power, namely:
2
P I R [W]
in terms of Ohm’s Law, we can substitute I in the above equation with V/R (I = V/R), which yields:
2
𝑃= ×𝑅

V2
 [W]
R
Also, from P = I2R, a third equation for power is deduced as follows:


𝑉
𝑃=𝐼 × = 𝑉𝐼 [𝑊]
𝐼
32
Example 2.5
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
An electric kettle supplies a current of 12.5A from a 220V mains. Calculate:
a) the resistance of the heating element, and

b) the power consumed by the kettle
33
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
a)
V
R 
I
220

12.5
 17.6

b)
2
P  V
R
2202

17.6
 2.75kW
An alternative equation for power can be expressed as:
P  VI
 220 12.5
 2.75kW
Activity 2.1
The resistance of a lamp is 100 and a current of 5A flows in the lamp. Calculate the power consumed by
the lamp in kilowatts. Determine the amount of energy used over a 6 hour period in kilowatt hours and the
cost to be paid to the supplier of electricity for the energy used. The cost of electricity is 25 cents per
kilowatt hour. (P = 2.5kW; E = 15kWh; Cost = R3.75)
Activity 2.2
A certain resistor dissipates 10W when connected to a 50V supply. Calculate the current that flows and
the value of the resistance. (I = 200mA R = 250)
Activity 2.3
An electric lamp consumes 20W when passing a current of 100mA. Calculate the required supply
voltage and the resistance of the lamp filament. (V = 200 volt R = 2000)
Activity 2.4
An electric heater carries 15A at a 220V supply. Calculate the resistance of the heating element and the
power dissipated in the element. (R = 14.67 ; P = 3.300kW)
34
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Example 2.6
The kettle from the previous example is required to raise the water temperature of 1.5 litres of water from
10C to the boiling point of water at sea level (i.e. 100C). If the efficiency of the kettle is 80%, calculate
the time it will take for the water to boil. State any assumptions that are made.
Assumptions:
- The power consumed by the kettle, PIN = 2.75kW, produces a rise in temperature of:
t  t 2  t1
 100  10
 90C
 90K
Useful heat required:
EOUT  mct
 1.5  4190  90
 565.7kJ
Since the kettle is only 80% efficient, it is logical to assume that more than 578220J of energy will be
required i.e.:
E OUT
E IN  100%

565.7 103
 100
80
 707.0kJ
The time t required for the cycle of events to be completed is determined by:
E IN
t 
PIN
707.0 103

2.75 103
 257s
 4min 17s
Activity 2.5
A kettle is required to raise the temperature of 1.5 litres of water from 25C to the boiling point of water
at sea level (i.e. 100C). If the efficiency of the kettle is 75%, calculate the time it will take for the water to
boil. The electrical power consumed by the kettle is 3kW. (t = 210 seconds)
33
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
2.6 APPLICATIONS OF THE HEATING EFFECT
In the previous sections it was seen that power dissipated in a resistor resulted in the production of heat by
the device. The following applications are examples of how the effect of heat is utilised to our benefit:
Heating element in electric stoves. The heating element is usually an alloy of nickel and chromium. This
material is capable of withstanding high temperatures without becoming oxidised when exposed to the
atmosphere.
Incandescent electric lamps. Carbon and tungsten are examples of materials that can operate at high
temperatures for long periods of time. Temperatures as high as 2000 to 2500C can be reached depending
on the vacuum and the type of inert gas used in the bulb. The light intensity of the lamp is proportional to
the temperature of the filament in the lamp.
Fuses. Fuse wire is usually made of metals such as copper, tin, lead or an alloy designed to melt, thus
opening the circuit when the temperature of the fuse wire rises to a critical point. The circuit is then
protected from possible damage.
2.7 THE CHEMICAL EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
Figure 2.5 shows two plates "A" and "B" suspended in a solution of copper sulphate. (This solution is
commonly known as an Electrolyte, which is a chemical substance that can be broken down electrically).
Plate "B" is dried and weighed on a scale before being placed in the electrolyte. We then close switch SW1
for a fixed period of time, say one hour, with a fixed current flowing in the circuit. After one
hour we remove plate "B" and weigh it again. It is found that the mass of the plate has increased. By
comparing the first reading and the second reading we are able to accurately calculate the exact amount of
copper deposited on plate "B". Through repeated experimentation it is possible to calculate how much
copper would be deposited for a certain current and time period. In other words the mass of copper
deposited is directly proportional to the current and time or the quantity of electricity.
If the current in figure 2.5 is reversed so that the

positive terminal is connected to plate "B" and
A B
the negative terminal is connected to plate "A" it
+ sw1
is found that the mass of plate "B" now decreases
proportionally to the current and time because
the chemical reaction has been reversed. If
alternating current is applied to the electrodes it
is found that the mass of plate "B" does not
change hence the chemical effect cannot be used
to measure alternating current.
Figure 2.5
34
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
2.7.1 The Ampere and Coulomb
The unit used to measure electrical current is the Ampere [A]. It is defined as the constant current which,
when flowing through two parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible cross sectional area one
metre apart in a vacuum, will produce a force of 2 x 10-7 newtons per metre length.
The Coulomb of charge is defined as the quantity of electricity that passes a point if one ampere flows
for one second. Therefore:
Q  It [C]
Where:
Q = charge in Coulomb
I = electrical current in Ampere
t = time in seconds
Example 2.7
Calculate the quantity of electricity passing a point in an electrical circuit when a current of 5A flows for
20 seconds.
Q  It
 5  20
 100C
Example 2.8
If the time taken for a charge of 20C to pass a point in an electrical circuit is 40 seconds, calculate the
average current during this period.
Q
I 
t
20

40
 0.5A
35
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Activity 2.6
Determine the current flowing through a 2.2k

resistor when it is connected across a 12V
battery. Also determine the quantity of
electricity (in Coulomb) consumed when the
resistance has been connected to the battery for
20 min.
(I = 5.455mA; = 6.555C)
Figure 2.6
2.7.2 The Ampere hour [Ah]
The Coulomb or ampere second is often an inconveniently small value, hence the ampere hour is
normally used. Though the ampere hour is not strictly an SI unit, it is often used for rating batteries.
A motor car battery may be rated at 40Ah, which means that, if a current of 1A is drawn from the
battery, this current can be maintained for a period of 40 hours since 1A x 40h = 40Ah.
If, however, the current drawn from the battery is increased to 10A, then this current can only be
maintained for 4 hours since 10A x 4h = 40Ah.
Example 2.9
A motor car battery is rated at 35Ah and is used to power a small portable television which draws 2A
from the battery. Calculate the time taken for the television to exhaust the battery.
Q  It
Q
t 
I
35
t 
2
 17hours 30 min
2.7.3 Electrochemical equivalent
In 1832 Michael Faraday determined the relationship between the mass of copper deposited on a negative
plate, plate “B” in figure 2.4, and the quantity of electricity flowing through the electrolyte. From these
experiments two laws were discovered, namely Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis, stating that:
36
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
i) The amount of chemical change produced by an electric current is proportional to the quantity of
electricity.
ii) The amounts of different substances released by a given quantity of electricity are proportional to
their chemical equivalent mass, where:
Relative atomic mas s

Chemical equivalent mass 
Valency
In section 2.7 we noted that it was possible to calculate the quantity of electricity that flowed through the
electrolyte by the mass of copper deposited on the negative plate.
Conversely, if we know the quantity of electricity, i.e., the current and the time, it must then be possible to
calculate the mass of copper that will be deposited on the negative plate. However, we would not be able
to calculate the mass of silver deposited on the negative plate for the same quantity of electricity, because
different substances release different amounts for a given quantity of electricity.
The mass of a substance released from an electrolyte by one coulomb is termed the Electrochemical
Equivalent of that substance:
m  zIt [mg]
where:
m = the mass deposited on the negative plate in ‘mg’
z = the electrochemical equivalent of a substance
I = the current in amperes
t = time in seconds
Table 2.2 shows the electrochemical equivalent for various other substances.
Element Relative Valency Electrochemical

Atomic Mass Equivalent
Aluminium 27.0 3 0.093mg/C

Copper 63.6 2 0.3294mg/C
Gold 197.2 3 0.681mg/C
Iron 55.8 2 0.289mg/C
Nickel 58.7 2 0.304mg/C
Silver 107.9 1 1.1182mg/C
Zinc 65.4 2 0.388mg/C
Table 2.2
2.8 ANODE AND CATHODE
Until now we have referred to the plates suspended in the electrolyte as either the positive plate or negative
plate. More correctly we will now refer to the positive plate as the Cathode and to the negative plate the
Anode.
37
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Example 2.10
If a constant current is passed through a copper container for 40 minutes and the mass of the cathode
was found to increase by 1.65g, calculate the value of the current.
We must first convert the mass to mg, since the unit of z is in mg/C. To do this we simply multiply the
mass in grams by 103.
Therefore: m = 1650mg
We must then look up the value of z for copper from table 2.2
z  0.3294
t  40  60
 2400s
m 
I 
z.t 
  1650

0.3294  2400
 2.087A
Example 2.11
It is required to deposit a 0.1mm layer of nickel on a cathode with an area of 2000mm2. If the current
supplied is 1A and the density of nickel is 8800kg/m3, calculate the time that would be required.
We must first calculate the volume of nickel that will be deposited on the cathode.
Volume  area  height

 2000 10 6  0.110 3
 0.2 10 6 m3
Then we calculate the mass of nickel to be deposited.
mass  Volume  Density

 0.2 106  8800
 0.00176kg
Note: The mass we have just calculated will be expressed in kilograms because we have used SI units
throughout. However we must now convert this to milligrams.
38
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
m
I 
z.t
1760 

0.304 1
 5789s
 1hour 36 min 36s
Activity 2.7
A plate with a surface area of 20,000mm2 is to be copper-plated. If a current of 2A flows for 1 hour,
what thickness of copper will be deposited on the plate? The electrochemical equivalent of copper is
0.3294mg/C and the density of copper is 8,900kg/m3. (h = 13.32m)
Activity 2.8
A plate with a mass of 20g has a mass of 12mg of copper deposited on it in 20 minutes. An ammeter
connected in series with circuit, measures a current of 35mA. If the electrochemical equivalent of copper is
0.3294mg/C, determine the true current values. (I = 30.36mA)
Activity 2.9
A laboratory experiment is carried out to

determine the electrochemical equivalent of an
unknown solution. The initial mass of the plate
was 34.82g, and the final mass of the plate was
35.46g. If the current measured was 1A and the
time taken to conduct the experiment was 33
minutes, calculate the value of the
electrochemical equivalent of copper. (z =
0.323mg/C)
Figure 2.7
39
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
2.9 MAGNETIC EFFECT
If switch SW1 is closed in figure 2.8, the electric current will cause the horseshoe-shaped bar to become
magnetised. This will then cause the iron bar attached to the spring balance and suspended above the
magnet, to be attracted downwards towards it.
Spr i ng
Bal anc e
I r on bar
Figure 2.8
It is found that the magnetic pull on the

suspended iron bar is proportional to the amount
of current flowing in the circuit. This then allows
us to measure the quantity of electricity flowing
by monitoring the reading on the spring balance.
If the current in figure 2.8 is reversed, the iron

bar will still be attracted to the magnet and the
current can still effectively be measured by the
use of the spring balance.
40
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Q  It [C]
m  zIt [mg]
E  mct [J]
V  IR [V]
V
I  [A]
R
V
R  []
I
E  I 2 Rt [J]
 VIt [J]
V2
 t [J]
R
P  I2 R [W]
 VI [W]
2
V
 [W]
R
2.11 CONCLUSION
From this study unit you will have learned how to preserve energy and save costs. Electrical energy is
used to supply heavy industry with power. By designing the best conductors and insulation materials,
we are able to save energy. The responsibility of an electrical engineering technician goes beyond
electrical engineering theory and practice. You must be aware of the issues of global warming, and the
depletion of our natural resources.
41
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
NOTES
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
42
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020

Activity 2.1
PIN  I2 R
 52 100
 2500W
 2.5kW
E IN Pt
 2.5 103  6
 15kWh
Cost  kWh  Tarif

 15  R0.25
 R3.75
Activity 2.2
P
I 
V
10

50
 200mA
V
R 
I
50

0.2
 250
Activity 2.3
P
V 
I
20

0.1
 200V
43
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
V
R 
I
200

0.1
 2000

Activity 2.4
V
R 
I
220

15
 14.67

P  VI
 220 15
 3300kW
Activity 2.5
EOUT  mct
 1.5  4190  75
 471.4kJ
E OUT
E IN  100%

471.4 103
 100
75
 628.5kJ
E IN
t 
PIN
628.5 103

3 103
 210s
 3min 30s
44
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Activity 2.6
V
I 
R
12

2200
 5.455mA
Q  It
 4.455  (20  60)
 6.556C
Activity 2.7
m  zIt
 0.3294  2  3600
 2372mg
 2.372g
 2.372 103 kg
mass
Vol 
Density
2.372 103

8900
 266.5 109
Volume
height 
Area
266.5 109

20000 106
 13.32m
Activity 2.8
45
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
m
I 
z.t
12

0.3294  20  60
 30.36 103
 30.36mA
Activity 2.9
m
z 
I.t
  640

1 33  60
 0.323mg / C
46
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Study Unit 3
Resistance and Application
CONTENTS
OVERVIEW
LEARNING OUTCOMES
3.1 RESISTANCE
3.2 RESISTOR COLOUR CODE
3.3 RESISTANCES IN SERIES
3.4 RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL
3.5 THE EFFECT OF THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE ON THE RATED

E.M.F. OF A CELL OR SOURCE
3.6 RESISTANCE OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS
3.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE RESISTANCE AND THE DIMENSIONS

OF A CONDUCTOR
3.8 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE
3.9 RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT USING THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
3.10 MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT AS AN AMMETER
3.11 MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT AS A VOLTMETER
3.12 DIRECT CURRENT DISTRIBUTION
3.14 CONCLUSION
47
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
OVERVIEW
Circuits with a single source and a single load seldom exist, except in touch batteries. In this Unit we
will look at systems with more than one load and one source. Accordingly, we need to become more
adept at recognizing series connected loads and parallel connected loads. We are assisted by two
principles known as Kirchhoff’s laws. We will discover that we use them all the time to analyse
electrical circuits, so they are very important to us.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After you have studied this study unit, you should be able to:
1. explain the relationship between resistance and conductance;
2. calculate the level of resistance of conductors with various cross-sectional areas and with
different lengths;
3. explain the effect of temperature on resistance and solve problems involving temperature
change;
4. differentiate between fixed resistors and variable resistors;
5. determine the size and tolerance of commercial resistors using the resistor colour code;
6. determine the total resistance in a series circuit, and calculate circuit current;
7. apply the voltage divider rule to solve for voltage across two resistors;
8. calculate the equivalent resistance for resistors in parallel;
9. apply the current divider rule to solve current values in a parallel circuit;
10. solve simple series-parallel resistor networks, and
11. calculate voltage and power losses in distribution systems.
This study unit can also be studied in conjunction with paragraphs 2.9 to 3.8 of the
recommended textbook (Hughes Electrical and Electronics Technology 10th Edition).
3.1 RESISTANCE
Practically any electrical circuit offers some resistance to the flow of an electrical current. The term
resistance in an electrical circuit applies to the resistance that an electrical component offers to the flow of
an electrical current. The concept discussed here relates to the resistance of a resistor or the resistance of a
conductor such as copper, nickel etc.
3.2 RESISTOR COLOUR CODE
48
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
The rating of carbon type resistors is commonly identified by means of rings painted on the resistors.
One of the bands is always placed near the end of the resistor and should be taken as the first band.
 The first and the second bands represent the numerical values of the resistance.
 The third band represents the multiplication factor and tells us how many zeros to put after
the value.
 The fourth band marks the tolerance value.
1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Band Band Band Band
Black 0 0 1
Brown 1 1 10
Red 2 2 100 2%
Orange 3 3 1000
Yellow 4 4 10k
Green 5 5 100k
Blue 6 6 1M
Violet 7 7
Grey 8 8
White 9 9
Gold 0.1 5%
Silver 10%
None 20%
1st band 2nd band 3rd band (Multiplication factor) 4th band
st nd
(1 digit) (2 digit) (x 10Band number ) (Tolerance)
Gold - x 0.1
Determine the range in which a resistor having the following colour bands must exist to satisfy the
manufacturer’s tolerance:
Orange White Brown Silver
49
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
1st digit 2nd digit Multiplication factor Tolerance

3 9 x 10 +/-10 %
The colour code value is 390 ±10%
RMAX = 390 + 10% = 429
RMIN = 390 -10% = 351
3.3 RESISTANCES IN SERIES
When two resistances of known or unknown

values, namely R1 and R2, are connected in
series across an e.m.f. source E such as in
figure 3.1, it is found that the current in the
circuit I measured with an ammeter A, results
in a potential difference (pd) of V1 across R1 and E
V2 across R2, where V1 and V2 are proportional
to the current in the circuit and the resistance
values of R1 and R2 respectively. By applying
Ohm's Law, R1 and R2 can be determined as
follows:
Figure 3.1
V1
R1  [] ,
I
V2
R2  []
I
It is also found that if V1 and V2 are added, the sum of the volt drop is equal to the applied e.m.f. = E.
E  V1  V2
 (I  R 1 )  (I  R 2 )
 I(R 1  R 2 )
E
R1  R 2  []
I
The above expression represents the total resistance to the flow of current in the circuit. As a result of the
e.m.f. applied to the circuit. We then have the total resistance for two resistances in series as:
50
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
RT  R1  R 2
For three or more resistances in series, the above equation is altered to become:
RT  R1  R 2 R n
While there are many problems that can be set concerning series connected resistors, there is one application
which is particularly useful. This involves the division of voltage between only two resistors connected in
series, as shown in figure 3.1 (c.f. the voltage divider rule).
R1
VR1  E  ,
 R1  R 2
 R2
VR 2  E 
R1  R 2
Example 3.1a
Three coils made from copper wire are found to have resistances of 8, 12 and 15 ohms respectively;
(measured with an ordinary ohmmeter). Find the total resistance RT when the three coils are connected in
series.
From:
RT  R1  R 2 R n
the total series resistance is:
RT  R1  R 2  R 3
 (8  12  15)
 35

Activity 3.1
The answers to these activities will be given at the end of this learning unit. Please do the activity
on your own first, before you look at the answer at the back. By doing it on your own first, you will prove
Calculate values for I, VR1 and VR2 for the following circuit diagram.
(I = 1.363A; VR1 = 10.91V; VR2 = 9.089V)
51
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
R1 = 8
E = 20V
R2= 6.667
Figure 3.2
Activity 3.2
Calculate the values of R2 & R3 for three resistors connected in series. Also determine the volt drop across
R1 and the applied voltage for the circuit. Take R1 = 10, I = 1A, V2 = 10V and V3 = 5V.
(R2 = 10; R3 = 5; VR1 = 10V; V = 25V)
3.4 RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL

When two resistances, R1 and R2, are connected in parallel with an e.m.f. source of E applied to the
resistances, as in figure 3.3, it is found that the current I from the e.m.f. source E will divide itself into two
parts, namely I1 into R1, and I2 into R2.
By applying Ohm's Law, R1 and R2 can be determined as follows:
Here it is found that the sum of I1 and I2 is equal to the total current I, where:
52
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
E
R1 R2
Figure 3.3
Where RT is representative of the overall resistance, the circuit has to the flow of current in the circuit.
We therefore say:
The inverse of RT is 1/RT = R -1 = I/E thus:T
and

𝑅 = ( + )


For two resistances in parallel ONLY! By manipulating the previous two equations, I1 and I2 can be
expressed in terms of what is referred to as the current divider rule.
53
R2
I1  I R  R
1 2 ELE1501/MO001/4/2020

R1
I2  I R  R
1 2
The total resistance equation for three or more resistances in parallel is:
54
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Example 3.1b
Three resistances made from copper wire are found to have resistances of 8Ω, 12Ω and 15Ω respectively
(measured with an ordinary ohmmeter). Find the total resistance RT when the three coils are connected in
parallel.
From the equation for resistances in parallel:







the total parallel resistance for the circuit is:
Activity 3.3
Determine the value of the current I2 from the applied e.m.f. using the circuit diagram in figure 3.3.
Given R1 = 10, R2 = 20 and I1 = 2A. (E = 20V = E; I2 = 1A)
55
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Activity 3.4
Determine the total current in the circuit diagram as in figure 3.4 below.
(I = 4.667A)
R1 R4
4.3Ω 7.4Ω
R2 R3
E 9.7Ω 4.3Ω
30
Figure 3.4
56
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Activity 3.5
Determine the power dissipated in R1, R2 and R3 in the circuit below, i.e. figure 3.5.
R2
12Ω
Figure 3.5
(PR1 = 14.88W; PR2 = 6.887W; PR3 = 5.510W)
3.5 THE EFFECT OF THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE ON THE RATED E.M.F. OF A

CELL OR SOURCE
When an e.m.f. source, for example a battery, is used to supply a current I to an external electric load R as
in figure 3.6, the internal resistance of the cell will cause a voltage drop (potential difference) across the
internal resistance (r) of the cell. This will result in the terminal voltage of any e.m.f. source being less than
the anticipated or rated e.m.f. value of the e.m.f. source.
Note: the terminal voltage (VT) of an e.m.f. source is the rated e.m.f. (E) of the source minus the voltage-
loss (Vr) across the internal resistance of the cell namely r. VT is given as:
VTer  E  Vr
 E  (I r)
Not only is the terminal voltage of the cell a smaller value than expected, but the voltage supplied to the
external load is also less than expected. It is therefore reasoned that a loss of electrical power is detected in
the cell due to the internal resistance r inside the cell:
Pr  Vr  I
57
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
r
R_
T
Figure 3.6
The full e.m.f. of the cell is therefore not applied to the external load R, because of the volt drop across r,
due to the current drawn by the load.
Example 3.2
A load consisting of two resistances is connected in parallel to the terminals of a battery which consists of
six cells in series. The resistor values are R1 = 1.11Ω and R2 = 10.11Ω. Each cell has an e.m.f of 2.2 volts
with an internal resistance of 0.1Ω. Calculate the voltage and power delivered to the load, and the loss of
voltage and power in the battery.
Calculations: Total load resistance:
r r=0.1_ per cell
R_
1Ω
E E= 2.2V per cell
Figure 3.7
58
Total internal resistance of the battery:
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
59
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
rT  0.6  0.1
 0.6
Current in the circuit:
E
I 
RT
6  2.2

1  0.6
 8.25A
Voltage across the load:
VTer  I R L
 8.25 1
 8.25V
Power delivered to the load:
PL  I 2 R L
 8.25 1
 68.1W
Voltage loss across the total internal resistance:
Vr  I rT
 8.25  0.6
 4.95V
Power loss in the battery due to the total internal resistance:
Pr  I 2 R L
 8.25  0.6
 40.8W
Note: The sum of the voltages in the circuit is equal to the rated e.m.f. of the cells in series:
E  Vr  VL
 4.95  8.25
 13.2V
60
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
From example 3.2, it can be appreciated that the internal resistance of a cell, either from a direct current
(dc) electrical machine, or from an alternating current electrical machine, will have a very definite effect on
the terminal voltage of any e.m.f. source when loaded by external circuitry.
Activity 3.6
Calculate the terminal voltage and the power dissipated in the 12 resistor in the figure 3.8 below.
12Ω
8Ω
20Ω
r
emf
2Ω
30 V
Figure 3.8
(Terminal voltage = 26.57V P = 13.78W)
Activity 3.7
Calculate the value of resistor “X” in figure 3.9, and the current through the 18 resistor, where: I = 1A
14Ω
20Ω
12Ω
25Ω
18Ω
X
I
emf
40 V
Figure 3.9
(Resistor “x” = 24.1 I = 0.2642A)
61
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
3.6 RESISTANCE OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS
Figure 3.10 shows an experiment which illustrates how the resistance between two points is directly
proportional to the distance between these points. The length and the diameter of wire for the three sections
are equal. Section 1 is a length of Eureka wire; section 2 a length of wire made from iron; and section 3 is
copper wire. Values obtained from the three voltmeters are shown graphically for each segment. The current
is constant for all three materials. The current in the circuit is controlled by changing the resistance value
of R.
V V
Figure 3.10
From the different graphs it is concluded that copper has the lowest resistance of the three materials. V for
each material is proportional to I. It is seen that the voltage for each length of wire (with I constant) is
proportional to the length and the type of material. Using R = V/I, we notice that copper has the lowest
resistance of the three materials in the experiment, i.e. R  V.
Electrical motor-windings are usually made of copper wire. Wire of different lengths and cross-sectional
areas are used depending on the application and type of machine. Resistors are made from wire of different
materials, lengths and cross-sectional areas. For example, copper, or any other suitable length of wire (or
conductor), wound around a ceramic cylinder, can be used as a resistor in electrical and electronic circuits.
The length and cross-sectional area of a wire will determine the value of its resistance. Carbon deposits
on small ceramic cylinders are widely used in the construction of resistors, especially those used in
electronic circuitry. By varying the thickness of the carbon deposit on the cylinder – made of a rigid material
– the resistance value of the device is altered.
62
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
3.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE RESISTANCE AND THE DIMENSIONS OF A

CONDUCTOR
From the experiment described in the preceding section, it follows that for a uniform wire/conductor of a
given material, the voltage values obtained for the different materials are directly proportional to the length
of the conductor. This also implies that the resistance of each material is proportional to the length of the
conductor as V = I x R from Ohm’s Law. Furthermore, if two wires of the same length, diameter and
material are connected in parallel, the resistance of the parallel combination is half that of one wire length.
Apart from the effect of temperature, the only other factor that influences the resistance of a material is the
type of material itself. It is then concluded by experimentation that the resistance of a conductor is:
Length of conductor a constant

Resistance = ———————— x for a given
Cross-sectional area material
(The constant of a material is Rho (ρ) which is defined as the resistance of a specimen 1m long and 1m2
in cross-sectional area and is termed the resistivity of a material). Using symbols we then have:

R    []
a
metre
Re sis tan ce   resistivity
area
m
  m
m2
Where:
 = The length of the wire or conductor in metre
a = The cross-sectional area of the conductor in square metres
 = The resistivity in Ohm metre
NB:  , a and  should always be expressed in metres (m).
From the previous equation it can be concluded that R is proportional to the length and the resistivity of
a conductor. It can also be concluded that R is inversely proportional to the area of the conductor.
Example 3.3
Consider the following given values to determine the resistance R of a conductor:  = 1m, a = 1m2 and 
= 0.01725m. The value of resistance is:
63
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020

R 
a
1
 0.01275 
1
 0.01275

Example 3.4
Calculate the length of copper wire, 1.5mm in diameter given the resistivity of copper as 0.017m to
have a resistance of 0.3. (Note: The conductor diameter must be converted into metres).
 2 
a   d 
 4 


  1.5 10 3 
2
 1.767 106 m 2
From:

R 
A
R
  a

0.3
  1.766 106 
0.017 106
 31.2m
Example 3.5
In a test on a 100mm strip of copper, the resistance was found to be 171 The average cross-sectional
area was found to be 9.92mm2. Calculate the resistivity of copper from:
64
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020

R  
a
R
  a

171106
 3
 9.92 10 6

100 10
 0.01692 106
 0.01692m
Activity 3.8
A coil has 10,000 turns of insulated copper wire, the mean length per turn being 150mm. The cross-
sectional area of the conductor is 0.3 square millimetres. Calculate the (copper) resistance R of the coil.
Take  ≈ 0.02m. (R = 100 ohm)
Activity 3.9
Calculate the cross-sectional area of a copper conductor 300m in length. The conductor is to carry a
current of 500A with a maximum volt-drop of 10V over the entire length. Take  as 0.019m.
(R = 0.02 ohm; a = 285µm2)
3.8 TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE
In the field of engineering, it is important to understand the effect of temperature on the overall operation
or performance of a system. The performance of electrical equipment is more often than not affected by
temperature changes. Electrical resistances of metals such as copper, iron, tungsten etc., will increase with
increases in temperature. This effect is known as a positive temperature coefficient of resistance (i.e. the
temperature coefficient of the material has a positive value, or  i.e. the temperature coefficient of
resistance for a material or conductor is positive). Materials such as carbon, electrolytes, and insulating
materials such as rubber, paper, plastics etc., have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance, i.e. the
resistance of these materials decreases with an increase in temperature ( is negative). Certain alloys such
as manganin, a combination of copper, manganese and nickel, will have a constant resistance over a
considerable variation in temperature. If a material such as copper is found to have a resistance of R0 ohms
at zero degrees Celsius and RT ohms at a higher temperature, then the temperature coefficient of resistance
 for copper is determined by:
Change of resistance per degree change of temperature

α0 = ———————————————————————
Resistance at zero degrees Celsius
65
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
R/C
0 = —————
R0
Where:
R = the value of the resistance at a higher temperature (t) minus the value of the resistance at a lower
temperature (e.g. at t0). In other words: If a material has a resistance of R0 at 0°C with a temperature
coefficient of α0, the increase in resistance (R) for 1°C rise (i.e. t = 1), is:
R  R 0  0  t
 R 0  0  (t  0)
 R 0  0  (1  0)
 R 0  0 1
Therefore, if the temperature of a conductor rises from 0C to a new temperature t, the resistance at this
temperature -RT - is determined by the expression:
RT  R 0  R
 R 0  R 0 0  t
 R 0  R 0 0  (t  t 0 )
 R 0  R 0 0  (t  0)
 R 0  (1  0 t)
In most cases it is more practical to use a reference temperature of 20 C instead of 0C. A temperature
of 20C can be considered as a standard room temperature. Equipment such as electric machines operate
under typical ambient temperatures of around 20C. If such is the case, the temperature coefficient of
resistance is taken with reference to 20C (and not to 0C). The previous equation is therefore altered
and the resistance value RT is then determined by the following equation:
RT  R 20 (1 20 [t  20])
Figure 3.11 illustrates how the resistance of a material increases as the temperature of that material
increases. This is known as a positive temperature coefficient, i.e.  is positive.
66
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Resistance
R0 R1
0 t1 t2
Temperature (C)
Figure 3.11
Figure 3.11 illustrates how the value of resistance increases linearly with temperature. Suppose t1 is taken
as the initial temperature of a conductor in an electric machine, (the surrounding atmospheric temperature
usually being approximately 20C) and t2 is the maximum temperature of the conductor, a ratio between
R1 and R2 can be arrived at whereby, for example, an unknown temperature value can be calculated if the
two resistance values (i.e. at two different temperatures) and the temperature coefficient of the material at
0C, are known.
Consider the following from the previous equations:
R1 R 0 (1  0 t 1 )

R2 R 0 (1  0 t 2 )
then
R1 (1  0 t1 )

R2 (1  0 t 2 )
Example 3.6
A coil of copper wire at the beginning of a heat test is 173°C at a temperature of 16°C. The resistance at
the end of the heat test is 212°C. Calculate the temperature rise of the coil with α0 = 0.00426.
Substituting these values into the previous equation:
67
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
R1 R 0 (1  0 t 1 )

R2 R 0 (1  0 t 2 )
173 (1  [0.00426 16])


212 (1  [0.00426  t 2 ])
where
t2  72.5C
t  (72.5 16)
 56.5C
Activity 3.10
A certain length of aluminium wire has a resistance of 28.3 ohm at 20 degrees Celsius. What is its resistance
at 60 degrees Celsius? The temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium is 0.00403/°C at 20°C.
(R at 60C = 32.86)
Activity 3.11
A coil of insulated copper wire has a resistance of 85 ohm at 10°C. What is its resistance at 80°C? Take
the temperature coefficient of resistance as 0.0043/°C at 0°C.
(R at 80°C = 109.5 ohm)
Activity 3.12
A copper rod, 100mm long and 2.5mm in diameter, has a resistance of 340 at 15°C. If the rod is drawn
out into a wire of uniform diameter of 0.5mm, calculate its resistance at 60C. Assume the temperature
coefficient of resistance to be 0.0043/°C at 0°C.
(R = 0.251)
3.9 RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT USING THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Before considering the Wheatstone bridge we must first become familiar with a piece of equipment called
a galvanometer. Figure 3.12 shows the symbol for the galvanometer with a drawing of its actual appearance.
68
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Figure 3.12
A galvanometer has a needle which remains in the centre of the instrument provided no current flows
through the galvanometer. If a current flows through the galvanometer in one direction the needle will
move to the one side and if this current is reversed the needle will move to the other side. Galvanometers
are normally very sensitive instruments and so should be handled with care. It is often advisable to place a
current limiting resistor in series with the galvanometer when using one in a practical experiment.
The Wheatstone bridge uses a galvanometer to determine that the bridge is in balance in order to determine
the value of an unknown resistor. Figure 3.13 shows a Wheatstone bridge circuit where resistor X is
unknown. Resistor R is a variable resistor and resistors P and Q are fixed value resistors. When the circuit
is connected to a supply, resistor R is adjusted until the galvanometer deflection is zero. When this occurs
we can state the following:
Voltage AB  Voltage AD
I1  P  I2  R ...equ.1
Voltage BC  Voltage DC
I1  Q  I2  X ...equ.2
69
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
70
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
If we then divide equation 2 by equation 1, we have the following:
I1  Q I X
 2
I1  P I2  R
Q X

P R
therefore
RQ
X 
P
3.10 MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT AS AN AMMETER

Due to the nature of the moving coil instruments covered so far, they are only capable of measuring currents
up to approximately 50mA. For larger currents a low value resistor known as a Shunt resistor must be
connected in parallel with the moving coil instrument (Refer to figure 3.14). Here we see that if the
resistance of the shunt resistor is less than that of the moving coil instrument, most of the current will pass
through the shunt resistor without damaging the movement.
71
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Example 3.7
If a moving coil instrument is capable of measuring 20mA maximum and has a resistance of 5, what
value shunt resistor must be connected in parallel in order to allow a full scale deflection on the meter
when 1A is measured?
72
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
From figure 3.15 we can see that the moving coil instrument can only conduct 20mA, and therefore
using Kirchoff’s first law, the shunt resistor must conduct the difference:
1000  20  980mA
VMC  IR
 20 103  5
 100mV
 Vshunt
Vshunt
Rshunt 
I
100 103

980 103
 0.102

3.11 MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT AS A VOLTMETER
A moving coil instrument can be used as voltmeter if a multiplier resistor "R" is placed in series with the
moving coil instrument and the resistance of "R" is high in comparison to that of the moving coil
instrument. The scale must then be calibrated to display volts.
Example 3.8
A moving coil instrument is capable of measuring 20mA and has a resistance of 5Ω. What value of
resistance must be connected in series with the moving coil instrument to allow a full scale deflection
when 30V is measured?
73
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
The total resistance offered by the moving coil instrument and the multiplier resistor must be the total
e.m.f. divided by the maximum permissible current.
30
R Total 
20 103
 1500
 R MC  R

R  1500  5
 1495
3.12 DIRECT CURRENT DISTRIBUTION
Often a source of electrical power is not situated close to where the power is needed and thus needs to be
transported from one point to another. A large distance between source and final destination is not
necessarily bad since not many people would like to live next to a coal burning power station. However,
when electricity has to be transported over large distances, losses occur in the transmission cable. This has
to be minimised as this power is lost or wasted.
74
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
DC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Positive Distributor
+
Supply
LOAD
- Negative Distributor
Figure 3.17
In this unit we will only look at DC distribution, but we will still see the effect of losses in the transmission
cable. Figure 3.17 shows a very basic DC distribution system. On the left hand side is the source of
electrical power and on the right hand side is the load or device which will use the electrical power. Joining
the source to the load are the positive and negative distributors where the losses occur.
Power losses in the transmission cable can be calculated using any of the following formulae for power:
V2
PLoss 
R
 VI
 I2 R
In figure 3.18 we have an example of a D.C. distribution system. A 400V supply is feeding a load 200m
away with 50A. If the resistance of the cable used is 0.001 per metre, calculate the efficiency of the
system.
200m
+
400V
LOAD
Figure 3.18
We will first calculate the resistance of the cable. Total cable length is
  200  2
 400m
75
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
If 1 meter has a resistance of 0.001, then 400m will have a resistance of:
R  400  0.001
 0.4
If 
PIN  VI
 400  50
 20000W
POUT  PIN  PLoss

 20000  (I2 R)
 20000  (502  0.4)
 19000W
POUT
  100%
PIN
19000
 100
20000
 95%
Often more than one load is connected to a D.C. distribution system, and so we have to calculate the losses
for each individual section of the system. Figure 3.19 shows a D.C. distribution system with two loads
connected to the source.
50A B 20A C
LOAD 1
LOAD 2
400V
E
F D
200m 100m
Figure 3.19
76
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
The resistance of the cable is given as 0.01 per 100m. Looking at figure 3.19 we can see that the 30A
load is fed from the source or points AF, and the 20A load is fed from the first load or points BE. To
calculate the efficiency of the system we first have to calculate the input power to the system.
The input voltage is given as 120V. However, the input current is not given. The first load takes 30A and
the second load takes 20A, and using Kirchoff’s first law, we can see that at point B, 30A leaves for the
first load and 20A carries on to the second load. Therefore, if currents to a point equal currents from a
point, 50A must go to point B. This must come from point A and therefore must be the input current.
PIN  VI
 120  (30  20)
 6000W
To calculate the losses in the system we must first calculate the resistance in each part of the circuit.
Resistance AB = 0.02 and FE = 0.02Ω. So the total resistance from the source to the 30A load and
back is 0.04Ω. Resistance BC = 0.01 and ED = 0.01. So the total resistance from the 30A load to the
20A load and back is 0.02Ω. The power losses in the system will then be:
PLoss  I 2AB R ABEF  I 2BC R BCDE
 502  0.04  202  0.02

 100  8
 108W
PIN  PLoss
  100%
PIN
6000  108
 100
6000
 98.2%
Now let us calculate the voltages across the two loads.
Load 1
The total resistance from the source to load 1 is 0.04Ω, and the current flowing down this section of
cable is 50A. The total volt drop in this section must then be:
VAB  I AB R AB
 50  0.04
 2V
77
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
If the source voltage is 120V and we drop 2V in the cables up to the first load, the voltage across the first
load must be:
VBE 
120  2  118V
The total resistance from load 1 to load 2 is 0.02Ω, and the current flowing down this section of cable is
20A. The total volt drop in this section must then be:
Load 2
VBC  I BC R BC
 20  0.02
 0.4V
If the voltage at load 1 is 118V and we drop 0.4V in the cables from the first load to the second load, the
voltage across the second load must be:
VCD 
118  0.4  117.6V
The important point to note here is that the voltage across load 2 is not solely dependent on the source
voltage. It is equal to the voltage across load 1 minus the volt drop in the cables between the two loads.
Activity 3.13
Calculate the efficiency of the D.C. distribution system shown below if the cable used has a 2mm
diameter and a resistivity of 0.018µΩm ( = 86%)
A B C
LOAD 1
LOAD 2
220V
E
F
100m 50m
Figure 3.20
Example 3.9
Calculate the supply voltage (Vs) and the efficiency of the D.C. distribution system in figure 3.21 given
the following data:
78
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Load 1 = 10A
Load 2 = 5A
Load 3 = 2A
ρ = 0.018µΩm
Area of the cable = 1mm2
The voltage across load 3 = 1946.9V
A B C D
LOAD 1 LOAD 2 LOAD 3

Supply
G
H
50m 75m 50m
Figure 3.21
The first step is to calculate the resistance of each section.
Resistance AB 
 
R 
a 
 0.018106 
50
1106
 0.9
Since HG is the same length, therefore the resistance of HG = 0.9Ω
Resistance BC 
R 
 
a 
 0.018106 
75
1106
 1.35
Since GF is the same length, the resistance of GF = 1.35Ω
79
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Resistance CD

R   
a
 0.018 106 
50

1106
 0.9

Since FE is the same length, the resistance of FE = 0.9Ω
We will now calculate the volt drop between load 3 and load 2.
The total resistance between these two loads is 2 x 0.9Ω = 1.8Ω, and the current flowing in this section of
the cable is 2A. The volt drop in the cable must then be 2A x 1.8Ω = 3.6V. Accordingly the voltage across
load 2 must be the volt-drop in the cable added to the voltage across load 3.
VCF  1946.9  3.6
 1950.5V
Next we will calculate the volt-drop between load 2 and load 1. The total resistance between these two
loads is 2 x 1.35Ω= 2.7Ω, and the current flowing in this section of the cable is 7A (5A + 2A). The volt
drop in the cable must then be 7A x 2.7Ω = 18.9V. Accordingly the voltage across load 1 must be the volt
drop in the cable between load 2 and load 1 added to the voltage across load 2.
VCF  1950.5  18.9

 1969.4V
Finally we will calculate the volt-drop between load 1 and the source. The total resistance between load
1 and the source is 2 x 0.9Ω = 1.8Ω, and the current flowing in this section of the cable is 17A (10A +
5A + 2A). The volt drop in the cable between load 1 and the source must then be 17A x 1.8Ω = 30.6V
Accordingly the voltage from the source must be the volt drop in the cable between load 1 and the
source added to the voltage across load 1.
VAH  1969.4  30.6

 2000V
PIN  2000 17

 34000W
To calculate the Pout of the system we take the voltage across each load and multiply it by the current
drawn by that load and then add them together.
80
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
POUT  PLoad1  PLoad2  PLoad3

 VBG I1  VCFI2  VDE I3
 (1969.4 10)  (1950.5  5)  (1946.9  2)
 33340.3W
P
  OUT 100%
PIN
33340.3
 100
34000
 98.1%
Activity 3.14
Calculate the lengths of  AB,  BC and  CD given the following information: VBG = 1950V, VCF =
1900V and VCF = 1875V. The cable has a diameter of 1.5mm and its resistivity is 0.018m.
(  AB = 70m,  BC = 163.6m,  CD = 245.4m)
A B C D
20A 10A 5A
2000V
G F
H E
? ? ?
Figure 3.22


R   []
a
For series circuits:
RT  R1  R 2 R n []
I  I1  I2 In [A]
81
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
E  V1  V2  ....Vn [V]
R1
VR1  E  [V]
R1  R 2
 R2
VR 2  E  [V]
R1  R 2
For parallel circuits:
I  I1  I2 In [A]
E  V1  V2 Vn [V]
R2
I1  I [A]
R1  R 2

R1
I2  I [A]
R1  R 2
Temperature coefficient:
RT  R 0  R []
RT  R 0  (1 0 t) []
RT  R 20 (1 20 [t  20]) []

R1 (1  0 t 1 )

R2 (1  0 t 2 )
3.14 CONCLUSION
From this study unity, you have learned the different arrangement of loads (resistors) and e.m.f. sources
connected in series or/and in parallel. Consider all the power stations in South Africa connected via
transmission lines and substations where individual loads are taken. Knowing the relationship between
current, voltage and resistance has led to the design of distribution systems with low power losses. For
interest sake, look at any cable used in wiring your household and try to determine why they are stranded
wires.
82
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
NOTES
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
78
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES
Activity 3.1
RT  R1  R 2
 8  6.667
 14.67

V
I 
R
20

14.67
 1.363A
V1  IR1
 1.363  8
 10.91V
V2  IR 2
 1.363  6.667
 9.089V
Activity 3.2
V2
R2 
I
10

1
 10

V3
R3 
I
5

1
 5
V1  IR1
 110
 10V
79
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Vs  V1  V2  V3
 10  10  5
 25V
Activity 3.3
V1  IR1
 2 10
 20V
 V2
 Emf
V2
I 
2
R2
20

20
 1A
Activity 3.4

RT  R // 2  R 1
 2.124  4.3
 6.424
80
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020



E
I 
RT
30

6.424
 4.667A
Activity 3.5 



 
E
I 
RT
20

14.67
 1.364A
P1  I 2  R1
 1.634 2  8
 14.88W
R3
I  I
2
R 2 R 3
15
 1.364 
12  15
 0.7576A
I3  I  I2
81
 1.364  0.7576
 0.6061A ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
P  I2  R
2 2 2
 0.7576 2 12
 6.887W
82
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
P  I2  R
3 3 3
 0.60612 15
 5.510W
Activity 3.6
E
I 
RT
30

17.50
 1.714A
Vr  I r
 1.714  2
 3.429V
VTer  E  Vr
 30  3.429
 26.57V
R 20
I  I 
R12  R 20
12 

20
 1.714 
12  20
 1.071A
P  I2  R
12  12 12
 1.071 122
83
 13.78W
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
84
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Activity 3.7
1 1 1
R 1   
//1
R1 R2 R3
1 1 1
  
14 12 18
R //1  4.755


1 1
R 1  
// 2
R1 R2
1 1
 
20 25
R // 2  11.11

E
RT 
I
40

1
 40
RT  R //1  R // 2  X
40  4.750  11.11  X

X  24.13
V18  IR // 1
 1 4.755
  4.755V
 V
I18  R18
18
4.755

18
 0.2642A
85
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Activity 3.8

Activity 3.9
V
R 
I
10

500
 0.02

a   
R
 0.019 106 
300

0.02
 285mm2
Activity 3.10
RT  R 20 (1  20[t  20])

R 60  28.3  (1  0.00403[60  20])
 32.86

Activity 3.11
R1 (1  0 t 1 )

R2 (1  0 t 2 )
85
R 1 
1  (0.0043
(0.0043 10) 
80) 

2  

R2  109.5




86
Activity 3.12
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
87
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
88
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
89
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020


Activity 3.13

RABEF  
a
 0.01810 6 
(2100)

3.142106
 1.146



RBCDE  
a
 0.01810 6 
(2 50)

6
3.14210
 0.5729
PLoss2  I 12 R ABEF
 10  0.5729
2
 57.29W
PIN  VI
 220  25
 5500W
90
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
POUT  PIN  PLoss

 5500  (716.1  57.29)
 4727W
POUT
  100%
Pin
4727
 100
5500
 85.94%
Activity 3.14 

 d 2 
a  
 4 
3 2
 
 1.5 10 
4
 1.767 106 m 2
Vs  VLoad1
R ABEF  I
1
2000  1950

35
 1.429

RABEF
  a

 1.767 106 
1.429

6
0.1810
 140m
 AB  70m
 EF
 70m
91
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
VLoad1  VLoad2
R BCFG  I
2
1950  1900

15
 3.333

RBCFG
  a

 1.767 106 
3.333

0.18106
 327.2m
 BC  163.6m
 FG
 163.6m
R BCFG VLoad2  VLoad3

 I
3
1900  1875

5
 5
RCDEF
  a

5
  1.767 106 
0.018106
 490.8m
 BC  245.4m
 FG
 245.4m
92
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Study Unit
4
Basic network analysis
CONTENTS
OVERVIEW
LEARNING OUTCOMES
4.1 STAR-DELTA AND DELTA-STAR TRANSFORMATIONS
4.2 KIRCHOFF’S LAWS
4.3 MESH/LOOP ANALYSIS
4.5 CONCLUSION
93
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
OVERVIEW
The function of a circuit is to deliver energy and power to a load, but not all loads are connected in
series or in parallel. Many practical circuits can be understood as series or parallel circuits. However
some electrical engineering applications involve a large number of components. It is possible to solve
many of these circuits using techniques mastered in Unit 3, but it would be time consuming. In this unit
we will develop a variety of techniques such as Star-Delta/Delta-Star transformation, and MESH
analyses, which will speed up the process of analysing more complex networks.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After you have studied this study unit, you will be able to:
1. apply the Star-Delta transformation techniques to solve electric circuits;

2. solve network problems involving multiple sources, using the Mesh analysis;
3. solve simple electrical circuit problems which are not series or parallel connections, using -Y
and Y- conversions, and
4. apply Kirchhoff’s Voltage equations to solve problems with multiple sources and loads.
recommended textbook (Hughes Electrical and Electronics Technology, 10th Edition).
4.1 STAR-DELTA AND DELTA-STAR TRANSFORMATIONS
[For more information refer to paragraphs 4.10 and 4.9 of the textbook]
Up until now we have solved very basic circuits using the knowledge we obtained on parallel and series
resistors, as well as Ohm's law, but if we look at figure 4.1 we will see that this circuit is far more complex
and more complicated to solve.
94
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
95
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
It can be seen that none of the resistors are in parallel or in series, and so we cannot simplify the circuit
using the same methods we have used in the past to resolve simple circuits. The 15 resistor is not in
parallel with the 8 resistor because the 5 resistor lies between them. Also the 15 resistor is not in
series with the 7 resistor, again because the 5 resistor lies between them.
Star-Delta transformation is a method or technique used for simplifying circuits such as this. It allows us to
change the layout or topology of the circuit without changing the resistive characteristic values of the circuit.
Figure 4.2 shows a Star on the left and a Delta on the right, and by using certain formulae we can convert
the Delta to a Star or a Star to Delta.
STAR-DELTA TRANSFORMATION
To convert from a Star to Delta, we need to know the values of Ra, Rb and Rc. Then, to find the values of R1, R2
and R3 for the delta network, we use the following formula:
96
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Delta to Star Transformation
To convert from a Delta to Star, we need to know the values of R1, R2 and R3 respectively. Then, to find the
values of Ra, Rb and Rc for the star network, we use the following formula:
97
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
We can check the formulae by conducting a transformation and checking the effective resistance between,
say, points A and B, using Ohm's law. We will find that both the Star and the Delta have the same resistance
across the same points.
Example 4.1a
Now let us simplify figure 4.3 using a Delta to Star transformation. We must first label our Delta as in
figure 4.3:
We must then remove the Delta part from the circuit as shown in figure 4.4
98
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020






99
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
We can now extract the values of R1, R2, and R3, where R1 = 5Ω, R2 = 8Ω and R3 = 15Ω. We then calculate the
values of Ra, Rb and Rc.
We now place these values in the correct positions on the Star, as in figure 4.5.
100
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
The next step is the most critical because we have to insert the Star in the same position where we removed the
Delta. Point A of the Star must go where point A of the Delta was, point B of the Star must go where point B of
the Delta was, and point C of the Star must go where point C of the Delta was. This is illustrated in figure 4.6:
101
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020



We are now ready to simplify the circuit using Ohm's law as in previous examples. The 2.7 resistor is in
series with the 7 resistor, and the 1.4 resistor is in series with the 6 resistor in figure 4.6.


 
A

102
50V
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Figure 4.7
The 9.7 resistor is in parallel with the 7.4 resistor (figure 4.7).
 
50V
Figure 4.8
103
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
We can now easily calculate the total resistance as 8.5 and then calculate the total current.
E
I 
RT
50

8.5
 5.9A
Example 4.1b
We will now repeat the problem, but this time we will use Star to Delta Trans-formation. The approach
is exactly the same as in the previous example except that we will transform a star instead of a delta.
We must first label our Star as in figure 4.9:
104
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
50V
Then we rearrange the Star from the circuit as in figure 4.10 below:
105
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
We can now extract the values of Ra, Rb, and Rc, where Ra = 5Ω Rb = 6Ω Rc = 8Ω. We then calculate the
values of R1, R2 and R3.
We now place these values in the correct position on the Delta as in figure 4.11:
106
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Remember to be extra careful when inserting the Delta in the same position where we removed the Star.
Point A of the Delta must go where point A of the Star was, point B of the Delta must go where point B of
the Star was and point C of the Delta must go where point C of the Star was.
107
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
We are now ready to simplify the circuit. We can see that the 15 resistor is in parallel with the 19.7
resistor, and the 7 resistor is in parallel with the 14.8 resistor.
We can also now see that the 8.5 resistor and the 4.8 resistor are in series and they are in parallel
with the 23.6 resistor. This gives us a total resistance of 8.5.
Example 4.2
Calculate the total current in figure 4.14 by transforming Delta ABC to Star.
108
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
The first step is to simplify the circuit because we can see that the 10 resistor and the 4 resistor are in
series. We then remove the Delta ABC, where R1 = 9, R2 = 18 and R3 = 14. We then calculate the
values of Ra, Rb and Rc.
109
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
We then insert the Star back into the circuit to find that the 15 resistor is in series with 6.146 resistor,
and the 8 resistor is in series with the 3.951 resistor. The total resistance is then found to be 10.709
and therefore the total current is:
110
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
E
I 
RT
20

10.709
 1.868A
Activity 4.1
your own first, before you look at the answer at the back. By doing it on your own first, you will prove
Calculate the total resistance in the circuit below using the delta-to-star method. (R = 2091)
Activity 4.2
Calculate the terminal voltage (VTT) in the circuit below if the cell has an e.m.f. of 10V. Solve the
problem first using the star-to-delta and then delta-to-star methods to compare your answers. Star-to–
delta: Ra = 5Ω, Rb= 4Ω and Rc = 20Ω.
(R = 23.92, VTT = 9.791V)
111
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
4.2 KIRCHOFF’S LAWS
We have already seen in the previous section on Star-Delta transformations, that it is often very difficult to
simplify "complex" circuits by simply using Ohm's law. A German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff, formulated
two laws which are extremely useful in solving "complex" circuits. The first, and most straightforward
network analysis technique, is called the Branch Current Method. When using this method we assume
directions of currents in a network, and then write equations describing their relationships to each other
based on Kirchhoff's and Ohm's Laws. Once we have equations for the unknown currents, we can solve
the simultaneous equations and determine all currents, and consequently all voltage drops in the network.
Law I: If several conductors meet at a point, the total current towards that point is equal to the total current
leaving that point.
I1 I3
I2
Figure 4.17
Figure 4.17 above, shows a point (node) where three conductors meet. It can be clearly seen that currents
I1 and I2 move towards the node and I3 leaves the node. Therefore I3 = I1 + I2.
112
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Law II: In a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of the products of current and resistance for each part of the
circuit to the total applied e.m.f.s equals zero.
113
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Figure 4.18 is a basic series circuit. Kirchhoff’s second law refers to the "product of current and resistance”,
or IR, which is equal to the voltage drop. In other words: If we sum all the voltage drops in the closed loop
circuit, the result will be equal to the sum of the applied e.m.f's. You can confirm this by substituting any
e.m.f. and resistor values into figure 4.18, and then calculating the voltage drops across the resistors. Let’s
now look at these laws in a little more detail. Now that we know the two laws, let us see how they are
applied to a complex circuit. Figure 4.19 shows a circuit with three branches. Each branch of this circuit
contains a cell and a resistor.
Using Ohm's law alone, it would be quite a difficult task to calculate the three currents flowing in this
circuit branch. But using Kirchhoff’s laws, it becomes much simpler.
Firstly, we need to establish that there are three loops in figure 4.19. They are loop ABEFA, BCDEB and
ABCDEFA. (Note, this last loop misses out branch BE.) We can then say that each of these loops is a closed
circuit, as stated in Kirchhoff’s second law. If this is the case, we can then state that the e.m.f in each loop
must be equal to the total of the voltage drops in each loop.
The sum of the voltage drops = Sum of e.m.f’s.
114
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Step 1: In solving the circuit, it is important to add arrowheads to the cathodes of each cell pointing away
from the cell. Remember that the large plate is the cathode (+) and the small plate is the anode (-).
Step 2: Look at each resistor and place a positive polarity sign on the side where the current enters the
resistor, and a negative polarity sign on the side where the current exits the resistor.
115
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Note: Figure 4.20 now shows the original circuit, but with all the polarity signs and arrowheads added. Now
we have to decide to analyse each loop in a clockwise or anti-clockwise manner. Let’s use a clockwise
analysis to illustrate the principle.
Loop ABEFA (e.m.f.)
Let us first look at the polarity signs of the e.m.f.s sources. If we move in a clockwise direction, starting
with point A and then move to point B, we see there are no cells. As we move from point B to point E, we
see there is one 3V cell and the arrow on the cell is pointing upwards while we are moving downwards in
a clockwise direction. So the 3V is taken as negative sign on the equation. As we move from point E to F
there are no cells. As we move from point F back to point A, there is one 5V cell. We then move upwards
in a clockwise direction and note that the arrow on the cell also points upwards, so the 5V is taken as
positive sign in the equation.
Loop ABEFA (volt-drops)
Voltage drops occur across resistors, so we now need to repeat the process described above, but now
looking at resistors instead of at cells. As we move from A to B there are no resistors. From B to E there is
a 5 resistor and the first sign we encounter on the resistor is a negative sign, and the current that causes
this voltage drop is I2. Therefore this voltage drop is "(5 x I2)". From E to F there are no resistors, but from
F to A there is an 8 resistor. The first sign we encounter on the 8 resistor is a positive sign and the
current which causes the voltage drop is I1. Therefore this volt-drop is " (-8 x I1)".
Since we know that the sum of the e.m.f.s added to the sum of the voltage drops for a closed loop equals
zero, and starting at point F and going around the loop, we can say:
 5  8I1  5I2  3 0
8I1  5I2  2
8I1  5I2  2 ...equ 1
116
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Loop BCDEB (e.m.f.s)
E.m.f.s are caused by cells so we need to look at the cells in this particular loop. Moving in a clockwise
direction again, starting with point B and moving to point C, we see there are no cells. As we move from
point C to point D, we see there is one 6V cell and the arrow on the cell is pointing upwards while we are
moving downwards in a clockwise direction. So the 6V is taken as negative sign in the equation. As we
move from point D to E there are no cells. As we move from point E back to point B, there is one 3V cell.
We are moving upwards in a clockwise direction and the arrow on the cell is also moving upwards so the
3V is taken as positive sign on the equation.
Loop BCDEB (volt-drops)
We must repeat the process above, but now look at resistors instead of cells. As we move from B to C
there are no resistors. From C to D there is a 4 resistor and the first sign we encounter on the resistor is a
positive sign and the current that causes this volt drop is I3. Therefore this voltage drop is "(-4 x I3)" Form
D to E there are no resistors, but from E to B there is a 5 resistor. The first sign we encounter on the 5
resistor is a positive sign and the current which causes the voltage drop is I2. Therefore this voltage drop is
"(-5 xI2)".
Since we know that the sum of the e.m.f.s added to the sum of the voltage drops for a closed loop equals
zero, and starting at point E and going around the loop, we can say:
 3  5I2  4I3  6 0
5I2  4I3 3
But 
I3  I1  I2
 Kirchoff 's1st law

 5I2  4  (I1  I2 ) 3
4I1  9I2 3
4I1  9I2  3 ...equ 2
We now have two equations Equ#1 and Equ#2, which must be solved simultaneously by multiplying equation
#2 by 2 and solving simultaneously.
 8I1  5I2  2
 8I1  18I2  6 ...equ 3

0I1  23I2  8
Therefore
8
I2 
 23
 0.348A
If we then substitute I2 into any equation, we obtain the following:

117
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
(Select equation #1)
8I1  5I2  2
 8I1  5  0.348  2
 8I1  1.239  2
Therefore
0.761
I1 
8
 0.033A
Also
I3  I1  I2
 0.033  0.348
 0.315A
It is seen that I2 and I3 are negative values. This means that the assumed current direction of I2 and I3 in
figure 4.17 are incorrect.
Summary of Steps
1. Add polarity signs and arrows to the circuit elements.

2. Decide whether to solve clockwise or anticlockwise.
3. Choose one loop and determine the e.m.f.s and voltage drop equations.
4. Choose a second loop and determine the e.m.f.s and voltage drop equations.
5. Solve for the unknown currents using simultaneous equations/determinants on your calculator.
Example 4.3
Calculate all the currents in figure below:
118
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
We first add all the signs and arrows as in figure 4.21.
119
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Loop ABEFA: We will analyse again in a clockwise direction starting at F.
 7  28I1  8I2  4 0
28I1  8I2  11 ...equ 1
Loop BCDEB We will analyse again in a clockwise direction starting at E.
4  8I2  16I3  9 0
8I2  16I3 5
But 
I3  I2  I1
 Kirchoff 's1st law

8I2  16  (I2  I1 ) 5
16I1  24I2 5 ...equ 2
Multiply equation #1 by 3 and solve simultaneously.
 84I1  24I2  33
16I1  24I2 5
of
100I1  0I2  38
38
I1 
100
 0.380A
120
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Substitute I1 into Eq1
 28  (0.380)  8I2  11
10.64  8I2  11
Therefore:
0.36
I2 
8
 0.045A
I3  I2  I1
 0.045  (0.380)
 0.335A
I1 and I2 are negative, so their directions are the opposite of those assumed.
Activity 4.3
Calculate all currents and VAF in the circuit below.

(I1 = 0.338, I2 = -1.069A, I3 = -0.731A, VAF = 5.634V)
121
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Activity 4.4
Calculate all the currents in the circuit below using loops ABEFA and ABCDEFA.
(I1 = 0.706A, I2 = 0.118A, I3 = 0.828A)
122
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
4.3 MESH/LOOP ANALYSIS
The Mesh current method, also known as the Loop current method, is quite similar to the branch current
method in that it uses simultaneous equations, i.e. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law and Ohm's Law, to determine
unknown currents in a resistor circuit network. It differs from the branch current method in that it does
not use Kirchhoff's Current Law, and it is often possible to solve a circuit with fewer unknown variables
and fewer simultaneous equations, which is particularly useful if you're forced to solve without a
calculator.
Mesh analysis is merely an extension of the use of Kirchhoff’s laws, as explained in the previous section.
Consider the network shown below which shows circulating currents I1, and I2 which have been assigned
to closed loops in the circuit rather than to branches. Currents I1, and I2 are called mesh- currents or loop-
currents. The term mesh is derived from the similarities in appearance between the closed loops of a
network and a wire mesh fence. Because this method is used on more sophisticated networks or circuits
than the branch-current method, it incorporates many of the ideas just developed. Of the two methods, mesh
analysis is the one more frequently applied today.
123
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
124
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Branch-current analysis is introduced as a stepping stone to mesh analysis because branch currents are
initially more “real” to students than the loop currents employed in mesh analysis. Essentially, the
mesh analysis approach simply eliminates the need to substitute the results of Kirchhoff’s current law
into the equations derived from Kirchhoff’s voltage law. It is now accomplished in the initial writing
of the equations. The systematic approach outlined below should be followed when applying the mesh
analysis method.
Step 1: Assign the current in the clockwise direction to each independent closed loop of the network.
This first step is most effectively accomplished by placing a loop current within each "window" of
the network, as shown in figure 4.25. No matter how you choose your loop currents, the number of
loop currents required is always equal to the number of windows of a network. Before continuing to
the next step, let us make sure that the concept of loop currents is clear. For the network shown in
figure 4.25, the loop current I1 is the branch current of the branch containing resistor R1 and a battery
E1. The current through the resistor R3 is not I1, since there is another loop current I2 flowing through
it. Since they have opposite directions, the current flowing through R3 equals the difference between
the two currents i.e. (I1 - I2) or (I2 - I1) depending on which you choose to be the defining direction.
Therefore, a loop current is only a branch current when it is the only loop current assigned to that
branch.
Step 2: Indicate the polarities within each loop for each resistor as determined by the assumed direction
of loop current for that loop. Note the requirement that the polarities be placed within each loop. For
example, notice the two sets of polarities across resistor R3 in figure 4.26.
Step 3: Apply Kirchhoff's voltage law around each closed loop in the clockwise direction. (The
clockwise direction was chosen only to establish uniformity). When applying Kirchhoff's voltage law, the
following points should be considered:
 If a resistor has two or more assumed currents flowing through it, the total current through the
resistor is the assumed current of the loop in which Kirchhoff's voltage law is being applied,
125
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
minus the assumed currents of the other loops passing through in the opposite direction i.e. (I1-
I2) in figure 4.26.
 The polarity of a voltage source is unaffected by the direction of the assigned loop currents.
This means that a positive terminal will be assigned a positive sign and a negative terminal of
the battery will be assigned a negative sign.
126
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Loop ABEFA: Starting at point F and assuming a clockwise direction and exit polarities, we get:
 E1  I1R1  (I1  I2 )R3 0
Loop BCDEB: Starting at point E and assuming a clockwise direction and exit polarities, we get:
 (I2  I1 )R3  I2 R2  E2 0
127
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Step 4: Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations for the assumed loop currents.
 I1R1  (I1  I2 )R 3  E1 ...equ1
 I2 R 2  (I2  I1 )R3  E2 ...equ 2
128
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Example 4.4
Apply the mesh analysis method to determine the current through each branch of the network.
Solution:
Step 1: The two loop currents (I1 and I2) are assigned a clockwise direction in their windows.
129
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Step 2: Polarities are drawn within each window to agree with loop current directions.
(NB: The polarities across the middle resistor are opposite for each loop current).
Step 3: Kirchhoff’s voltage law is applied around each loop in the clockwise direction.
130
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Loop: ABEFA
Starting at point F for loop 1, and assuming a clockwise direction and exit polarities, we get the following
mesh equation:
 E1  I1R1  (I1  I2 )R3 0

4  4I1  8(I1  I2 ) 0
12I1  8I2  4
12I1  8I2  4 ...equ 1
Loop: BCDEB
Starting at point E for loop 2, and again assuming a clockwise direction and exit polarities, we get the
following mesh equation:
R3= 8Ω R2= 2Ω
I1 + I2
E2 = 12V
Figure 4.33
 (I2  I1 )R3  I2 R 2  E2 0
 8(I2  I1 )  2R 2  12 0
8I1  10I2  12 ...equ 2
Step 4: Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations for the assumed loop currents:
131
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Multiply equation #1 by 2 and equation #2 by 3, and then solve simultaneously.
 24I1 16I2  8 ...equ 3

 24I1  30I2  36 ...equ 4

0I1  14I2  28
 28
I1 
14
 1A
Substitute I1 into Equ#3
(24  1) 16I2  8

16I2  32
Therefore:
32
I2 
16
 2A
I1 and I2 are negative so their directions are opposite to those assumed. The positive sign would indicate
that the chosen direction of current corresponds to that indicated by the assumed loop current.
Loop: ABEFA
The actual current flowing through the 4V source and 4Ω resistor is therefore 1A in the direction opposite
to that indicated in the circuit.
Loop: BCDEB
The current through the 12V source and 2Ω resistor is 2A in the direction opposite that indicated in the
circuit. The current through the 8Ω resistor is determined by the following equation from the original
network:
I3  I1  I2
 1  (2)
 1A
Example 4.5
Apply mesh analysis method to determine the current through each branch of the network shown
below.
132
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
HINT: Follow the steps described in example 4.4 to develop loop currents, polarity signs,
simultaneous equations, and branch currents.
Loop: ABEFA
Starting at point F for loop 1 and assuming a clockwise direction and exit polarities, we get the following
mesh equation:
 E1  I1R1  (I1  I2 )R3  E3 0

 5  8I1  5(I1  I2 )  3 0
13I1  5I2  2
13I1  5I2 2 ...equ 1
Loop: BCDEB
Starting at point E for loop 2 and again assuming a clockwise direction and exit polarities, we get the
 E3  (I2  I1 )R 3  I2 R 2  E2 0
 3  5(I2  I1 )  4I2  6 0
5I1  9I2 3 ...equ 2
133
Multiply equation #1 by 9, and equation #2 by 5,
then solve simultaneously. ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
 117I1  45I2  18 ...equ 3

 25I1  45I2  15 ...equ 4

92I1  0I2  3
3
I1 
92
 0.03261A
 32.61mA
134
ELE1501/MO001/4/2020
Substitute I1 into Equ#1
(13 0.03261)  5I2  2

5I2  1.576
Therefore
1.576
I2 
5
 0.315A
I3  I1  I2
 0.03261  (0.315)
 0.3478A
 347.8mA
Activity 4.5
Apply the mesh analysis method to determine the current through each branch of the network shown
below.
(I1 = 2.578A; I2 = 1.429A; I3 = 1.429A)
135
ELE150 l/MO00/4/2020
Delta-to-Star Transformation
Star-to-Delta Transformation
R 2 xR3
Ra = [Q]
Rl +Rz +R3
Rl X R3
Rb [Q]
Rl +Rz +R3
Rl X R2
Rc [Q]
Rl +Rz +R3
4.5 CONCLUSION
As you may have noticed in this study unit, not all resistors come in series or parallel connections. Circuits
with a resistance load, can be reduced to a series/parallel combination by using the Star-Delta transformation
method. Star-Delta is a useful tool for three-phase power circuits, including the star-delta starting of induction
motors to reduce the effects of high starting currents which could damage the winding of the machines. The
MESH analysis method is based on the Kirchhoff's voltage law. The assumed currents are called l\1axwell
circulating currents.
136
NOTES
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
137
Activity 4.1
R 2  R3
Ra 
R1  R 2  R 3
220 180

1400
 28.29

R 3  R1
Rb 
R1  R 2  R 3
180 1000

1400
 128.6

R1  R 2
Rc 
R1  R 2  R 3
1000  220

1400
 157.1

RSer1  560  157.1

 717.1
R Ser 2  740  128.6
 868.6
R Ser3  28.29  1200
 1228.3
1  1
 
717.1 868.6
R //  392.8
RT  470  392.8  1228.3

 2091.1
138


Activity 4.2


1 1
 
15 5 0
R //1  11.54
1 1
 
8 10
R // 2  4.444

RSer1  11.54  4.444
 15.98

1  1
 
40 15.98
R // 3  11.42

139
RT  10  11.42  2  0.5
 23.92
140




E
I 
RT
10

23.92
 418mA
Voltage across the load;
VTT  I (R T  r)
 0.418  (23.92  0.5)
 9.791V
Activity 4.3
Loop ABEFA
We will analyse again in a clockwise direction, starting at F.
8  7I1  6(I1  I2 )  9  3I1 0

16I1  6I2 1 ...equ1
Loop BCDEB
We will analyse this loop in a clockwise direction, starting at E.
9  6(I1  I2 )  5I2  5  4I2 0

6I1 15I2  14 ...equ 2
Multiply …equ1 by 5 and …equ2 by 2, then solve simultaneously.
 80I1  30I2 5 ...equ 3

 12I1  30I2  28 ...equ 4
of
68I1  0I2  23
 23
I1 
68
 0.338A
141
Substitute I1 into …equ2
6  (0.338)  15I2  14

2.028  15I2  14
Therefore:
16.028
I2 
15
 1.069A
I3  I1  I2
 0.338  (1.069)
 0.731A
I3 and I2 are negative so their directions are opposite to those assumed.

VAF  E1  7I1
 8  (7  0.338)
 5.634V
Activity 4.4
Loop ABEFA
We will analyse again in a clockwise direction, starting at F.
12  7I1  8I2  8 0
7I1  8I2  4 ...equ 1
Loop ABCDEFA
We will analyse this loop in a clockwise direction, starting at F again.
12  7I1 11(I1  I2 ) 12 12(I1  I2 )  0

30I1  24I2  24 ...equ 2
142
Multiply …equ1 by 3 and then solve simultaneously.
 21I1  24I2  12 ...equ 3

 30I1  24I2  24 ...equ 2
of
 51I1  0I2  36
 36
I1 
 51
 0.706A
 7  (0.706)  8I2  4
4.942  8I2  4
Therefore
0.942
I2 
8
 0.118A
I3  I1  I2
 0.706  0.118
 0.824A
I1, I2 and I2 are positive and their directions are as those assumed.
Activity 4.5
Loop: ABEFA
Starting at point F for loop 1 and assuming a clockwise direction and exit polarities, we get the following
mesh equation:
 E1  I1R1  (I1  I2 )R 3  (I1  I2 )R 4 0

 20  2I1  4(I1  I2 )  6(I1  I2 ) 0
12I1 10I2  20
12I1 10I2  20 ...equ1
143
Loop: BCDEB
Starting at point E for loop 2 and again assuming a clockwise direction and exit polarities, we get the
 (I2  I1 )R 4  (I2  I1 )R 3  I2 R 2  E2 0
 6(I2  I1 )  4(I2  I1 )  3I2 10 0
10I1 13I2  10 ...equ 2
Multiply …equ1 by 5 and …equ2 by 6, and then solve simultaneously.
 60I1  50I2  100 ...equ 3

 60I1  78I2  60 ...equ 4

0I1  28I2  40
40
I2 
28
 1.429A
10I1  (131.429)  10

10I1  28.57
Therefore:
28.57
I1 
10
 2.857A
I3  I1  I2
 2.857  1.429
 1.429A
144
Study Unit 5
Capacitance
CONTENTS
OVERVIEW
5.1 CAPACITANCE
5.2 UNIT OF CAPACITANCE
5.3 ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH
5.4 CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
5.5 COMPOSITE DIELECTRIC CAPACITORS
5.6 GRAPHICAL DERIVATION OF THE VOLTAGE ACROSS A CAPACITOR

IN AN RC CIRCUIT DURING THE CHARGE CYCLE
5.7 VOLTAGE GROWTH AND DECAY
5.8 ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR
5.9 COMPARISON OF ELECTROSTATIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC TERMS
5.11 CONCLUSION
145
OVERVIEW
A capacitor is a device that can store charges for short durations of time. Just like resistors, capacitors
can be connected in series and/or in parallel. We can therefore analyse them in a manner similar to that
used for resistors. The effects of storing electric charges have a much more significance within the
capacitor and also surrounding it. If we fill a container with water, we know that it takes time to pour
in that water. In much the same way, it takes time to charge a capacitor, and again the speed of action
is something we may have to become familiar with since many capacitor applications require fast
charging and discharging. Capacitors are widely used in all branches of electrical engineering and the
effect of capacitors is to be found wherever there is an electrical circuit. Capacitors are one of the three
components of any electrical system.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After having studied this unit, you should be able to:
1. explain/discuss the theory, operations and application of a capacitor;

2. determine the capacitance of a capacitor for a given number of plates and a given relative
permittivity, and
3. calculate the capacitance, charge, voltage, energy and time of growth and decay, in a simple
circuit with capacitors connected in series, parallel and series-parallel connections.
You should spend approximately 10 hours per week on this unit.
5.1 CAPACITANCE
[For more information refer to paragraph 5.4 of the prescribed textbook]
A typical capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by a rather thin layer of insulation between the
plates. This insulator is called the dielectric. The most common capacitor construction consists of two thin
metal strips (the plates), with a waxed paper insulator or dielectric between the two plates, wound together
in a spiral shape. The whole assembly is then soaked in hot paraffin wax before it is encapsulated. Capacitor
types can be divided into the following five main groups:
1. Air capacitors: These usually consist one set of fixed plates and a set of movable plates. By altering
the position of the movable part, the capacitance value is altered. These are mainly used in radio
work where it is required to tune to different frequencies (i.e. radio stations).
2. Paper capacitors: Capacitors are made of metal foil (a long sheet of thin flexible metal), with a
dielectric of wax-impregnated paper, and rolled into a compact cylindrical shape.
3. Mica capacitors: Consist of either alternate layers of mica and metal foil, clamped tightly together;
or of thin films of silver sputtered on the two sides of the mica sheet. These are mainly used in
high frequency applications where the losses in the dielectric are to be kept to a minimum.
4. Ceramic capacitors: The plates consist of metallic coatings (usually silver) on opposite faces of a
thin ceramic disc, such as hydrous silicate of magnesia. They are mainly used in applications where
there is a significant variation of temperature.
146
5. Electrolytic capacitors: The most common type is made of two aluminium foil plates. One
aluminium plate has an oxide film deposited on it and the other aluminium plate not. The foils are
interleaved with paper saturated with an electrolyte such as ammonium borate. These capacitors
are comparatively small for a rather large capacitance value.
Capacitors are used in resonant circuits, in filter networks, in circuits for where energy has to be stored
temporarily, and in rectifier circuits, i.e. for changing ac to dc, etc.
In this text the behaviour of the capacitor is studied in terms of its operation in a dc circuit. Let us consider
what happens when a capacitor C and a pure resistance R is connected in series. A voltage or an e.m.f.
source V or E, is used to supply the circuit with energy via a switch S, as shown by the circuit in figure
5.1 - a combination frequently referred to as an RC circuit.
With reference to figure 5.1: When S is switched to positionA, it is found, as shown in Figure 5.2, that the
current in the circuit i1 decreases from a maximum value (I) to zero after a certain time period. It is also
found that the voltage across the capacitor v1 increases from zero to a maximum voltage V over the same
time it takes the current to reach zero.
The maximum or initial current in the circuit (I) is equal to:
Battery voltage, E
——————————
Resistance value, R
or I = E/R (at the point in time when S was switched to position-a).
Once the capacitor is fully charged, (i.e. storing the maximum amount of energy it can absorb based on the
limitation of its own capacity), the maximum capacitor voltage is equal to the applied voltage V.
To assist in understanding the operation of a capacitor, it might be helpful to think of a capacitor as a sealed
empty storage tank at atmospheric pressure. If the tank is supplied with a water-fed system of limited
147
pressure (supply voltage), it will be found that the tank will take in water (current) up to some maximum
volume (amount stored). This maximum volume will be determined by the pressure build-up in the tank
(capacitor voltage). As the pressure in the tank builds up during the filling-up process, the volume of fluid
supplied to the tank will tend to decrease to zero when the back pressure in the tank equals the pressure of
the water-fed system.
148
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.2 also serves to illustrate that energy is stored in the capacitor during the charging cycle. This
reserve energy in the capacitor is made available in the form of a current flowing in the resistor R during
the discharge cycle as described.
With the switch in position b (Figure. 5.1), the current in C and R, i.e. i2, decreases from a maximum value
of I to zero. Note: The voltage across the capacitor (v2) is in the same direction as the volt-drop across the
capacitor during the charge cycle (v1). The current i2 decreases from I to zero in the same time period as in
the charging cycle. Note: i1 and i2 are in opposite directions.
5.2 UNIT OF CAPACITANCE
The unit of capacitance is the farad. Michael Faraday discovered the effect of capacitance around 1831. By
definition a circuit has a capacitance of 1 farad if a voltage of 1 volt is applied to the capacitor to maintain
a charge of 1 coulomb on that capacitor.
In the event of a capacitor being charged, (figure 5.1 with the switch in position A) at various values for
E, it is found for a given capacitor, and by the definition of a farad that:
The charge on the capacitor [Coulomb]

P.d. across the capacitor [Volt]
is constant for the capacitor and is equal to the capacitance C of the capacitor. The charge of the
capacitor is measured for every value of E, the battery voltage. Expressed in mathematical terms::
Q
C 
V

Q  CV [Coulomb]
149
Example 5.1
A capacitor having a capacitance of 80F is connected to a 30V D.C source. Calculate the charge held
by the capacitor.
from
Q  CV
 80 106  30
 2.4 103
 2.4mC
Activity 5.1
The answers to these activities will be given at the end of this learning unit. Please do the activity on your
own first, before you look at the answer at the back. By doing it on your own first, you will prove that you
are able to apply the new knowledge.
A capacitor having a capacitance of 15F is connected to 100V D.C. Calculate the charge held by the
capacitor.
(Q=1.5mC)
5.3 ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH
Two metal plates, with surface area A in square metres (m2) for one plate is given in figure 5.3. A distance
D in metres (m) is fixed between the plates. The construction is placed in a glass enclosure with all the air
removed (a vacuum). Q is the charge held by the capacitor in coulombs.
Assume zero loss of electrostatic lines of flux by having the two plates very close together. The electric
field strength in the region between the two plates is the potential drop per unit length. A related term
potential gradient, is also rather popular when the unit of an expression is volts/metre (V/d). If the charge
on plates M and N is Q coulombs, the electric flux between the plates is  = Q coulombs and the electric
flux density = D = Q/a coulombs per metre2, where A is the area of the dielectric (insulation between
plates).
Electric flux density

Electric field strength
150
Figure 5.3
D

E
Q /a

V/d
Cd

a
The expression is referred to as the permittivity of free space o and is also expressed as:
Cd
 
a
From carefully conducted tests it has been found that the value of o = 8.85 x 10-12 Farad/metre so that
the capacitance of capacitor within a vacuum (or air) the dielectric is:
0 a
C 
d
There is very little difference between having a vacuum, or of having air at atmospheric pressure between
the plates. For this reason, it is taken that C is approximately the same in both cases.
If an experiment is conducted (based on figure 5.3), with a material such as glass between the two plates,
it will be found that the value of the capacitance will increase by a factor of approximately 5 times. The
ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor with a certain dielectric, to that same capacitor with either a vacuum
or air dielectric, is termed the relative permittivity r. For example, if r is between 5 and 10 for glass, the
capacitance value in figure 5.3 would increase by 5 to 10 times. (Refer to the table).
If r represents the relative permittivity of a dielectric other than a vacuum or free space, the capacitance
defined by the equation for a vacuum or air dielectric being:
151
0 a
C 
d
12
8.85 10  a
 [Farad]
d
must be multiplied by r to yield the capacitance value for any other type of dielectric:
8.85 1012  r  a
 [Farad]
d
Absolute permittivity is equal to:
a
0 r  [Farad / meter]
d
For a capacitor with more than 2 plates:
Where:
n = number of capacitor plates
Relative Permittivity values of important Dielectric Materials
Material Relative Permittivity
Air 1.0006
Dry paper 2 to 2.5
Bakelite 4.5 to 5.5
Glass 5 to 10
Rubber 2 to 3.5
Mica 3 to 7
Porcelain 6 to 7
152
Example 5.2
The information to follow, applies to a multiplate capacitor separated by a mica dielectric. Number of plates = 7;
area of each plate = 50000mm2, and thickness of dielectric = 0.3mm; r = 6; V = 400V D.C. across the terminals;
Calculate: The capacitance value C, the charge Q, the electric field strength E, and the Flux density D. .
153
 0  r (n  1)a
C 
d
8.85 1012  6  (7  1)  0.05

0.0003
 53.1nF
Q  CV
 53.1 109  400
 21.24C
V
E 
d
400

0.0003
 1.333MV/ m
Q
D 
a
21.24  106

(0.05  6)
 70.8C / m 2
5.4 CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
[For more information refer to paragraph 5.6 and 5.5 text book of the textbook]
5.4.1 SERIES CAPACITORS
If two identical capacitors are placed in series, we would in effect be doubling the thickness of the
dielectric. It follows from the formula:
0 r a
C  [Farad]
(2  d)
that, if we double the dielectric thickness, we halve the capacitance since C is inversely proportional to
d. Alternatively, if C1 and C2 are connected in series with two centre-zero-ammeters A1 and A2 in series
with a resistor and a double throw switch (Figure 5.4),
154
Resistor
Emf C1
C2
Figure 5.4
It Correct. follows from an experiment based on this circuit, that the charge in the circuit is distributed
over C1 and C2 and the charge held by C1 is equal to that of C2 i.e. Q1 = Q2.
From:
Q  CV [Coulomb]
Q1  C1V1
and .... (1)
Q2  C 2 V2
The voltage across the circuit:
Emf  V1  V2
.... (2)
V  V1  V2
The equation for capacitors in series is similar to the equation for two resistors in parallel:
1 1 1
 
CT C1 C2
Example 5.3
Calculate the total capacitance for a series circuit such as the one in figure 5.5, if C1 = C2 = 10F.
155
156
Activity 5.2
Calculate the total capacitance for a series circuit such as in figure 5.4. C1 = 1F and C2 = 10F.
(CT = 909.1µF)
Distribution of Voltage across Capacitors in Series.
Referring to figure 5.4 again, we can determine the voltage across each capacitor by means of the
following equations:
From equating both RHS of …. (1):
V2 C1
 .... (3)
V1 C2
From:
V  V1 V2 ................................. (2)
V2  V  V1............................................................... (4)
Substitute (4) into (3) and simplify:

C1
V  V .... (5)
2
C1  C2
In a similar way it can be shown that:
C2
V1  V .... (6)
C1  C2
NOTE: Expressions (5) and (6) only apply when two capacitors are in series. .
Example 5.4
Two capacitors of C1 = 6F and C2 = 10F are connected in series to a voltage of 200V D.C. applied to
the circuit. Find the potential difference and the charge on each capacitor.
157
158
V2  V  V1
 200  125
 75V
Charge on each capacitor:
Note: By the nature of a series circuit, Q1 = Q2
Q1  C1V1
 6 106 125
 750 106
 750C
Q2
Activity 5.3
Two capacitors, C1 = 1F and C2 = 5F, are connected in series with a voltage of 100V D.C. applied to
the capacitor circuit. Find the p.d. and the charge on each capacitor.
(V1 = 83.33V; V2 = 16.67V; Q1 = Q2 = 83.33C)
5.4.2 PARALLEL CAPACITORS
If two identical capacitors are placed in parallel, the plate area of the capacitors is in effect doubled. It
follows from the formula:
 0  r (2  a)
C  [Farad]
d
If we double the plate area, we double the capacitance since C is proportional to the area a. Alternatively,
figure 5.5 shows two capacitors in parallel.
The charge on C1 is Q1 coulombs and C2 is charged to Q2 coulombs:
Q  Q1 Q2 .... (7)

Where:
Q1  C1V
Q2  C2 V
CT V  C1V  C2 V
Thus the total capacitance is given as:
CT  C1  C 2
159
C1
C2
Figure 5.5
This equation is similar to the equation of two resistors in a series electrical circuit.
Example 5.5
Calculate the total capacitance for a parallel circuit such as the one in figure 5.5 if C1 = C2 = 10F.
C //  C1  C 2
 10 106  10 106
 20 106
 20F
Activity 5.4
Calculate the total capacitance for a parallel circuit such as the one in figure 5.5. C1 = 10F and C2 =
20F.
(CT = 30F)
Activity 5.5
Two capacitors connected in parallel are C1 = 1F and C2 = 2F. A third capacitor C3 = 0.1F, is
connected in series with the parallel combination of C1 and C2. Calculate the charge held by each
capacitor if the supply voltage to the circuit is 50V D.C.
(Q3 = 4.839C; Q1 = 1.610C; Q2 = 3.220C)
5.5 COMPOSITE DIELECTRIC CAPACITORS
[For more information refer to paragraph 5.13 text book of the textbook]
Consider a capacitor with two dielectric materials A and B, (as in figure 5.6), with a dielectric thickness of
d1 and d2 for each material respectively. Let EA and EB be the electric field strength, with A and B the
relative permitivities of materials A and B.
160
161
From
 0  r (n  1)a
C  [Farad]
d
The capacitance value of CA = C1 and CB = C2 is to be determined separately. The equivalent effect of C1

and C2 is that of two capacitors in series as shown in figure 5.6.
Example 5.6
The following parameters relate to a capacitor with two adjacent dielectric materials. (Refer to figure
5.6 for the equivalent circuit). Area of one plate = 400 mm x 400 mm; d1 = 5 mm and d2 = 1 mm; A = 8
and B = 2; o = 8.85 x 10-12
Calculate the capacitance C of the capacitor.
 0  r (n  1)a
C 
d
8.85 1012  8  (2  1) 1.6

0.005
 2.27nF
 0  r (n  1)a
C 
d
8.85 1012  2  (2  1) 1.6

0.001
 2.83nF
162
1 1 1
 
CT C1 C2
1 1
 9

2.27 10 2.83 109
CT  1.260nF
Activity 5.6
The information to follow relates to a capacitor with two adjacent dielectric materials. The area of one plate
= 40mm x 40mm; d1 = 2mm and d2 = 1mm; relative permittivity’s 1 = 6 and 2 = 1; permittivity of free
space o = 8.85 x 10-12. Calculate the capacitance C value of the capacitor.
(C1 = 42.48pF; C2 = 14.16pF; C = 10.62pF)
5.6 GRAPHICAL DERIVATION OF THE VOLTAGE ACROSS A CAPACITOR IN AN RC

CIRCUIT DURING THE CHARGE CYCLE
[For more information refer to paragraph 5.15 text book of the textbook]
In expanding the voltage curve of figure 5.2 we produce figure 5.7. The voltage across the capacitor v1, is
found to take a certain time period to increase from zero to approximately 63.2% of the maximum voltage
value V. This time period is called one time constant. The symbol used for one time constant is
T. It is also found that the voltage v2 in an RC-circuit takes approximately one time constant to reduce to
36.8% of its maximum value V.
It can be shown from a curve similar to the one in figure 5.7 that T = RC seconds. It takes 5 (five time
constant periods) for the voltage across the capacitor v1, to reach the maximum value of V. It is also true
that the voltage v2 in an RC-circuit figure 5.2, will take 5T seconds to decrease from a maximum value to
zero.
Figure 5.7
163
In order to construct the capacitor voltage-curve during the charge cycle, refer to the chapter on inductors.
The method used to obtain the voltage-curve is exactly the same as that for the current curve of an inductor.
Example 5.7
A capacitor of 2F is supplied with current through a resistance of 10 kilo-ohm with a D.C.-voltage
source of 40V. Calculate the time it will take the current in the circuit to reach a maximum value.
T  RC
 (10 103  2 106 )
 20ms
then
5T  5  20ms
 100ms
A time period of 100ms is required for the current in the circuit to reach a maximum value (IMax).
5.7 VOLTAGE GROWTH AND DECAY
As the current in a capacitor and voltage across the capacitor function according to the exponential law, the
equations to follow are also of an exponential nature. These equations can be deduced from first principles:
The equation for current in a capacitor, namely i = C (dv/dt) - deduced from Q = It and Q = CV - forms an
integral part in the deductions.
164
Figure 5.2 (repeat)
165
Formulae for the charge and discharge cycles:
Current in a capacitor - i1 and i2: t
where t is any instant in time during both cycles and voltage across the terminals of a capacitor - v1 and v2:
5.8 ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR
The power P absorbed by a capacitor when energy is supplied to it from some source, can be deduced
using a suitable curve. The equation is:
In other words, it is based on the assumption that a capacitor has a constant capacitance of C Farad, with a
uniform rate of change of voltage applied across it from zero to V volts in t seconds, so that the power
absorbed by the capacitor increases uniformly from zero to CV2t Watt.
Example 5.8
With reference to the figure below, calculate the following:

a) The charge on C1.
b) The total energy stored by the capacitors when fully charged.
c) The time constant of the circuit if a 4.7k resistor is connected in series with the capacitors
while being charged.
166
167
Q// Q 3

Q
V// C3
//
4.286 103

100 106
 42.86V
 VC1
 VC 2
Q1  C1V1
 65 106  42.86
 2.786 103
 2.786mC
b)
V3  V  V//
 60  42.86
 17.14V
Q3
C 
3
VC3
4.286 103

17.14
 250F
1 1 1
 
CT C// C3
1 1
 6

100 10 250 106
CT  71.43F
168
c)
T  RC
 (4700  71.43106 )
 336ms
5.9 COMPARISON OF ELECTROSTATIC AND ELECTROMAGNETIC TERMS
Electrostatic Symbol Electromagnetism Symbol

Term Term
Electric flux  Magnetic flux 

Electric flux Magnetic flux
density D density B
Electric field Magnetic field
strength E strength H
Electromotive Magnetomotive
force E force F
Permittivity of Permeability of
free space o free space o
Relative Relative
permittivity r permeability r
169
Q  It
 CV [C]
0r (n 1)a
C 
d [F]
V
E  [V / m]
d
Q
D  [C / m2 ]
a
5.11 CONCLUSION
A transmission line can be represented by capacitors, resistance and inductance and a series/parallel
arrangement, or simply as an RLC circuit. Capacitance in this circuit is between the ground and line
potential. Our national energy supplier covers most of the country with an interconnected transmission
grid up to 765kV and is rated among the top 10 utilities in the world. It operates about
78 large (36-150MVAr) shunt capacitor banks on its Main Transmission System from 88kV upwards.
These cover almost all the available technologies and configurations and include 18 fuseless type
capacitor banks between 88 kV and 400kV which have been installed.
170
NOTES
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
171
Activity 5.1
Q  CV
 15106 100
 1.5mC
Activity 5.2
1 1 1
 
CT C1 C2
1 1
 6

110 10 106
CT  909.1nF
Activity 5.3
 83.33V
V2  V V1
 100  83.3
 16.67V
Q2  C 2 V2
172
 16.67  5106
 83.33C
 Q1
 C1V1
173
Activity 5.4
CT  C1 C 2
 10 106  20106
 30F
Activity 5.5
C//  C1 C 2
 1106  2 106
 3F
1 1 1
 
CT C// C3
1 1
 6

310 0.1106
CT  96.77nF
QT  C T VT
 96.77  50
 4.839C
 Q3
 Q//
Q3
V 
3
C3
4.839 106

0.1106
 48.39V
V1  V2
 VT  V3
 50  48.39
 1.610V
174
Q1  C1V1
 10 106 1.610
 1.610 106
 1.610C
Q2  C 2 V2
 2 106 1.610
 3.220C
Activity 5.6
0 r (n 1)a
C1 
d
8.851012  6 11600 106

2 103
 42.48pF
0 r (n 1)a
C2 
d
8.851012 111600 106

1103
 14.16pF
1 1 1
 
CT C1C2
1 1
 9

42.4810 14.16 109
CT  10.62pF
175
Study Unit
6
Magnetism
CONTENTS
OVERVIEW
LEARNING OUTCOMES
6.1 MAGNETISM
6.2 DIRECTION OF A MAGNETIC FIELD
6.3 THE FIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF LINES OF MAGNETIC FLUX
6.4 ELECTRO-MAGNETISM
6.5 THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF A SOLENOID
6.6 FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
6.7 UNITS OF FLUX AND FLUX DENSITY
6.8 MAGNITUDE OF THE FORCE ON A CONDUCTOR CARRYING A CURRENT

ACROSS A MAGNETIC FIELD
6.9 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
6.10 THE DIRECTION OF AN INDUCED E.M.F.
6.11 LENZ'S LAW
6.12 THE MAGNITUDE OF THE INDUCED E.M.F.
6.14 CONCLUSION
176
OVERVIEW
Most of us have seen a magnet attracting pins and other small metal objects. In this study unit, we will
learn that the flow of an electric current in a conductor produces a similar magnetic field and that, by
winding the conductor into a coil, the magnetic field can be enhanced. We will also see that, if we
introduce a current-carrying conductor into such a magnetic field, it experiences a force. Putting these
observations into practice, we can produce an electric motor, generator and/or transformer. We will
also observe one of the essential principles of a generator namely that, if we move a conductor inside a
magnetic field, e.m.f. will be induced.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After you have studied this study unit, you should be able to:
1. state the characteristics of magnetic field lines on a permanent magnet, and determine the
direction of the magnetic field of a solenoid;
2. explain the effect of electromagnetic induction as caused by the interaction of conductors and
magnetic fields;
3. determine the direction and magnitude of the induced e.m.f. as caused by the interaction of
conductors and magnetic fields;
4. discuss electromagnetic induction as used for the production of electromotive force, and solve
problems containing unknowns such as time and magnetic flux, and
5. explain and apply Lenz’s laws and Fleming’s rules.
You should spend approximately 10 hours or a period of one week on this unit.
6.1 MAGNETISM
If a magnet is suspended such that it can freely rotate in the horizontal plane, the magnet will finally settle
with one end pointing towards the earth’s north pole and the other end towards the earth’s south pole. The
end pointing north ,is said to be the north-seeking pole of the magnet and likewise the end pointing south
is said to be the south-seeking pole. A magnet thus has a north and a south pole.
If the north pole of a second magnet is brought close to the north pole of the first magnet, the two poles
will repel each other. However, if the south pole of the second magnet is brought close to the north pole of
the first magnet, the two poles will attract.
From this we can conclude that "like poles repel" and "unlike poles attract".
If we were to place a section of cardboard over a bar magnet and sprinkle iron filings over the cardboard,
we would see that the iron filings take the shape of chains or links (see figure 6.1). These chains clearly
indicate the distribution of the magnetic field.
177
Figure 6.1
The chains formed around the magnet are collectively called magnetic flux lines, and the more dense the
lines are, the more intense the magnetic field is.
6.2 DIRECTION OF A MAGNETIC FIELD
[For more information refer to paragraph 6.2 in the textbook]
We can also plot the magnetic flux lines with a number of compasses placed around the magnet as in figure
5.2. Here we also see that the compass needles point along the lines of flux in a direction from the magnet’s
north pole tothe magnet’s south pole. Magnetic flux lines are therefore defined as being oriented in the
direction of a north-seeking pole of a compass.
Figure 6.2
6.3 THE FIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF LINES OF MAGNETIC FLUX
Flux lines are useful in explaining various magnetic effects and also for calculating various magnitudes.
As a result of this, flux lines are assumed to have the following five characteristics:
178
(1) The direction of lines of magnetic flux in a non-magnetic medium such as air, is said to be that
of a north-seeking pole of a compass.
(2) Lines of magnetic flux form a closed path or loop.
(3) Lines of magnetic flux never intersect.
(4) Lines of magnetic flux are like stretched elastic bands always trying to shorten themselves.
(5) Lines of magnetic flux which are parallel and in the same direction, repel one another.
Conversely, lines of magnetic flux which are parallel and in the opposite direction attract one
another.
6.4 ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.
When an electric current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is set up around the conductor.
How do we know that? To prove this, we place a conductor through a small hole in
the centre of a piece of cardboard and sprinkle iron filings around the conductor on the cardboard. As soon
as current flows through the conductor, we can see the pattern of the magnetic flux lines developing.
Figure 6.4 shows the concentric rings of iron filings around the conductor.
Figure 6.4
If flux lines exist around a conductor, they also assume a particular direction, and this fact we can
substantiate by using the compass method discussed in paragraph 6.2. It is found that if a conductor carries
current into the page, as in figure 6.5(a), the flux lines assume a clockwise direction. When the conductor
carries current out of the page, as in figure 6.5(b), the flux lines assume an anticlockwise direction.
179
(a) (b)
Figure 6.5
A memory aid for determining the direction of flux around a current-carrying conductor is Fleming’s right-
hand rule, often only referred to as the right hand grip rule, as shown in figure 6.6. Here we see that the
thumb of the right hand points in the direction of the current, and that the fingers point in the direction of
the flux lines around the conductor.
Figure 6.6
6.5 THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF A SOLENOID
If we place two conductors carrying current close to each other, there will be an interaction between their
respective magnetic fields. If the currents are flowing in the opposite direction, the flux lines will cause a
force of repulsion between the two conductors, as in figure 6.7(a). If, however, the currents in the two
conductors flow in the same direction, the flux lines will cause a force of attraction, as shown in figure
6.7(b).
180
Repulsion
(a)
Attraction
(b)
Figure 6.7
A solenoid is basically a conductor coiled a number of times. Thus, when current flows through the
conductor, the flux lines interact. If the conductor is wound in same direction, the flux lines cause a force
of attraction to occur. The flux lines also link between the various conductors and form a magnet (electro-
magnet) as can be seen in figure 6.8.
Figure 6.8
Note the metal screw in figure 6.8. This screw will be attracted by the electromagnet, and you can use this
as a memory aid to determine the direction of the magnetic field in a solenoid, as the screw’s tip points in
the direction of the magnetic field.
If we turn the screw clockwise in the direction of the current flow, the screw will move in the direction of
the north pole. In figure 6.8, when looking at the solenoid from the left hand side, we can see the current
flowing in a clockwise direction. If we turn the screw in a clockwise direction, it would move in from left
to right, hence the north pole of the solenoid must be on the right hand side.
181
6.6 FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
Figure 6.9
If current flows in a conductor, flux lines will develop around the conductor. If this conductor is placed in
a magnetic field, as in figure 6.9, we can see that the conductor will want to move in a downwards direction.
This is due to the fact that the flux lines above the conductor, run parallel and flow in the same direction.
Accordingly we will have a force of repulsion. However, below the conductor we have flux lines running
parallel and in the opposite direction, and therefore we will have a force of attraction.
We can also see that the flux lines distort, and we can imagine that flux lines from the permanent magnet
above the conductor to be like stretched elastics trying to push the conductor downwards.
6.7 UNITS OF FLUX AND FLUX DENSITY
Magnetic flux (symbol is ) is measured in the unit of the Weber (Wb) and is defined as the magnetic
flux which, when cut at a uniform rate by a conductor in 1 second, generates an e.m.f. of 1 Volt. The term
flux density (B) refers to the amount of flux and the cross-sectional area which the flux travels through.
The unit is the Tesla (T), and is defined as the density of a magnetic flux such that a conductor carrying 1
ampere at right angles to that flux, has a force of 1 newton per metre length acting upon it.

B  
a
Where:
B = Flux density in Tesla

 = Flux in Weber
a = area in metre-square
Example 6.1
A pole from an electric motor is circular with diameter 135mm and the flux in the pole is 18mWb.
Calculate the value of the flux density.
182
  Ba

B  
a
18 103

14.31103
 1.26T
Activity 6.1
your own first, before you look at the answer at the back. By doing it on your own first, you will
prove that you are able to apply the new knowledge.
The flux density in a solenoid of area 2800mm2 is 0.1T. Calculate the total flux.
 = 280Wb)
6.8 MAGNITUDE OF THE FORCE ON A CONDUCTOR CARRYING A CURRENT

ACROSS A MAGNETIC FIELD
If the current through the conductor is increased, then the number of flux lines generated around the
conductor increases and hence the force acting on the conductor increases. Additionally, if the two
magnets are brought closer together, the magnetic field increases and again the force acting upon the
conductor increases.
If more elaborate equipment is used, the force acting upon the conductor can be measured for various
currents and various magnetic field densities, and it is found that:
F  B I
Where:
F = Force in Newton
B = Flux density in Tesla
 = length of conductor in magnetic field in metres
I = Current carried by the conductor in Ampere
Example 6.2
A conductor carrying a current of 40A is placed at right-angles to a uniform magnetic field having a
uniform flux density of 0.6T. Calculate the force on the conductor in Newton-metre.
183
F  B I
 0.6 1 40
 24N
Activity 6.2
A conductor carries a current of 65A at right-angles to a uniform magnetic field having a uniform flux
density. If the conductor is 0.8m long and the force acting upon the conductor is 7 Newton, calculate the
value of the flux density. (B = 0.135T)
6.9 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
The connection between an electric current and a magnetic field was discovered in 1820 by James
Oersted, but it was a further eleven years before Michael Faraday discovered a method of producing
electric current from a magnetic field.
Figure 6.10 shows a basic experiment for producing electric current from a magnetic field.
Figure 6.10
Electromagnetic induction occurs when flux lines cut the conductors which form the coil. If the north pole
of the magnet is moved towards the coil, it is observed that the galvanometer deflects in one direction, and
if the magnet is rotated and the south pole is moved towards the coil, the galvanometer deflects in the
opposite direction. From this occurrence we can state that the direction of the induced
e.m.f. is dependent upon the direction of the flux cutting the coil.
It is also observed that if the magnet is moved towards the coil at a faster rate, the galvanometer deflection
is much greater than when the magnet is moved towards the coil at a slower rate.
From this we can state that, the greater the rate at which the magnetic flux cuts the coil, the greater the
induced e.m.f. If we replace the magnet, in figure 6.10, with a second coil connected in series with a cell
and a switch, we can repeat the experiment.
184
Figure 6.11 shows the modified circuit, and when the switch is closed we see a momentary deflection on
the galvanometer. However, the galvanometer needle soon returns to its central position even though the
switch is still closed and flux still exists. If the switch is opened again we see a momentary deflection on
the galvanometer, however, this time the deflection is in the opposite direction. From this experiment we
can see that the presence of flux alone does not induce current, the flux has to continually cut the conductor
for this to occur.
Example 6.3
Calculate the e.m.f. generated in an aircraft wing if the aircraft is flying at 300km/h and its wingspan is
10m. Assume the vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field to be 40T.
emf  B v
 40 106 10  83.33
 33mV
Activity 6.3
A wire of 300mm length is moved at a uniform speed of 8m/s at right-angles to its length and to a
magnetic field.
Calculate:
a) The flux density if the e.m.f. generated in the wire is 0.5V.

b) The force acting on the wire if the wire forms a closed-loop circuit with a 0.1 resistance.
(B = 0.208T; F = 0.312N)
If we now repeat the experiment, but this time wrap the two coils around a ferrous ring, as in figure 6.12,
185
we find that the defection on the galvanometer when the switch is closed, is much greater than that observed
in figure 6.11. This would indicate that more flux is generated in the ferrous ring than was generated
through air in figure 6.11.
186
Figure 6.12
From the results obtained in the three experiments we can state that:
a) when a conductor cuts, or is cut by magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is induced in the conductor;
b) the direction of the induced e.m.f. depends on the direction of the magnetic flux, and the
direction in which the flux moves relative to the conductor, and
c) the magnitude of the e.m.f. induced in a circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
flux in the circuit.
Statement (c) is defined as Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction.
6.10 THE DIRECTION OF AN INDUCED E.M.F.
To determine the direction of an induced e.m.f., we will again use a practical experiment. Figure 6.13 shows
a conductor AB which is being moved downwards through the magnetic field set up by the two permanent
magnets. As we move the conductor, we take note of which way the galvanometer needle deflects. We then
connect the galvanometer to the cell and resistor by means of the switch and note which way the
galvanometer needle moves. If the galvanometer needle moves in the same direction for both experiments,
then we know that the current induced was in the same direction as that from the
e.m.f source.
From the experiment we can see that the current induced in the conductor flows from point A to point B.
187
A memory aid for determining the direction of an induced current is the Fleming’s right hand rule.
Figure 6.14 shows a diagram illustrating the use and application of the right-hand rule.
Figure 6.14
The thumb of the right-hand must point in the direction the conductor will move relative to the flux. The
first finger of the right-hand then points in the direction of the flux lines (i.e. north to south), and the second
finger will point in the direction the current will flow.
6.11 LENZ'S LAW
Within three years of the discovery of electromagnetic induction, Heinrich Lenz, a German physicist,
formulated a simple rule: The direction of an induced e.m.f. is always such that it tends to set up a current
opposing the motion or the change of flux responsible for inducing that e.m.f.
If we re-draw figure 6.13, and look at the conductor from point B, it will look like figure 6.15. Here we
can see the conductor moving downwards and the current flowing out of the page. As soon as current flows
it will also set up its own flux lines in concentric circles around the conductor. Point "X" clearly shows
parallel flux lines running in the same direction, hence repulsion will occur at this point and will try to
oppose the downward motion of the conductor. In other words, the direction of the induced e.m.f. will set
up a current opposing the motion responsible for inducing that e.m.f.
188
N
Figure 6.15
6.12 THE MAGNITUDE OF THE INDUCED E.M.F.
Figure 6.16 shows a conductor situated in an air gap between a north and a south pole. If a current of I
amperes flows through the conductor into the page it will be found that the conductor will move from
point A towards point B. From study unit 4, we know the force acting upon the conductor is:
F  B I
Work / Energy
 Fs
 B Id [J]
If we now remove the current source from the conductor and then move the conductor from point A to point B,
189
an e.m.f. (also ‘E’) will be induced in the conductor.
The power generated by the conductor will be:
190
P  EI
Work  Pt
 EIt [J]
We can now equate the two formulas and state the following:
B Id  EIt
B Id
emf 
It
Bd

t
 B v [V]
If we now remove the north -pole magnet from figure 6.7, and look down onto the south pole from where the
north pole was, we will see figure 6.17.
Figure 6.17
In figure 6.17 we can see that  is the length of the conductor in the magnetic field and b is the distance
the conductor moves, hence:
a   b

Ba
emf  [V]
t
But:
  Ba
Therefore:

emf   [V]
t
191
The formula E = /t is valid for a single conductor only. Suppose we had a coil of N turns cutting the
flux or being cut by flux, then the e.m.f. induced would be:
 N
emf  [V]
t
The reason for the negative sign is based on Lenz's Law. Since if we have a positive change in flux the
e.m.f. must be negative.
Example 6.4
A generator consists of eight poles, each with a flux of 15mWb. Calculate the average induced e.m.f. in
one of the armature conductors if the armature rotates through the magnetic flux at 1800 RPM.
1800rev / min
1800

60
 30rev / sec
 30Hz
1
t 
f
1

30
 0.0333s

emf 
t
8 15 103

0.0333
 3.6V
Activity 6.4
A four-pole armature is to generate an e.m.f. of 1.4V per conductor, the flux per pole being 15mWb.
Calculate the speed at which the armature must rotate in rpm.
(N = 1400rpm)
Example 6.5
The flux through a 200 turn coil increases uniformly from zero to 300Wb in 2 milliseconds. It remains
constant for 1 millisecond and then decreases to zero in 1 millisecond. Draw, to scale, a graph representing
the variation in flux and the e.m.f. induced in the coil.
192
emf  N(1  0 )

1
t1  t0
 200  (300 106  0)

0.002
 30V
emf  N(2  1)


2
t 2  t1
 200  (300 106  300 106 )

0.001
 0V
emf  N(3  2 )
3

t3  t2
 200  (300 106  0)

0.001
 60V
193
Note the average induced e.m.f. is illustrated by the dotted line on the graph.
Activity 6.5
Two coils X and Y are wound on the same former. Coil X consists of 3000 turns and coil Y consists of
400 turns. If a current gives rise to a flux of 600Wb. Calculate the induced e.m.f.s in both coils if the
current is reversed in 100 milliseconds.
(e.m.f.X = 36V; e.m.f.Y = 4.8V)
194
F  BI [N]
  Ba [Wb]
E  B v [V]

E   [V]
t
 N(1   0 )
E  [V]
t1  t 0
6.14 CONCLUSION
As a result of Einstein's theory of special relativity, electricity and magnetism are fundamentally
interlinked. Both magnetism lacking electricity, and electricity without magnetism, are inconsistent with
special relativity due to such effects as length contraction, time dilation, and the fact that the magnetic
force is velocity-dependent. However, when both electricity and magnetism are taken into account, the
resulting theory (electromagnetism) is fully consistent with special relativity. In particular, a
phenomenon that appears purely electric to one observer may be purely magnetic to another, or more
generally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism are dependent on the frame of
reference. Thus, special relativity "mixes" electricity and magnetism into a single, inseparable
phenomenon called electromagnetism, analogous to how relativity "mixes" space and time into space-
time.
In some organisms one can detect magnetic fields, a phenomenon known as magneto-ception. Magneto-
biology studies magnetic fields such as a medical treatment technology. Magnetic fields naturally
produced by an organism are known as bio-magnetism.
195
NOTES
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
196
Activity 6.1
  Ba
 0.1 2800 106

 280Wb
Activity 6.2
F  B I
F
B 
I
7

65 0.8
 135mT
Activity 6.3
e  B v
E
B 
v
0.5

0.3 8
 208mT
V
I 
R
0.5

0.1
 5A
F  B I
 0.208 0.3 5
 0.312N
197
Activity 6.4

E  
t

t  
E
(15103  4)

1.4
 42.86ms
1
f 
t
1

0.04286
 23.33Hz
 23.33rev / s
 1400rpm
Activity 6.5
198
199
Study Unit 7
Magnetic circuits
CONTENTS
OVERVIEW
LEARNING OUTCOMES
7.1 INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
7.2 MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE AND MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH
7.3 OHM'S LAW FOR MAGNETIC CIRCUITS AND RELUCTANCE
7.4 PERMEABILITY
7.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC

QUANTITIES
7.7 MAGNETIC LEAKAGE AND FRINGING
7.8 MAGNETIC PULL BETWEEN TWO FERROUS SURFACES
7.9 HYSTERESIS
7.11 CONCLUSION
166
OVERVIEW
In the presiding study unit, we found that we can produce a magnetic field using a current carrying
conductor and that we can make the field stronger by winding the conductor into a coil. In this study
unit we find that it would be useful to produce an even stronger magnetic field to operate electrical
machines. This is essential to the manufacturing and production of electrical motors and other electrical
devices and therefore we need to understand the effect of steel alloys. Our investigation leads to the
introduction of the concepts of permeability, the magnetic equivalent of conductance in electric circuits.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After having studied this study unit, you should be able to:
1. analyse and discuss the characteristics of magnetic circuits, which will include simple interaction
of current carrying conductors within magnetic fields;
2. calculate the values for magnetic flux, the relationship between magnetic flux density, and the
strength of magnetic field based on the magnetic materials ferrous nature;
3. solve problems on series magnetic circuits with two or more magnetic materials connected in
series, ignoring the effect of magnetic leakage and fringing, and
4. compare electrical and magnetic circuits.
You should spend approximately 20 hours, or a period of two weeks on this unit.
recommended text book (Hughes Electrical and Electronics Technology, 10th Edition).
7.1 INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
One of the characteristics of magnetic flux is that each line of magnetic flux forms a closed loop as
shown by the dotted lines in the diagram below.
The complete closed path followed by any group of lines of magnetic flux is referred to as a
magnetic circuit.
167
Figure 7.1
Magnetic flux is easier to set up in magnetic materials such as iron, than in non-magnetic substances
such as air, plastic, wood, etc. In addition to the fact that magnetic flux will follow the path of least
resistance, magnetic circuits may be constructed in order to shape and direct magnetic fields so that
they may be used to perform useful work, as in electrical machines, relays, loud speakers, etc.
As will be shown in the following sections, most magnetic quantities can be related in one way or
another to electrical quantities, with which you are already familiar. Bearing this in mind, working with
magnetic circuits is not as difficult as it may appear at first.
7.2 MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE AND MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH.
In an electric circuit, the current flows because of a difference in potential energy or Electromotive
Force (e.m.f.). Although flux  exists in magnetic circuits, it does not flow as in an electric circuit
because of the presence of a Magnetomotive Force (m.m.f.) caused by a current flowing through one
or more turns of a coil. The m.m.f. is descriptively expressed as ampere turns but as the number of turns
is dimensionless, the unit for m.m.f. is simply the ampere.
Figure 7.2
168
If a current of I amperes flows through a coil with N turns as shown in figure 7.2 above, the
magnetomotive force is the total current linked with the magnetic circuit, namely NI amperes.
Magnetomotive force
mmf  NI [A]
If the same m.m.f. is applied to circuits of different lengths, as would be expected, a stronger magnetic
field would exist in the circuits of shorter length. This brings us to the next magnetic quantity namely,
the Magnetic Field Strength, which is the magnetomotive force per unit length of magnetic circuit
Magnetic field strength = 


mmf 
H  

[A / m]
NI


This quantity is analogous with the voltage drop along a length of resistance wire in an electric circuit
(V/m).
7.3 OHM'S LAW FOR MAGNETIC CIRCUITS AND RELUCTANCE.
If the current I through the coil or the number of turns N of the coil is increased for a given magnetic
circuit, as shown in figure 7.2, the m.m.f. is increased, resulting in a higher flux  in the magnetic
circuit.
Thus:
mmf  
 k

Based on the analogies already established, namely that e.m.f is analogous to m.m.f. and I is
analogous to , it follows that the equation above is then similar to Ohm's law for electric circuits.
V  IR
Thus the constant of proportionality k in the equation (k = m.m.f.) is actually a measure of the opposition
to the establishment of magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit in the same way as R is a measure of the
opposition to the establishment of current in an electric circuit. This quantity is called the reluctance of the
magnetic circuit and is denoted by the letter S. Hence Ohm's law for magnetic circuits can be expressed as:
mmf  S 
mmf

S  [A / Wb]

169
7.4 PERMEABILITY
It is easier to establish magnetic lines of flux in certain materials, e.g. iron, than it is in other substances,
e.g. air. Permeability is the property of a material that measures its ability to permit the establishment
of magnetic lines of flux. Permeability is analogous (i.e. corresponding in some particular way) to
conductivity in electrical circuits. Air is taken as the reference material. Its permeability is called o.
The permeability  of any other material is:
  o  r
where r is known as the relative permeability of that material.
Relative permeability is a ratio and therefore has no units. Non-magnetic substances (e.g. air, glass,
copper, aluminium, etc.) are characterised by their relative permeability, which is approximately
unity or 1. On the other hand, magnetic materials such as iron, cobalt, nickel and alloys, are
characterised by their high relative permeability, typically from 100 to
100 000.
From the definitions of reluctance (S) and permeability (), it is clear that the one refers to the opposite
of the other, i.e. S is inversely proportional to . It is also easy to see that when the length of the
magnetic circuit, l, is increased, the longer path of the lines of flux implies a higher reluctance. On
the other hand, the larger the cross-sectional area of the magnetic circuit, the more lines of flux can be
established and the smaller the reluctance.
Based on these observations we can conclude that:

S  [A / Wb]
a
Note the similarity to the electrical formula.

R   []
a
From the equation for S, the units for reluctance, as well as a very important relationship between B (the flux
density), and H, (the magnetic field strength causing it), the following may be deduced:
170

S 
a
1 
  
S a
 
 
mmf a

   

a mmf
 B 1
(mmf / )
B

H

B  H [T]
Thus the unit for  can be found as follows:
B
 
H
Wm / m2

A/m
 Wb / A.m
An important constant to remember is the value of the permeability of free space, or air.
0  4 107 [Wb / A.m]
In an electric circuit, the resistivity ρ of a given material remains constant as long as the temperature
remains constant so that the current in a circuit I is proportional to the e.m.f. E. In a magnetic circuit
consisting of a non-magnetic material, such as air , the resistivity is also proportional to the m.m.f.,
 remaining constant at 4 x 10-7 Wb/A.m. In a magnetic circuit consisting of a magnetic material,
however, the value of r, and therefore of , varies depending on the value of the flux present in the
circuit. When drawing a curve to illustrate the variation of relative permeability with a change of flux,
it is usual to draw relative permeability versus flux density, as this makes the graph independent of the
cross-sectional area of the magnetic circuit, and it is then representative of the behaviour of a type of
material and not of a specific magnetic circuit. A typical curve is shown in figure 7.3.
171
Figure 7.3
A curve of flux versus m.m.f. could now also be drawn, but this would also only be representative of
a specific magnetic circuit, as follows:

B   [Wb / m2 ]
a
mmf
H  [A / Wb]
l
It is usual to draw a curve of B versus H, shown below, as this would then show the characteristics of a type
of material.
Figure 7.4
With reference to figure 7.4 above, it can be seen that a linear relationship exists between B and H for
only a small range of H. When H is increased beyond a certain value, the resulting flux density B is
minimally affected, and eventually B does not increase any further with a further increase of H. This is
called the saturation region. In this region, B is approximately constant at the value Bsat.
172
Figure 7.5
When solving problems involving magnetic circuits consisting of magnetic materials, it is therefore
essential that the information required to obtain the relative permeability of the material at the flux
density at which the circuit is operating, is available. This is usually obtained from a B-H curve.
A practical B-H curve showing the variation of flux density with magnetic field strength for various
magnetic materials is shown in figure 7.5.
Example 7.1
The magnetic circuit shown in figure 7.2, has a cross-sectional area of 50cm2 and a mean length of
2m. The relative permeability of the magnetic material of the core is 80. Find the reluctance of this
magnetic circuit. If the coil has 150 turns and the resulting flux is 80Wb, what is the value of the
current flowing in the coil?
Solution
  o  r
 80  4107
 1.005104 Wb / A.m

S 
a
2

1.005104  0.005
 3.98106
 3.98MA/ Wb
173
mmf  S
 3.98 106  80 106
 318.4A
mmf  NI
318.4
I 
150
 2.123A
Example 7.2
The simple magnetic circuit shown in figure 7.2 has a current of 1A flowing through a coil of 200
turns with a total length of 0.4m, and the magnetic material has an absolute permeability of 6 x 10-4
Wb/Am. Find the flux density in the iron core.
Solution:
NI
H 

200 1

0.4
 500A / m
B
 
H
B  6 104  500
 0.3T
Example 7.3
A mild-steel ring has a mean diameter of 160mm and a cross-sectional area of 300mm2. Calculate:
a) the m.m.f. to produce a flux of 400Wb, and

b) the corresponding values of the reluctance of the ring and of the relative permeability.
a)

B  
a
400 106

300 106
 1.333T
174
From Figure 6.5:
H = approximately 950A/m for a flux density of 1.333T
l  d
 160 103
 0.503m
mmf  Hl
 950  0.503
 477.9A
b)
mmf
S 

477.9

400 106
 1.19 106
 1.19MA/ Wb
B
 
H
1.333

950
 1.4103
 1.4mWb / A.m
  o  r
1.4 103
r 
4107
 1114
Example 7.4
A cast iron magnetic circuit has a uniform cross-sectional area of 5cm2 and a length of 25cm. A coil of
120 turns is wound uniformly over the magnetic circuit. When the current in the coil is 1.5A, the total
flux is 0.3mWb, and when the current is 5A, the total flux is 0.6mWb. Draw the graphical representation
of the magnetic circuit. For each value of current, calculate:
a) the magnetic field strength, and

b) the relative permeability of the iron.
175
Scenario 1:
a)
mmf  NI
 120 1.5
 180A
mmf
H 

180

0.25
 720A / m
b)

B  
a
0.3103

5104
 0.6T
B
 
H
0.6

720
 833.3106
 833.3Wb / A.m
  o  r
833.3106
r 
4107
 663
Scenario 2:
a)
mmf  NI
 120  5
 600A
mmf
H 

600

0.25
 2400A / m
176
b)

B  
a
0.6 103

5104
 1.2T
B
 
H
1.2

2400
 500106
 500Wb / A.m
  o  r
500106
r 
4107
 398
This example serves to illustrate the change in relative permeability of a magnetic material with a
change in the flux density in that material.
NB: Whenever the B-H data is not given in the activities, refer to figure 7.5.
Activity 7.1
A steel ring, having a mean circumference of 750mm and a cross-sectional area of 500mm2, is wound
with a magnetising coil of 120 turns. Using the following data, draw the B-H curve and calculate the
current required to set up a magnetic flux of 630Wb in the ring.
Hint: Plot the graph and determine the value of the magnetic field strength.
Magnetic Flux Density (T) 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.3

Magnetic field strength (A/m) 260 450 580 820
(I = 4.375A)
7.5 SERIES MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
As will be seen, the underlying principles of series magnetic circuits are very similar to that of series
electric circuits.
177
If a magnetic circuit is arranged, as shown in figure 7.6, with  1 and  2 being the mean lengths of
parts A and part B respectively, with a1 and a2 as their cross-sectional areas, and 1 and 2 as their
absolute permeability, then:
T  1   2
Figure 7.6
ST  S1  S2
1 2
 
1 a1 2 a 2
mmf T  mmf1  mmf 2

 
 1 .  2 .
1 a1 2 a 2
 S11  S2  2
7.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC QUANTITIES

At this point it may be useful to compare, in tabular form, the various electrical and magnetic
quantities.
Electric circuit Magnetic circuit
Quantity Unit Quantity Unit
e.m.f. Volt m.m.f. Ampere
Potential Difference Volt Magnetic field strength Ampere/metre
Current Ampere Magnetic flux Weber

Current Density Ampere/m2 Magnetic flux density Tesla
Resistance Ohm Reluctance Ampere/Weber
178
Conductivity Siemens Permeability 
179
7.7 MAGNETIC LEAKAGE AND FRINGING
In comparison to electrical conductors in which virtually no current leakage takes place, magnetic
materials have a much higher resistance to the establishment of a magnetic flux. Therefore, if the
exciting coil is wound over only a small portion of the magnetic circuit, a significant amount of flux
will return through the air by paths as shown in figure 7.7:
Figure 7.7
The result of this leakage is that more flux must be produced by the exciting winding than is actually
required in the air gap.
Total flux through exciting winding

Leakage factor = ──────────────────────
Useful Flux
Fringing occurs when flux has to pass through a long air-gap. When passing through a short air-gap the
lines of flux are virtually parallel, and therefore the area of the air-gap can be considered to be the same as
that of the faces of the poles. When the flux has to pass through a long air-gap, adjacent lines of flux repel
one another, making it bulge, as shown in figure 7.7. This increases the cross-sectional area of the air-gap.
Activity 7.2
The air-gap in a magnetic circuit is 1.1mm long and 2000mm2 in cross-section.
Calculate:
a) the reluctance of the air-gap, and
b) the m.m.f. required to establish a flux of 700Wb in the air-gap.
(S = 0.4377 x 106A/Wb; m.m.f. = 306.4A)
Example 7.5
A mild steel ring has a mean circumference of 500mm and a uniform cross-sectional area of
300mm2. An air-gap of 1mm length is cut into the ring. Determine the current required in a coil of
150 turns wound uniformly around the ring in order to produce a flux of 500Wb in the air-gap.
Assume the relative permeability of the mild steel to remain constant at 1200. (Ignore any magnetic
leakage and fringing).
180
Method 1
Part A: Mild Steel

B  
a
500 106

300 106
 1.667T
o  r B

H
1.667
H 
4107 1200
 1.105kA / m
mmf
H 
l
mmf  Hl
 1.105103  499 103
 551.6A
Part B: Air-gap
Since the cross-sectional area of both materials is the same, B = 1.667T for the air-gap as well.
180
B
 
o
H
1.667
H 
4107
 1.326MA/ m
mmf
H 
l
mmf  Hl
 1.326 106 1103
 1326
 1.326kA
mmf T  mmf MS  mmf Ag
 1326  551.6
 1878A
mmf  NI
1878
I 
150
 12.52A
Method 2

S 
MS
or a
499 103

4107 1200  300 106
 1103103
 1103kA / Wb

SAg 
oa
1103

4107  300 104
 2653103
 2653kA / Wb
181
mmf T  ST  
 
 SMS  SAg  
  (1103  2653)  500 106


 1878 103

 1878 kA

mmf  NI
1878
I 
150
 12.52A
Activity 7.3
A mild steel ring has a mean circumference of 500mm and a uniform cross-sectional area of 300mm2.
Calculate the m.m.f. required to produce a flux of 500Wb. An air-gap of 1mm in length is now cut
into the ring. Determine the flux produced if the m.m.f. remains constant. Assume the relative
permeability of the mild steel to remain constant at 1200.
(m.m.f. = 552.6A;  = 147.4Wb)
Activity 7.4
A steel ring has a mean diameter of 15cm, a cross-section of 20cm2 and a radial air-gap of 0.5mm cut
in it. The ring is uniformly wound with a coil of 1500 turns. A magnetising current of 1A produces a
flux of 1000µWb in the air-gap. Neglecting the effect of magnetic leakage and fringing, calculate:
a) the reluctance of the magnetic circuit, and

b) the relative permeability of the steel.
(S = 1.5 x 106A/Wb; r = 125)
7.8 MAGNETIC PULL BETWEEN TWO FERROUS SURFACES
If current flows through a conductor that is wound around a ferrous material, magnetic flux will be
generated as can be demonstrated in figure 7.8. As a result of this flux, a force of attraction occurs
between the two surfaces. The force can be calculated using the following formula:
B 2a
Fp  [N]
2 0
Where:
Fp = The force of attraction

B = Flux density
a = Cross-sectional area.
182
Example 7.6
A lifting magnet with a coil of 1000 turns carries a current of 2A and has a cross-sectional area of
0.07m2. If the reluctance of the magnetic circuit is 2.0MA/Wb, calculate the maximum mass that the
magnet can lift.
mmf  NI
 1000  2
 2000A
mmf T  ST  
2000
 
2 106
 1103
 1mWb

B  
a
1103

0.07
 14.3mT
Fp B 2a
 2
0
(14.3  103 ) 2  0.07


2  4  107
 5.7N
183
Fp  mg
5.7
m 
9.81
 0.581kg
184
Activity 7.5
An iron bar of length 0.6m and of 1000mm2 cross-sectional area is bent to form a horseshoe-shaped
lifting magnet. The bar is uniformly wound with 600 turns in which a current of 5A flows. Assume a
relative permeability of 1200 for the iron, and a mean air-gap length of 1mm at each of the contact
areas. Determine the mass of the load which the magnet can lift. (Ignore the reluctance of the load).
(m= 184.5kg)
7.9 HYSTERESIS
If a closed iron ring, which has been completely demagnetised, is taken and the flux density is measured
with increasing values of magnetic field strength, the relationship between the two quantities is
represented by curve OAC in figure 7.9. If the value of H is then reduced, it is found that the flux
density follows curve CD, and that when H has been reduced to zero, the flux density remaining in the
iron is OD, which is referred to as the remnant flux density or residual magnetism.
If H is increased in the reverse direction, the flux density decreases, until at some value OE, the flux
has been reduced to zero. The magnetic field strength OE required to cancel the residual magnetism is
termed the coercive force. A further increase of H causes the flux density to grow in the reverse direction
as represented by curve EF. If the reversed magnetic field strength OL is adjusted to the same value as
the maximum value OK in the initial direction, the final flux density LF, is the same as KC.
Figure 7.9
If the magnetic field strength is varied backwards from OL to OK, the flux density follows a curve
FGC similar to curve CDEF, and the closed figure CDEFGC is termed the hysteresis loop.
185

B   [T]
a
 H [T]
mmf  NI [A]
 S [A]
 H [A]

NI
H 
 [A / m]
S

 [A / M]

  o r
[Wb / A.m]
o  4107
[Wb / A.m]
 
S  [A / Wb]
o r a
mmf
 [A / Wb]

B2 a 
Fp   [N]
2 0
186
For series magnetic circuits:


7.11 Conclusion
To generate electrical power requires large quantities of natural resources. Steel is the driving force of
economic growth and it finds application in all aspects of engineering. Steel is used in electrical
machines and transformer construction because of its ferrous nature and high permeability rate. There
is no air gap between the two coils of the transformer, therefore the reluctance is low and the transformer
will have a high efficiency compared to rotating machines .The construction of transformers and
electrical machines has also been improved by laminating the steel core to reduce eddy current losses.
187
NOTES
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
187
Activity 7.1

B  
a
630 106

500 106
 1.26T
H  700A / m
mmf  H
 (700  750103 )
 525A
mmf  NI
525
I 
120
 4.375A
Activity 7.2

SAg 
o a
1.1103

4107  2000 106
 0.4377MA/ Wb
mmf  S
 0.4377 106  700 106
 306.4A
Activity 7.3

B  
a
500 106

300 106
 1.667T
188
B
H 
0r
1.667

4107 1200
 1105.2A / m
mmf  H
 (1105.2  500103 )
 552.6A

S 
MS o r a
499 103

4107 1200  300 106
 1.103MA/ Wb

S Ag 
o a
1103

4107  300 106
 2653MA/ Wb
mmf  ST 
552.6
 
3.750 106
 147.4Wb
Activity 7.4
mmf
S 

1500
 
1000 106
 1.5MA/ Wb
189
  d
 15102
 0.4712m

r 
 o a.S 
 0.4712
4107  20 104 1.5106
 125
Activity 7.5
mmf  NI
 600  5
 3000A

Si 
or a 
 0.6
4107 1200 1000106
 0.3980MA/ Wb

SAg 
o a
2 103

4107 1000106
 1.592MA/ Wb
mmf T  ST 
3000
 
1.508 106
 1.508103
 1.508mWb
190

B  
a
1.508103

1000 106
 1.508T
B 2a
Fp 2 
2 0

1.5082 1000 106
 2 
2  4107
 1810N
Fp  mg
1810
m 
9.81
 184.5kg
191
Study Unit
8
Inductance in D.C. circuits
CONTENTS
OVERVIEW
LEARNING OUTCOMES
8.1 INDUCTANCE
8.2 UNIT OF INDUCTANCE
8.3 INDUCTANCE IN TERMS OF FLUX-LINKAGES PER AMPERE
8.4 FACTORS DETERMINING THE INDUCTANCE OF A COIL
8.5 IRON-CORED INDUCTOR IN A D.C. CIRCUIT
8.6 ENERGY STORED IN A MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
8.7 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
8.8 GRAPHICAL DERIVATION OF THE CURVE OF CURRENT GROWTH IN

AN INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT
8.9 INDUCTIVELY COUPLED COILS CONNECTED IN SERIES
8.10 CURRENT GROWTH AND DECAY IN INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS
8 .12 CONCLUSION
8.13 ANSWERS TO ACTIVITY
192
OVERVIEW
The most important application of inductance lies in relating the efficiency of a magnetic circuit to the
induction of e.m.f. in a circuit. The other important application relates to the inductance of a coil and
the ferrous nature of the materials. We will learn that the responses of electric circuits cannot be
instantaneous when changes occur, and that these changes are important in investigating alternating
currents. Finally, we will learn that, when two coils interact with one another, they give rise to a
phenomenon known asmutual inductance. This principle of mutual inductance will be developed to
explain the concept of transformers, which is the backbone of the alternating electrical supplies found
throughout the country.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After having studied this unit, you should be able to:
1. describe inductance and the factors that determine the inductance of a coil;
2. solve problems on inductance based on the relationship between number of turns, the conductor,
current, magnetic flux and time;
3. investigate self-inductance and mutual inductance due to two or more coils connected in series on
the same former, and
4. determine the growth and decay of current and voltage in magnetic circuits and perform
calculations on the energy stored in inductive circuits.
You should spend approximately 10 hours, or a period of one week on this unit.
recommended text book (Hughes Electrical and Electronics Technology, 10th Edition).
8.1 INDUCTANCE
In order to illustrate the difference between the behaviour of a current flowing through a coil and a current
flowing through a resistor, an experiment can be performed as described below.
A coil L and a resistor R are connected in parallel across a battery, as illustrated in figure 8.1. The coil
consists of a number of turns wound around a steel core and connected in series with a centre zero
ammeter A1. The resistor is also connected in series with a centre zero ammeter A2.
193
It is found that when switch S is closed, the current I2 through the R increases instantly to its final value,
whereas the current i1* through L, takes an appreciable time to grow to its final value, as shown in figure
8.2. It must be pointed out that the coil has an internal resistance, and that the final value of the current,
I1, is equal to:
Battery voltage, E
————————
Resistance of coil, L
i I 2 I
Cur r ent
Ti me
i2
Figure 8.2
The reason for the difference in behaviour of these two currents is as follows. When the switch is closed
the growth of current in L will cause flux to start growing through the coil. The growth of this flux will cut
the conductors of the coil and will induce in them an e.m.f. According to Lenz’s law, this e.m.f. will be
established in such a direction as to oppose the growth of current through the coil. The direction of the
e.m.f. is thus in opposition to both the current and to the applied voltage.
When switch S is opened, the currents in both L and R tend to decrease, but any decrease of i1 is
accompanied by a decrease of flux through the coil. Again there is flux cutting the conductors of the coil,
and an e.m.f. is induced. However, in this instance, the e.m.f. is induced in the same direction as the current
194
and tends to delay the decrease in current. From fig. 8.1 it is evident that the only return path for the current
through L is via R and this is the reason why current I1 and I2 are now one and the same current, as shown
in figure 8.2.
*
A lower case letter is used to represent the instantaneous value of a varying quantity.
195
If the experiment is repeated without R in the circuit, the growth of the current through the inductor remains
the same as above, but when the switch S is opened, there is considerable arcing at the switch. This is due
to the maintenance of current across the switch because of the high induced e.m.f. in the coil as a result of
the sudden collapse of the flux. This is the reason why it is dangerous to quickly break the full excitation
of an electromagnet circuit, such as the field winding of a D.C. machine.
Any electromagnetic circuit in which a change of current is accompanied by a change of flux, and
therefore produces by an e.m.f., is said to be inductive, or to possess self-inductance or simply
inductance.
8.2 UNIT OF INDUCTANCE
The term henry was adopted for the unit of inductance in recognition of an American physicist Joseph
Henry (1797-1878), who discovered electromagnetic induction around 1831. By definition, a circuit has
an inductance of 1 henry if an e.m.f. of 1 volt is induced in the circuit when the current in the circuit varies
uniformly at a rate 1 ampere per second.
We can generalise this definition by concluding that, if a circuit has an inductance of L henry’s, and if the
current increases from i1 to i2 amperes between t1 to t2 seconds, the induced e.m.f. will be doubled if either
the average of the change of current doubles or if the inductance is doubled.
Average rate of change of current with respect to time in an inductor is given as:
Note: di/dt is an expression used to describe the gradient of a straight line, or the tangent to a point on a
curve which depicts current along the y-axis (di = dy) versus time along the x-axis (dt = dx). Instead of
using i/t, di/dtwill be used for convenience sake. The average induced e.m.f. is given by the equation:
i
emf  L [V]
t
The minus sign indicates that the direction of the induced e.m.f.is opposite to that of the current increase
or decrease, whatever the case might be. The equation also indicates that energy is being absorbed from
196
the electric circuit and is stored as magnetic energy in the coil.
197
Example 8.1
A coil of inductance equal to 0.5H (henry’s) is supplied by a certain voltage source. Calculate the average
value of the induced e.m.f.in the coil if the current in the coil increases from 2A to 5A in 0.05 seconds.
The average induced e.m.f. is:
di
emf  L
dt
52
 0.5 
0.05
3
 0.5 
0.05
 30V
Example 8.2
A coil has an inductance of 0.5H (henry’s) and supplies energy to a resistance. Calculate the average value
of the induced e.m.f. in the coil if the current in the resistance reduces from 5A to 2A in 0.05 seconds.
The average induced e.m.f. is:
di
emf  L
dt
25
 0.5 
0.05
3
 0.5 
0.05
 30V
Activity 8.1
Calculate the inductance of a circuit in which 30V are induced when the current varies at the rate of
2000A/s.
(L = 15mH)
8.3 INDUCTANCE IN TERMS OF FLUX-LINKAGES PER AMPERE
Suppose a current of I amperes flows in a coil of N turns to produce a flux of  Weber. Also assume the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit to remain constant so that the flux in the core is proportional to the
current in the coil. Take the inductance of the coil as L henry’s. Should the current increase from zero to I
amperes in t seconds, what will the average rate of change of current be?
198
I
Average rate of change of current: = [A/s]
t
i
 average e.m.f. induced in the coil = L [V] equ...(1)
t
In a previous section it was explained that the average value of the e.m.f. induced in a coil is also equal to
the rate of change of flux-linkages per second. Hence, when the flux increases from zero to  Weber (d
=  Weber) in t seconds, the average rate of change of flux will be:

Average rate of change of flux: =  [Wb/s]
t

Average e.m.f. induced in coil: = N  [V] equ...(2)
t
Equating equations (1) & (2), gives:
i  N 
L
t t


L N 
i
flux linkages per ampere. This expression provides us with an alternative definition for inductance namely:
A coil possesses an inductance of 1 henry if a current of 1 ampere in the coil produces a flux- linkage of
1 weber-turn.
Example 8.3
The following parameters apply to a certain coil:
N = 800 turns on a wooden former; I = 5A in the coil;  = 200Wb (micro Weber). Calculate the
inductance of the coil and the average induced e.m.f. value when the current in the coil is reversed from
5A to -5A in 0.2s.
199

L N 
i
200 10-6
 800
5
 32mH
di
emf  L
dt
55
 0.032 
0.2
10
 0.032 
0.2
 1.6V
200
Example 8.4
Using the same example as before and given: N = 800 turns on a wooden former, calculate the average induced
e.m.f. when the flux in the coil is reversed from 200Wb to - 200Wb in a time of 0.2s.

emf  N 
t
  200 106  200 106 

800   
 0.2

 1.6V
Activity 8.2
A certain coil is wound with 50 turns and a current of 8A produces a flux of 200Wb. Calculate:
a) the inductance of the coil corresponding to a reversal of the current, and

b) the average e.m.f. induced when the current is reversed in 0.2 sec.
(L= 1.25mH; e.m.f. = 0.1V)
Activity 8.3
An electromagnet is wound with 1000 turns. A current of 2A in the winding produces a flux through the
coil of 0.03Wb. Calculate the inductance of the electromagnet. If the current in the coil is reduced from
2A to zero in 0.1s, what average e.m.f. will be induced in the coil?
(L = 15H; e.m.f. = 300V)
8.4 FACTORS DETERMINING THE INDUCTANCE OF A COIL
Consider a coil uniformly wound on a non-magnetic ring of uniform cross-section. If  is the length of the
magnetic circuit in metres (m), and a is the cross-sectional area in m2, then a current of I amperes in a coil
of N turns:
B  0 H [T]
Also:
201
This equation was derived from a non-magnetic core. If the core was made of a magnetic material, the
relative permeability of the material at the operating flux density would need to be taken into
consideration. Thus for an inductor wound on a magnetic core:
Activity 8.4
A 1500 turn coil surrounds a magnetic circuit which has a reluctance of 6 x 106A/Wb. Calculate the
inductance of the coil. (L = 375mH)
202
Example 8.5
The following values apply to a coil wound on a ring of steel-alloy with the following characteristics:
circumference = 400 mm; cross-sectional area = 500 mm2; N = 200 turns. Calculate the inductance of the
coil if the magnetising current has a reversal of 1A (corresponding flux density = 1.22 Tesla), and secondly,
10A (corresponding flux density = 1.58 Tesla).
Case 1:
  Ba
 1.22  0.0005
 0.00061Wb
203

L N 
i
0.00061
 200 
1
 0.122H
Case 2:
  Ba
 1.58  0.0005
 0.00079Wb

L N 
i
0.00079
`  200 
10
 0.0158H
Example 8.6
Re-calculate the inductance in the previous example for a non-magnetic core.
  aN 2
L  0 r

4 107  0.0005  2002

0.4
 62.83H
Activity 8.5
Calculate the inductance of a ring-shaped coil having one length of conductor with a mean diameter of
200mm wound on a wooden core of diameter 20mm. The winding is evenly wound and contains 500
turns. If the wooden core is replaced by an iron core with a relative permeability of 600, and a current of
5A, calculate the new value of the inductance. (Lw = 157.1H; Li = 94.25mH)
8.5 IRON-CORED INDUCTOR IN A D.C. CIRCUIT
As inductors are often used in circuits in which a direct current of varying value flows, such as the output
circuit of a rectifier where it is used for smoothing purposes, we will investigate what happens when a
current which varies between the values OA and OC (figure 8.3) flows through an inductor.
The relationship between the magnetising current and the flux for an inductor having a core made of a
closed iron circuit, would be represented by curve OBD in figure 8.3.
204
B
Figure 8.3
It can be seen that if the current increases from OA to OC, the flux increases from AB to CD. If this
takes place in t seconds, then:
Average induced e.m.f. =

emf  N 
t
CD  AB
 N [V] ...equ 1
t
Let L1 be the inductance of the coil over this range of flux variation. Over this range it will be seen that
the flux is proportional to the magnetising current so that:
Average induced e.m.f. =
emf (I2  I1 )
 N
(t 2  t1 )
OC OA
 L1  t [V] ...equ (2)
Equating equations …equ (1) and …equ (2)
 N
CD  AB  L1 
OC  OA
t
t
CD  AB
L1  N 
OC  OA
But:
CD  AB
is the slope of the curve
OC  OA
205
L1 = - N x average slope of the curve
From this it can be seen that the inductance is proportional to the slope of the curve.
206
If a small radial air-gap was made in the ring, the flux produced by current OA would be reduced to some
value AF, because of the increased reluctance of the magnetic circuit. Although the flux is reduced for the
same magnetising current, the slope of the curve is increased as shown by curve OFG. This means that the
inductance is increased by the introduction of an air-gap.
Example 7.7
A laminated iron ring is wound with 200 turns. The magnetising current varies between 5 and 7 amperes.
The magnetic flux varies between 760 and 800Wb. Calculate the incremental inductance of the coil over
this range.
8.6 ENERGY STORED IN A MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
Suppose the current in a coil, having a constant inductance L henry’s, grows at a uniform rate from zero to
I amperes in t seconds, as represented by straight line OA in figure 8.4, and then remains constant at I
amperes, as illustrated below:
Figure 8.4
207
then, the rate of change of current during time t would be equal to I/t, so that the induced e.m.f = - LI/t.
volts The applied voltage must be equal and opposite to the induced e.m.f., and so V = LI/t volts.
At instant D, in figure 8.4(b), the power absorbed from the supply is:
208
P  VI
I
 L I
t
LI2
 [W]
t
The average power absorbed from the supply is therefore:
But:
E  Pt
Therefore, the energy absorbed from the supply is:
As long as the current is maintained constant, this energy is stored in the magnetic field. If the circuit is
opened, the magnetic field will collapse and this energy will be dissipated. If there is no parallel resistance
in the circuit, as in figure 8.1, the energy will be dissipated in the form of a spark at the switch. If there is
a discharge resistor in the circuit, the energy will be dissipated as heat in the resistance.
8.7 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
If two coils L1 and L2 are wound very close to one another as in figure 8.5 (e.g. in a transformer), on
closing the switch, a current will start to flow in L1 and the lines of flux produced by L1 will be linked
with L2, and an e.m.f. will be induced in L2. As a result, a flow of current will be detected in the
galvanometer in the circuit of L2.
When S is opened, the magnetic field collapses and the lines of flux cut both of the coils. A current
flowing in the opposite direction will be detected by the galvanometer. The two coils are said to have
mutual inductance as a change of flux in one coil is accompanied by an e.m.f. and thus by a change of
current in the other coil.
209
Two coils/circuits have a mutual inductance of 1 henry if an e.m.f. of 1 volt is induced in one coil (e.g. L1)
when the current in the other coil/ circuit (e.g. L2) varies uniformly at a rate of 1 ampere per second.
210
If two coils L1 and L2 are inductively coupled, with a mutual inductance of M henry’s, and if the current in L1
increases from zero to I1 amperes in t seconds, the average induced e.m.f. in L2 will be:
I1
emf 2  M [V] ...equ (1)
t
= - M x average rate of change of current in L1
The minus sign indicates that the e.m.f. induced in coil L2 tends to circulate a current in such a direction
as to oppose the increase of flux due to the growth of current in coil L1.
If 2 represents the flux linked with coil L2, and if N2 represents the number of turns on coil L2, then:
2
emf 2  N2  [V] ...equ (2)
t
Equating expressions …equ (1) and …equ (2):
I1 2
M  N2 
t t
2
M  N2  [H]
I1
211
Note the similarity between this expression and the expression for self-inductance in terms of flux linkages
per ampere. Two coils may be close to each other, in which case most of the flux produced by the one
coil is linked with the other coil; or they may be far from each other, in which case very little of the flux
produced by the one coil is linked with the other coil. In order to describe how tightly two coils are
linked the following expression is used:
M  k L1  L2 [H]
Where:\
k = coupling coefficient and L1 and L2 = self-inductances of coil L1 and L2 respectively.
212
Example 8.8
If two coils have a mutual inductance of 400H, calculate the e.m.f. induced in the one coil when the
current in the other coil varies at a rate of 3000A/s.
dI1
emf 2  M
dt
 400106  3000
 1.2V
Activity 8.6
If the mutual inductance between two coils is 0.2H, calculate the e.m.f. induced in one coil when the
current in the other coil is increased at a uniform rate from 0.5A to 3A in 0.05s. (e.m.f. = -10V)
8.8 GRAPHICAL DERIVATION OF THE CURVE OF CURRENT GROWTH IN AN

INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT.
All inductors consist of a number of turns of some or other conductor material, and as we know, all
conductors have a certain resistance. This means that all inductors hves an internal resistance. It is
convenient to deal with this internal resistance in the same way as we did when dealing with cells, that is,
we represent the inductance as a coil L having no resistance, and the resistance R as a resistor having no
inductance, connected in series with the coil as shown in figure 8.6.
The time constant of such an inductor is defined as the time it would take for the current to reach its
maximum value if the rate of growth of the current at any instant is maintained.
213
It can be shown that the time constant for an inductive circuit  = L/R seconds. It should also be mentioned
at this stage that the time taken for the current to reach its maximum value in an inductive circuit is
considered to be five time constants. The definition of the time constant can be used to deduce the curve
representing the growth of current in an inductive circuit, as illustrated by the following example.
214
Example 8.9
An inductor with an inductance of 2mH and a resistance of 10 kilo-Ohm, is switched across a 40V D.C.
supply. Calculate the time it will take the current in the circuit to reach its maximum value. Also deduce
the curve representing the growth of the current.
L
T 
R
2 103

10 103
 0.2s
5T  5  0.2s
 1s
A time period of 1 microsecond is required for the current in the circuit to reach its maximum value. In
order to construct the curve of the growth of the current we proceed as follows:
Cur r ent
Figure 8.7
With the axes suitably scaled, draw a horisontal line to represent the maximum current. In this case:
V
IMax 
R
40

10 103
 4mA
Take any point P, relatively near to the origin O, and draw a horizontal line PQ =  = 0.2s, and at Q draw
a vertical line to intersect the line representing the maximum current. Join PU. Repeat the process at points
R, S, etc. A curve touching the lines so constructed represents the curve of current growth. The more points
used in the construction the more accurate the curve will be.
215
8.9 INDUCTIVELY COUPLED COILS CONNECTED IN SERIES
( a)
Figure 8.8
If two coils are wound co-axially on the same former as shown in figure 8.8 (a) with terminals 2 and 3
connected together, it can be seen that the two fluxes produced by a current i through the two coils, run in
the same direction, and the coils are therefore said to be cumulatively coupled.
The total inductance of such an arrangement can be shown to be:
LT  La  Lb  2M [H]
The energy stored in the magnetic field of two cumulatively coupled coils is:
If the two coils are connected so as to produce fluxes in opposite directions, as shown in figure 8.8 (b),
the coils are said to be differentially coupled and the total flux is then:
LT  La  Lb  2M [H]
The energy stored in the magnetic field of two differentially coupled coils is:
216
Example 8.10
Two coils, A and B, have self-inductances of 20mH and 10mH respectively, and a mutual inductance of
5mH. If the currents through A and B are 0.5A and 2A respectively, calculate:
a) the two possible values of the energy stored in the magnetic field, and
b) the coupling coefficient.
217
b)
M
k 
La Lb
5103

20 103 10 103
 0.353
Activity 8.7
Two identical coils have a coupling coefficient of 0.25. When they are connected in series cumulatively,
the total inductance is 80mH. Calculate:
a) The self-inductance of each coil. (La = Lb = 32mH)

b) The total inductance when the coils are connected series differentially. (LT= 48mH)
c) The total magnetic energy due to a current of 2A when the two coils are connected in series:
(i) Cumulatively (E = 160mJ)
(ii) Differentially (E = 96mJ)
218
8.10 CURRENT GROWTH AND DECAY IN INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS
The following exponential equations can be deduced from first principles in conjunction with the equation
e = (-) L di/dt. We have two stages of analysis, namely: the inductor absorbs energy and the inductor
dissipates energy.
219
Accordingly, the current in the inductor, when energy is absorbed and when energy is given out, is
calculated as:
i1  I Max (1  et / T ) [A]
i2  I Max (et / T ) [A]
Where: t is any instantaneous time-value during the first and second cycle of events.
Voltage across the inductor, when energy is absorbed and when energy is given out, is calculated as:
v1  VMax (et / T ) [V]

t /T
v2  VMax (1 e ) [V]
Where: t is any instantaneous time-value during the first and second cycle of events.
Example 8.11
A coil wound with 500 turns, has a resistance of 2. It is found that a current of 3A produces a flux of
500Wb. Calculate:
a) the inductance and the time constant of the coil, and
b) the average e.m.f. induced in the coil when the flux is reversed in 0.3s.
If the coil is switched across a 10V D.C. supply, derive graphically a curve showing the growth of the
current, assuming the inductance remains constant.
a)
d 
L N
di 
500 106
 500 
3
 83.3mH
L
T 
R
0.0833

2
 41.65ms
220
Activity 8.8
A 200V D.C. supply is suddenly switched across a relay coil which has a time constant of 3ms. If the current
in the coil reaches 0.2A after 3ms, determine the final steady value of the current, as well as the resistance
and inductance of the coil. Calculate the energy stored in the magnetic field when the current has reached
its final steady value.
(IMax = 0.3164A; R = 632.1; L = 1.896H; E = 94.92mJ)
210

210


210
Time constant
L
T  [s]
R
i1  IMax (1 e t / T ) [A]

i2  IMax (e t / T ) [A]
v1  VMax (e t / T ) [V]
t /T
v2  VMax (1 e ) [V]
8 .12 CONCLUSION
By winding two coils on the same former, power transportation can be changed from high voltage and
low currents (transmission) or vice versa (distribution) without change in frequency and power levels.
A transformer does not have any moving parts and all the transfer from one voltage level to the other
is done purely via mutual inductance. In designing electrical equipment, engineers must determine the
inductive nature of design based on the B-H curve, the forces due to the interaction between magnetic
field and conductors and various other elements.
211
NOTES
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
212
Activity 8.1
di
emf  L
dt
30  L  2000
L  0.015H
 15mH
Activity 8.2
a)
d
L N
di
200 10-6
 50 
8
 1.25mH
b)
di
emf  L
dt
88
 0.00125 
0.2
16
 0.00125 
0.2
 0.1V
Activity 8.3
d
L N
di
0.03
 1000 
2
 15H
di
emf  L
dt
02
 15
0.1
2
 15
0.1
 300V
213
Activity 8.4
  aN 2
L  0 r

2
N

S
15002

6 106
 375mH
Activity 8.5
Case 1:
  d
   0.2
 0.6283m
d 2
a 
4
  0.022

4
 0.0003142m
 aN 2
L  0

4107  0.0003142 5002

0.6283
 157.1H
Case 2:
  aN 2
L  0 r

4107  600 0.0003142  5002

0.6283
 92.25mH
214
Activity 8.6
di1
emf 2  M
dt
3  0.5 
 0.2   
 0.05 
 10V
Activity 8.7
a)
M  k La Lb
 k La La
 0.25La
LT  La  La  2M
80 10 3
 La  La  2  0.25L a 

 
80 103
La 
2.5
 32 103
 32mH
 Lb
M  k La Lb
 0.25 32 10 3
 32 103 
 8mH

b)
LT  La  La  2M

 32 103  32 103  2  8 103  
3
 48 10
 48mH
215
(c)
216
217
Notes
218

ELE1501 - STUDYGUIDE Online Material 2018 v2 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ELE1501 - STUDYGUIDE Online Material 2018 v2 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MO001/4/2021

Department of Electrical & Mining

This is a blended module, which means that your module is

Please go onto myUnisa and activate your myLife email and

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the

Menu Option Description

All the best with your studies!

Your lecturer for

Frequently asked questions

Question 3: How is ELE1501 assessed?

Question 3: Will I receive my practical kits by post?

leaving enough space for the markers to add their comments.

Examination Question 1: Will I receive a scope for the examination?

Directorate/Business unit Short SMS E-mail address

Student Admissions and 43578 study-info@unisa.ac.za

Student Assessment 43584 For examinations:

Despatch 43579 despatch@unisa.ac.za

Finance 31954 finan@unisa.ac.za

ICT (myUnisa & myLife) 43582 myUnisaHelp@unisa.ac.za

Question 2: Whom should I contact with regard to academic queries?

Forum 1: Discussion 1: Introduce yourself

1.1 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

1.2 SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

1.3 PREFIXES AND SYMBOLS FOR MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES

1.4 THE UNIT OF FORCE

1.5 THE UNIT OF WORK OR ENERGY

1.6 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

1.7 THE UNIT OF POWER

1.8 THE UNIT OF TORQUE

1.9 THE KILO-WATT HOUR [KWH]

1.11 SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT FORMULAE

1.1 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

[For more information refer to paragraph 1.1 of the textbook]

Quantity Quantity Quantity Unit

Table 1.1: Basic SI Units

1.2 SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

[For more information refer to paragraph 1.2 of the textbook]

Quantity Quantity Quantity Unit

Quantity Quantity Quantity Unit

Table 1.2: Derived SI Units

1.3 PREFIXES AND SYMBOLS FOR MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES

Multiplying Prefix Symbol

Table 1.3: Symbols for multiplication factors

From To Factor From To Factor

Table 1.4: Conversion table

15mm2  5103  3103

35mm3  35 103 1103 1103

1.4 THE UNIT OF FORCE

1.5 THE UNIT OF WORK OR ENERGY

[For more information refer to paragraph 1.4 of the textbook]

Therefore Potential Energy is:

If we accelerate a stationary body of mass m, expressed as:

Since Work = mass x acceleration x distance, then

Calculate the work/energy in lifting a 70kg through a height of 40m.

100km  100 1000 m

(Ep = 2.94 MJ)

1.6 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

1.7 THE UNIT OF POWER

[For more information refer to paragraph 1.5 of the textbook]

Where 1 kilowatt = 1000 or 103 Watt

1.8 THE UNIT OF TORQUE

[For more information refer to paragraph 1.3 of the textbook]