Received: 16 March 2021 | Accepted: 9 December 2021

DOI: 10.1002/mar.21630

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Strategic use of immersive media and narrative message in

virtual marketing: Understanding the roles of telepresence
and transportation

Chen Chen | Mike Z. Yao

Department of Advertising, Institute of

Communication, University of Illinois at
Urbana Champaign, Champaign, Illinois, USA
Correspondence
Chen Chen, Department of Advertising,
Institute of Communication, University of
Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Champaign, IL
61820, USA.
Email: chenc4@illinois.edu
Abstract
This study differentiates the roles of telepresence and transportation, the two
widely cited processes underpinning an immersive media viewing experience, in the
context of virtual marketing. In Study 1, college students viewed a real estate
property tour in virtual reality (VR; high immersion) or as a 360° video (low im-
mersion) in a research lab. The tour was accompanied by a voiceover presenting
descriptive information about the apartment (descriptive evidence) or a narrative‐
based introduction (narrative evidence). We found the enhanced telepresence under
the VR viewing condition negatively impacted users' memory of the property; this
effect was particularly pronounced with the narrative voiceover. Study 2 replicated
key findings from Study 1 in an online experiment with a larger and more diverse
sample. We also found that narrative‐induced transportation strengthened attitu-
dinal outcomes, and enhanced telepresence boosted this effect. Our studies dis-
entangle the impacts of VR‐induced telepresence on cognitive processing from the
effects of narrative‐induced transportation on persuasive outcomes. The highly
immersive media experience combined with deep transportation into the narrative
can strengthen viewers' positive attitude towards the overall experience but hinder
their ability to remember the details of the content. The findings point to a medium‐
message matching strategy to achieve marketing goals.

KEYWORDS
metaverse, telepresence, transportation, virtual marketing, virtual reality

1 | INTRODUCTION offline shopping experience, thereby reducing the information

The enduring lure of virtual and three‐dimensional (3D) media
representations of products and destinations in marketing stems
from its promise to bring information and branded content to
consumers in ways that only an in‐person experience could pre-
viously offer but at a much lower cost. For example, a virtual
reality (VR) test‐drive experience does not require consumers to
visit a car dealer in person and can potentially disrupt the mar-
keting and distribution models of the automotive industry. A VR
storefront can offer consumers an experience that mimics the
ambiguity of online shopping (Ahn, 2021; Ahn & Bailenson, 2011).
Three hundred and sixty degree virtual tours are already a stan-
dard in tourism and real estate marketing, and with the prolifera-
tion of high‐end VR systems, consumers can now fully immerse
themselves in destinations without leaving their homes
(Tussyadiah et al., 2017; Vishwakarma et al., 2020). More recently,
Meta, the social media company formerly known as Facebook, has
set an overarching goal across all previous initiatives to construct a
metaverse world, bringing virtual marketing to an unprecedented
level (Newton, 2021).

524 | © 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/mar Psychol Mark. 2022;39:524–542.

CHEN AND YAO
Empirical research in this field has investigated the cognitive per-
formance and persuasive outcomes of virtual product representations
(Cowan et al., 2021; Jang et al., 2019; Tsai et al., 2020). However, there
is limited research on how immersive media can alter or interact with
cognitive and persuasive processes. In the present study, we are inter-
ested in differentiating the effect of telepresence induced by immersive
VR and 360° videos from the effect of transportation created through
narrative storytelling on memory performance, attitudes, and behavioral
intention in the context of real estate marketing. While previous re-
search has identified telepresence and transportation as two primary
mechanisms underpinning a mediated‐immersive experience, these two
processes and their impacts have not been clearly distinguished (Feng
et al., 2019; Gorini et al., 2011).
We present the findings of two studies in this paper to fill this
gap. In Study 1, we examine the effects of VR‐induced immersion and
narrative persuasion on consumers' memory performance and per-
suasive outcomes after viewing a virtual property tour. Furthermore,
we explore the roles of telepresence and transportation in their in-
teractions. In Study 2, we investigate the interplay between per-
ceived telepresence and transportation Study 1. We also investigate
the effects of participants' immersion tendencies and past media
experience. Our research contributes to theories on the effects of
telepresence and transportation on cognition and persuasion. In ad-
dition, it has practical implications for the design and content strategy
for virtual marketing in the metaverse world.
2 | T E L E P R E S E NC E A N D
TR ANSPORTATION IN AN IMMERSIVE
M E D I A EX P E R I E N C E
Telepresence, a feeling of “being there” (Steuer, 1992), is a central process
underlying an immersive experience (Shin, 2019). During a virtual ex-
perience, users draw upon spatial cues to construct mental models of the
mediated world to feel “present” within it (Ahn, 2021; Ijsselsteijn &
Riva, 2003; Wirth et al., 2007). While telepresence can be induced by all
forms of media content, immersive VR displays create vivid telepresence
through perceptual inputs, such as 3D vision, spatial audio, and interactive
control (Cowan et al., 2021; Jang et al., 2019; Pala et al., 2021; Shin &
Biocca, 2018; Tsai et al., 2020). Beyond a spatial presence activated by
direct sensory inputs, VR further enhances telepresence by self‐
referencing through virtual embodiment of the self (Ahn et al., 2016;
Lee, 2004; Shin, 2021) and social presence (Shin, 2013, 2017, 2018).
Table 1 provides a summary of recent definitions of telepresence in the
marketing, advertising, and communication literature.
A parallel but related process to telepresence in an immersive
experience is narrative transportation. Transportation refers to the
experience of being so consumed by the world of a narrative that
connection to the real world may be lost for some time (Green &
Brock, 2000). It can occur in written, spoken/audio, and visual nar-
rative (e.g., text and video), and can result from both fictional and
nonfictional narratives (van Laer et al., 2014). Applying VR, Kim and
Biocca (1997) described the concept of telepresence through the
| 525
transportation metaphor of arrival (i.e., a feeling of presence in the
mediated environment) and departure (i.e., a feeling of separation
from the physical environment).
Telepresence and transportation have been extensively studied in
research on media effects and persuasion, and they are not exclusive to
immersive VR. However, the complexity of VR‐induced immersion is
due to the entangled processes of telepresence and transportation as
functions of both the medium and content (Shin & Biocca, 2018). On
the one hand, the VR system directly induces telepresence through
multiple sensory inputs, while the “journey” of arriving at the virtual
world and departing from the physical reality activates the feeling of
transportation. On the other hand, the content and narrative of the VR
experience may interfere with, strengthen, or weaken the same pro-
cesses. Existing research has not clearly differentiated these effects.
3 | REAL ESTATE MARKETING AS A
R E S E A R C H CO N T E X T
Virtual property tours are a trend in the residential real estate in-
dustry (Hall, 2021). Brokers typically create simulated open‐house
experiences with stitched panoramic images of the property interior
taken with 360° cameras. Users can view the property room by room
by activating certain modules in VR headsets or navigate by pointing
and clicking with desktop 360° interactive videos. The COVID‐19
pandemic further challenged traditional methods of property viewing
and made virtual tours a necessity for the industry (Gleb, 2020). More
agencies are producing immersive VR or 360° videos with accom-
panying voiceovers to promote their listings.
Although immersive VR is starting to penetrate the consumer
market beyond the gaming community, the standard in real estate
marketing is still to simulate a virtual tour with 360° video. Little re-
search has been conducted to compare the effectiveness of expensive,
immersive VR gears and more affordable 360° videos in real estate
marketing. There is a growing need for analysis of the impact of these
technologies on consumers' information processing and decision
making. While our primary focus in this study is to investigate the roles
of telepresence and transpiration in media‐induced immersion, we
selected virtual real estate marketing as a research context. We pro-
duced a virtual promotional tour for rental property as an experimental
stimulus that can be viewed in immersive VR or as a 360° video on a
flat‐screen. Overall, the goal is to increase the external validity of our
findings and provide practical implications to the industry.
4 | TH E EFF ECTS O F TEL EPRES ENC E ON
MEMORY, ATTITUDES, AND BEHAV I ORAL
IN TE NT IO N
Previous studies have investigated the effects of telepresence on
cognitive performance in a variety of contexts. In marketing research,
the effects of telepresence on users' product knowledge have re-
ceived the most attention, but the results have been mixed.
526 | CHEN AND YAO

TABLE 1 Definitions and measures of telepresence in recent publications

Study/journal, year Term/definition Measure

Shin (2021), Behaviour & Information
Technology
The sense of being in an ARG environment.
Players interacting with others via ARG media
feel as if they are physically together, Shin and
Biocca (2018)
Three items by Shin (2019):
1. How compelling was your sense of objects moving
through space?
2. How much did your experiences in the AR news
seem consistent with your real‐world experiences?

3. How compelling was your sense of moving around

inside the AR game?

Cowan et al. (2021), Journal of Reflects how real the virtual environment feels, Direct manipulation using visual (e.g., photographs,
Business Research such that the consumer may forget their true videos) versus virtual (e.g., 360° VR) media
physical location, Berg and Vance (2017)

Tsai et al. (2020), Journal of Interactive A sense of presence in a mediated environment, Three items by Lim and Ayyagari (2018):
Advertising Klein (2003)
1. Does this ad enable you to get information about the
product as if you are in a physical store?

2. Can you evaluate the product via this ad as you do in

the physical store?

3. Does this ad make you feel like you are looking at the
product in a physical store?

Barbot and Kaufman (2020),
Computers in Human Behavior
A state of dissociation from reality in which Four items by Ijsselsteijn et al. (2000)
people feel the subjective experience of
Sample items: I lost all track of time while I was in the
existing in the digital environment,
virtual environment”
Slater(2003)

Barreda‐Ángeles et al.
(2021), Communication
Monographs
The strong impression of “being there” or
physically placed in the virtual environment,
Slater and Sanchez‐Vives (2016)
Eight items by Hartmann et al. (2016) spatial presence
experience scale:
1. I felt like I was actually there in the environment of
the presentation

2. It seemed as though I actually took part in the action

of the presentation

3. It was as though my true location had shifted into the

environment in the presentation

4. I felt as though I was physically present in the

environment of the presentation

5. I was convinced that things were actually happening

around me

6. I felt like the objects in the presentation

surrounded me

7. I experienced both the confined and open spaces in

the presentation as though I was really there

8. I was convinced that the objects in the presentation

were located on the various sides of my body

Parong et al. (2020), Computers in
Human Behavior
The psychological experience of “being there,” or
the experience of being in one environment
even when the person is physically in another,
Cummings and Bailenson (2016)
A total of 29 items were divided into four subscales,
including the adaptation/immersion subscale (eight
items), involvement subscale (12 items), sensory
fidelity subscale (six items), and interface quality
subscale (three items). Presence Questionnaire (PQ,
version 4.0) by Witmer and Singer (1998)

Jang et al. (2019), Fashion and Textiles
The extent to which an individual feels presence, Five items adapted from Schubert et al. (2001):
that is, perceives himself or herself, to be
1. While using the VR store, I felt like I was actually at
present in a medium‐mediated environment
the store
as if they were in the real world, Steuer (1992)
CHEN AND YAO | 527

TABLE 1 (Continued)

Study/journal, year Term/definition Measure

Telepresence is considered both, a cognitive
process and a subjective experience, as the
user is immersed in a virtual environment,
Witmer and Singer (1998)
2. While using the VR store, I felt that the visible scene
was part of the actual store
3. While using the VR store, I could easily recognize the
atmosphere of the store

4. While using the VR store, I felt like I could touch the

products and things in the store

5. While using the VR store, I felt things in VR stores

were real

Elsey et al. (2019), Computers in
Human Behavior
The subjective experience of being in the virtual
environment, Schubert et al. (2001); Sheridan
(1992); Slater and Wilbur (1997)
A total of 14 items iGroup PQ by Schubert et al. (2001)
Three subscales assessing spatial presence (feeling as if
one is really there in the virtual world), involvement
(finding one's attention captivated by the virtual
environment rather than the external world), and
realness (how realistic the virtual world seemed)

Feng et al., (2019), Journal of A psychological state or a subjective sensation of Three items by Grigorovici and Constantin (2004);
Advertising “being there” in a scene depicted by a Lessiter et al. (2001):
medium, Lessiter et al. (2001)
1. I had a sense of being in the scenes displayed

2. I felt I was visiting the places in the displayed

environment

3. I felt that the characters and/or objects could almost

touch me

Shen et al. (2019), Journal of
Marketing Communications
The psychological state of feeling bodily or
physically ”being there” in a technology‐
mediated remote environment when the
mental awareness is not bound by the physical
environment or reality
Seven items by Kim and Biocca (1997):
1. When the video ended, I felt like I came back to the
“real world” after a journey
2. During the video, I felt I was in the world the virtual
reality created

3. During the video, I never forgot that I was in the

middle of an experiment (revise coded)

4. During the video, my body was in the room, but my

mind was inside the world created by virtual reality

5. During the video, the VR‐generated world was more

real or present for me compared to the “real world”

6. The VR‐generated world seemed to me only

“something I saw” rather than “somewhere I visited”
(revise coded)

7. During the VR experience, my mind was in the room,

not in the world created by virtual reality (revise
coded)

Cowan and Ketron (2019), Journal of The rewarding sense of being present in an Conceptual article
Business Research environment that appears natural

Shin and Biocca (2018), New Media &
Society
The extent to which two people interact via a
technological medium feels as if they are
together, Nicovich (2005)
Three items modified from Bracken (2005); Jennett
et al. (2008); and Nicovich (2005):
1: How compelling was your sense of things moving
through space?

2: How much did your experiences in the VR news

seem similar to your real‐world experiences?

3: How compelling was your sense of moving around

inside the VR news?

(Continues)
528 | CHEN AND YAO

TABLE 1 (Continued)

Study/journal, year Term/definition Measure

Algharabat et al. (2018), Journal of
Retailing and Consumer Services
The perception by nonprofit organizations'
Facebook fans that they have been,
psychologically, transported in the world
created by the nonprofit Facebook page
Four items by Klein (2003); Steuer (1992):
1. While I was browsing the social media page of
[Brand X], I felt I was in the world by [Brand X],
2. while I was browsing the social media page of
[Brand X], my mind was in this room, not in the
world created by [Brand X],

3. while I was browsing the social media page of

[Brand X], my body was in this room, but my mind
was in the world created by [Brand X], and

4. when I left the social media page of [Brand X], I felt

like I came back to the “real world” after a journey

Kim et al. (2017), Journal of Business
Research
The perception of being there in a mediated
environment, Witmer and Singer (1998). “A
subjective feeling of being there” Kim and
Biocca (1997)
The presence scale was adapted from Witmer and
Singer (1998). Sample items: “I felt caught up in the
content of the ad,” “I experienced the ad as if it were
real,” “The ad was so vivid that it held my attention
as a good movie or story does”

Abbreviations: AR, augmented reality; VR, virtual reality.

Early research in this area found a positive correlation between
enhanced telepresence, induced through 3D product representations
on flatscreen computers, and product knowledge (Daugherty
et al., 2008; Keng & Lin, 2006). For instance, Li et al. (2002) asked
participants to inspect either a material product (a jacket) or a geo-
matic product (a watch) on a flatscreen computer in 2D or 3D. They
found that telepresence mediated the effect of 3D advertising on
users' knowledge of a material product. Findings from this line of
research led to the conclusion that telepresence increases product‐
related memory and knowledge because it simulates active proces-
sing and directs attention to product attributes (Daugherty
et al., 2005).
Recent studies using immersive VR have challenged this con-
clusion. Bailey et al. (2012) conducted experiments using a virtual
shower to educate users about environmental principles in water
conservation methods. They found that users' feelings of tele-
presence were negatively correlated with their memory retrieval of
environmental principles. Shen et al. (2019) invited participants to
view a panoramic virtual campus tour using either a Google card-
board, a flat‐screen desktop, or a head‐mounted display VR device.
While different devices had the equal capacity to induce tele-
presence, telepresence was negatively correlated with their recall of
the visited destination. Wang and Yao (2020) examined the effec-
tiveness of virtual billboards placed around a racetrack in a custo-
mized auto‐racing game. The participants played the game in VR or
on a flat‐screen computer. They found that enhanced telepresence in
VR decreased memory performance. Barreda‐Ángeles et al. (2021)
found that viewing 360° videos of news stories on immersive VR
devices impaired users' cognitive information processing. These
studies suggest that the effects of telepresence on cognitive per-
formance may be curvilinear as a function of cognitive load. As users
allocate more cognitive resources to form a holistic view of the virtual
space (i.e., spatial memory, Parong et al., 2020), they may be dis-
tracted from memorizing specific details presented in the virtual
space.
While research on the effects of telepresence on cognitive per-
formance have been mixed in result, previous research has con-
sistently found a positive impact of telepresence on persuasive
outcomes (Bender & Sung, 2021; Cowan et al., 2021; Tsai
et al., 2020; Vishwakarma et al., 2020). Klein (2003) asked partici-
pants to explore different wine categories on a flat‐screen computer,
using either full‐motion video introductions or text and picture in-
troductions. The results showed that given more vivid perceptual
inputs, participants reported a stronger sense of telepresence; en-
hanced telepresence then led to stronger beliefs in advertised pro-
duct claims and more intense attitudes toward the product. Building
on Klein's (2003) conceptualization and empirical test of tele-
presence, Tsai et al. (2020) explored the joint effect of augmented
reality (AR; 2D vs. 3D), ad‐context (realistic vs. imaginative), and
product type (think vs. feel) on telepresence and persuasive out-
comes. Similar to a previous study, they found that telepresence
explained the effect of AR‐induced perceptual immersion on users'
brand liking when they thought that a product (hiking boots) was
presented in a realistic ad context. Researchers attributed the ben-
efits of telepresence as a persuasive mechanism to the simulation of a
real‐life shopping experience (Daugherty et al., 2005, 2008), a re-
duction in information ambiguity and purchase risk (Keng &
Lin, 2006), and the inducement of hedonic and utilitarian gratification
(Rauschnabel, 2018).
The simulation of real‐life experience is particularly important for
industries with high experiential value like tourism and real estate
marketing. It is not surprising, then, to see successful applications in
tourism research (Choi et al., 2016; Vishwakarma et al., 2020).
Drawing from a survey result published on a tourism website,
CHEN AND YAO
Hyun and O'Keefe (2012) found that telepresence positively influ-
ences cognitive attitude toward the destination and leads to a higher
visiting intention. Via the indirect effect of telepresence, virtual tours
bring consumers closer to destinations and lead to a positive per-
suasive outcome. On the basis of empirical findings from previous
research, we further hypothesize the following:
H1. Heightened immersion will lead to a) fewer details recalled
from a virtual property tour, b) a more favorable affective attitude, c)
a more favorable cognitive attitude towards the promoted property,
and d) a stronger intention to execute the proposed action (i.e., visit
the place shown in the video).
H2. Telepresence mediates these direct effects of heightened
immersion on a) memory, b) affective attitude, c) cognitive attitude,
and d) behavioral intention.
5 | T HE EF FE C T S O F T R A NS P O R TAT I O N
ON M EMORY , ATT I TU D ES, AND
BEHA VIORAL INTENTION
Narrative transportation theory proposes that when people are car-
ried away by a story, they become more susceptible to its influence
(Green & Donahue, 2011; Green et al., 2008). Narratives convey
information in a story‐like format that contains specific details, such
as event action, plot, and characters, in a conversational way
(Peracchio & Meyers‐Levy, 1997; Polyorat et al., 2007); they are vi-
vid, salient, and personally relevant (Feeley et al., 2006; Gray &
Harrington, 2011). Previous studies found that narrative‐based per-
suasive messages led to better memory (Kreuter et al., 2010;
Mattila, 2000), fewer counterarguments (McQueen et al., 2011),
more consistent beliefs (Appel & Richter, 2010; Mazor et al., 2007),
and more affective responses (Kopfman et al., 1998). More recently,
Shen et al. (2015) conducted a meta‐analysis of 25 studies to in-
vestigate the impact of narratives on persuasion in health commu-
nication. The results revealed that narratives delivered via audio and
video had a significant positive impact on attitudes, intentions, and
behaviors. Furthermore, researchers have attributed the effects of
narrative messages to transportation (Gerrig, 2019). van Laer et al.
(2014) conducted a meta‐analysis of 76 empirical studies on trans-
portation and found significant and persistent effects of transporta-
tion on consumers' affect, attention, cognitive elaboration, and
behavioral intention across all studies.
Transportation demands attention and cognitive resources; thus,
people who experience higher levels of transportation are more likely
to process, organize, and elaborate on the information at hand, which,
in turn, could lead to better memory performance (Whitbred
et al., 2010; Zhou et al., 2020). Consistent with this view, Dunlop
et al. (2008) found transportation to be positively associated with
participants' ad recall. In a free recall of antismoking ads watched
over the previous 2 years, participants who ranked higher on a
transportability scale were also found to have higher recall of nar-
rative ads. More recently, Zhou et al. (2020) conducted a meta‐
analysis of 22 studies (49 effect sizes) to investigate the effectiveness
| 529
of narrative game‐based interventions. They found that games de-
signed based on transportation theory improved gamers' knowledge
retention of health‐related information.
Previous studies have also found positive effects of transporta-
tion on persuasion targets' attitudes and behavioral intentions. When
a narrative message is presented, individuals may be reluctant to
disrupt their enjoyment of transportation into the narrative world by
critiquing the points made in the story. As a result, individuals in a
state of transportation generate more affect (Chang, 2009;
Escalas, 2004), more narrative thoughts (Chang, 2009), fewer critical
thoughts (Moyer‐Gusé & Nabi, 2010; Slater & Rouner, 2002),
stronger story‐consistent beliefs and attitudes (Escalas, 2007;
Green & Donahue, 2011; Green, 2004; Marsh & Fazio, 2006; Wang &
Calder, 2006), and stronger behavioral intention (Dunlop et al., 2010).
Escalas (2004) further illustrates these assertions in a study where
the narrative advertisements of a running shoe raised narrative
thought structure and had a positive effect on advertisement atti-
tudes and brand evaluations; transportation led to strong affective
responses and reduced critical thoughts towards the ad.
In the present study, we examine the effects of two versions
(narrative vs. descriptive) of a voiceover for a virtual property tour on
consumers' memory performances, attitudes, and behavioral inten-
tions. On the basis of the transportation theory and empirical findings
from previous research, we hypothesize the following:
H3: The narrative‐based voiceover introduction will lead to a)
better recall of details about the property, b) a more favorable af-
fective attitude, c) a more favorable cognitive attitude toward the
property, and d) increased intention to execute the proposed action
(i.e., visit the property) than the voiceover with descriptive evidence.
H4: An increased sense of transportation will mediate the direct
effects of the voiceover introduction on a viewer's a) memory per-
formance, b) affective attitude, c) cognitive attitude, and d) behavioral
intention.
6 | AN INTERACTION BETWEEN
TELEPRESENCE AND TRANSPORTATION
Both telepresence and transportation “immerse” users in the pre-
sented content. In our study, technology‐induced telepresence and
message‐induced narrative transportation may interact with each
other. Transportation hinges on three conditions: story processing,
empathy with mental imagery, and a disconnection from reality in a
physiological sense (van Laer et al., 2014). Telepresence also “trans-
ports” viewers into the virtual world through perceptual inputs and
facilitates mental imagery (Kim & Biocca, 1997; Rodríguez‐Ardura &
Meseguer‐Artola, 2019). Therefore, these two processes may com-
bine to produce the strongest persuasive effects.
It is also possible that the perceptual experience in VR and the
narrative message compete for attention and cognitive resources,
leading to decreased cognitive performance. Immersive experience
can also be disrupted by an incompatible message type. For instance,
a viewer perceptually immersed in the virtual world may be required
530 | CHEN
to split cognitive resources to critically process the descriptive in-
formation in the voiceover and therefore become distracted from
other aspects of the experience. With limited theoretical analyses
and empirical evidence from previous research, we explore the fol-
lowing question in this study:
RQ1: How do technology‐induced telepresence and narrative‐
induced transportation interact to affect a user's memory perfor-
mance, affective attitude, cognitive attitude, and behavioral intention?
We test the hypotheses and explore the research question in two
studies. In Study 1, a controlled laboratory experiment, we compare
the effects of telepresence as activated by immersive VR and by a
360° video on memory, affective attitude, cognitive attitude, and
behavioral intention by showing participants a virtual real estate tour
with either a narrative or a descriptive voiceover. In Study 2, we seek
to replicate key findings from Study 1 and further unpack the effects
of telepresence and transportation through an online experiment
with a larger and more diverse sample of Internet users. Instead of
using immersive VR to increase telepresence, as in Study 1, we focus
on the effects of perceived telepresence.
7 | S TU D Y 1
7.1 | Methods
7.1.1 | Design and procedure
We conducted a two‐by‐two (immersive VR viewing vs. 360° video on a
flat screen viewing; narrative voiceover vs. descriptive voiceover)
between‐subjects experiment. In the remainder of this paper, we will
address the immersive VR viewing condition as “VR condition” and the
360° video as “360‐degree video condition.” Upon arrival to the lab and
after giving consent, participants were randomly assigned to experience
a virtual property tour under one of four conditions: VR with a narrative
voiceover, VR with a descriptive voiceover, 360° video with a narrative
voiceover, and 360° video with a descriptive voiceover. After the virtual
property tour, the participants completed a posttest questionnaire and
were debriefed and thanked for their time.
7.1.2 | Participants
On the basis of the effect size of a previous lab study with a con-
ceptually similar manipulation (Gorini et al., 2011; d = 0.45), a priori
power analysis suggested that around 122 participants would provide
sufficient power (greater than 80%) to detect differences tested at a
false positive rate of 5%. Undergraduate students enrolled in a large
Midwest U.S. university signed up for the study on a research par-
ticipation management system (SONA) and received extra credit for
one of their classes. The final dataset contained 118 participants (32
male, 86 female). Their ages ranged from 18 to 33 (M = 20.10, SD =
1.78). The sample included 58% white, 25% Asian/Pacific Islander,
8.5% Hispanic/Latino, and 5.9% African American students.
AND YAO
7.1.3 | Stimulus materials
A 3‐min, audio‐guided virtual property tour created by the research
team promoted an apartment for students. The virtual tour was
filmed with an 8K, 360° video camera and formatted in two ways so
that it could be viewed either in immersive VR or as a 360° video
playing on a flatscreen computer. Under the VR viewing condition,
participants experienced the virtual tour using an Oculus Rift VR
headset with a 90‐degree field of view (FOV) and 8K resolution
(7680 × 4320 pixels per frame). Under the 360° video viewing con-
dition, participants watched the 360° video on a 27″ Dell Ultra HD
monitor. The monitor was placed about 70 cm away from partici-
pants' eyes, which gave them a 56° FOV and 1080p resolution
(1920 × 1080 pixels per frame).
The research team developed two versions of the voiceover that
introduced the property. The narrative voiceover was revised and
adapted from a narrative introduction of a themed restaurant used in
Mattila's (2000) study. The voiceover described a female college
student who wanted to sublease one bedroom in her apartment. The
narrator showcased the features of the apartment by discussing her
memories with a previous roommate. For example, when introducing
the lights, she said, "My friend and I had different opinions about
whether to have a floor lamp or dome light, but finally, we were
attracted by these light‐emitting diode lightings, accompanied with
hardwood‐style flooring." In the descriptive voiceover introduction,
the same female narrator presented the same set of features without
the narrative. For example, when introducing the living room, she
mentioned that 50" smart TVs were available in every living room,
and LED lightings were accompanied by hardwood‐style flooring. The
study was approved by the university research ethics board.
7.2 | Measures
7.2.1 | Memory performance
Each participant's memory performance was measured by an aided
recall test. Fifteen household objects were listed in the questionnaire,
but only 10 of them appeared in the virtual tour. Participants were
told to prioritize the accuracy rate and instructed to only select the
objects they remembered from the virtual tour. The correct answers
were counted and summed as the recall score. The highest score
possible was 10 and the lowest score possible was 0 (M = 3.58,
SD = 2.15).
7.2.2 | Affective attitude
Each participant's affective attitude toward the virtual property
was measured using the scale created by Spears and Singh (2004).
Participants indicated their affective evaluations of the apartment on
seven dimensions on a 7‐point Likert scale: safe–unsafe, not‐
peaceful–peaceful, inconvenient–convenient, unappealing–appealing,
CHEN AND YAO
bad–good, unpleasant–pleasant, unfavorable–favorable, and unlikeable–
likeable (M = 5.99, SD = 0.88, α = 0.92).
7.2.3 | Cognitive attitude
A cognitive attitude scale was adopted from a real estate service
quality research project, developed by Seiler and Reisenwitz (2010).
Participants were asked to indicate their levels of agreement on five
statements, such as "This apartment has up‐to‐date equipment," on a
7‐point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree)
(M = 5.40, SD = 0.91, α = 0.78).
7.2.4 | Behavioral intention
Each participant's intention to visit the virtual property was measured
by three questions adapted from Han et al. (2010). Participants rated
their levels of agreement on a 7‐point Likert scale to items such as
"I'm willing to visit this apartment." The ratings of the three items
were combined to form a behavioral intention index (M = 5.45, SD =
1.01, α = 0.73).
7.2.5 | Telepresence
Telepresence was measured on a seven‐item scale created by Kim
and Biocca (1997). Participants reported their levels of agreement to
a set of seven statements like “During the video, I felt I was in the
world the VR created” (M = 4.25, SD = 1.16, α = 0.77).
7.2.6 | Transportation
Each participant's feeling of transportation was measured by a scale
that was developed by Green and Brock (2000) and modified for the
VR viewing experience. Nine statements such as "While I was lis-
tening to the voiceover, I could easily picture the events in it taking
place" were rated on a 7‐point scale from “completely disagree” to
“completely agree” (M = 4.16, SD = 0.88, α = 0.74). (All items and de-
scriptive statistics are presented in Table 2.)
7.3 | Results
7.3.1 | Effects of immersive VR and narrative
voiceover
To test the direct effect of immersive VR and narrative voiceover
introduction on a user's memory, affective attitude, cognitive atti-
tude, and behavioral intention (H1 and H3), we first checked the
correlation between dependent variables and determined the analy-
sis. The correlation test (Table 3) revealed that there is a medium
| 531
correlation (>0.5) between affective attitude, cognitive attitude, and
behavioral intention, suggesting that a single multivariate analysis is
an appropriate test. The result indicated a significant main effect of
immersive VR and no effect of narrative voiceover on affective atti-
tude, cognitive attitude, and behavioral intention (immersive VR:
Wilks' λ = 0.93, F [3,112) = 2.88, p < 0.05; narrative voiceover: Wilks'
λ = 0.96, F [3,112) = 1.52, p > 0.05). We further unpacked the sig-
nificant effect of immersive VR on each dependent variable. The
result showed a positive effect on behavioral intention, but no effect
on affective attitude or cognitive attitude (H1d supported: behavioral
intention F [1, 114] = 8.89, p < 0.01; H1b and H1c not supported:
affective attitude F [1, 114] = 2.81; p =0.09; cognitive attitude
F [1, 114] = 3.15; p = 0.08). Because recall showed a low correlation
(correlation < 0.1) with all other dependent variables, we performed a
univariate analysis of variance to assess the direct effect of im-
mersive VR and narrative voiceover on recall. The result revealed a
negative effect of immersive VR on aided recall (H1a supported:
memory F [1, 114] = 9.91, p < 0.05). Thus, the direct effects of im-
mersive VR on H1a (memory) and H1d (behavioral intention) are
supported. H1b (affective attitude) and H1c (cognitive attitude) are
not supported. No direct effect of narrative voiceover on memory,
affective attitude, cognitive attitude, or behavioral intention was
found (H3a–d were not supported). (All means/SDs by the condition
are available in Table 4.)
Furthermore, the result indicated a statistically significant inter-
action between the VRs and voiceovers on participants' recall (F [1,
114] = 3.91, p < 0.05) (RQ1). Specifically, it showed that when parti-
cipants used high perceptual immersive VR and listened to the voi-
ceover with narrative evidence, they had the lowest level of recall
(M = 2.00, SD = 1.56). Low perceptual immersive VR (360° video on a
flat‐screen) combined with narrative evidence led to the highest level
of recall (M = 3.58, SD = 1.43) (Figure 1). No interaction was found
between the effects of VR viewing and voiceover condition on par-
ticipants' affective attitudes (F [1, 114] = 0.59, p > 0.05), cognitive
attitudes (F [1, 114] = 0.61, p > 0.05), or behavioral intentions (F [1,
114] = 0.15, p > 0.05). (Summary of statistics can be found in Table 5.)
7.3.2 | Telepresence and transportation as
mediators
The study also proposed that telepresence and transportation are
two underlying mechanisms explaining the effects of VR‐induced
immersion and narrative voiceover on a user's memory, affective
attitude, cognitive attitude, and behavioral intention (H2 and H4).
First, we investigated whether telepresence mediated the direct ef-
fects in the VR condition. Following Preacher and Hayes' (2018)
guidance, we performed a bootstrapping analysis with 5000 itera-
tions. It revealed that telepresence mediated the effect of immersive
VR on participants' recall performances (B = −0.37, SE = 0.18,
p < 0.05, confidence interval, CI [−0.75, −0.02]). An increase in par-
ticipants' feelings of telepresence decreased their overall recall scores
(indirect effect of a × b) (Figure 2). H2a was supported. However,
532 | CHEN AND YAO

TABLE 2 Descriptive statistical analysis and items overview

Study 1 Study 2
Scales Items M SD Cronbach's α M SD Cronbach's α
Affective attitude Unsafe–safe 5.99 0.88 0.92 6.02 0.90 0.92
Spears and
Unpeaceful–peaceful
Singh (2004)
Inconvenience–convenient

Unappealing–appealing

Bad–good

Unpleasant–pleasant

Unfavorable–favorable

Unlikeable–likable

Cognitive attitude This apartment has up‐to‐date equipment 5.40 0.91 0.78 5.79 0.93 0.83
Han et al. (2010)
Physical facilities are visually appealing

The appearance of the physical facilities is in line with other

apartments

This apartment is a good place for the price of rent

Living in this apartment is something that I would enjoy

Behavioral intention I'm willing to stay at this apartment 5.45 1.01 0.73 5.77 1.08 0.81
Han et al. (2010)
I'm willing to visit this apartment

A trip to this house would be a lot of fun

Telepresence When the video ended, I felt like I came back to the “real world” after 4.25 1.16 0.77 4.36 1.13 0.77
Kim and a journey
Biocca (1997)
During the video, I felt I was in the world the virtual reality created

During the video, I never forgot that I was in the middle of an

experimenta

During the video, my body was in the room, but my mind was inside
the world created by VR

During the video, the VR‐generated world was more real or present
for me compared to the “real world

The VR‐generated world seemed to me only “something I saw”

rather than “somewhere I visited”a

During the VR experience, my mind was in the room, not in the world
created by virtual realitya

Transportation I could easily picture the events in it taking place 4.16 0.88 0.74 4.83 0.88 0.70
Green and
Activity taking place in the room was on my mind
Brock (2000)
I was mentally involved in the voiceover while listening to it

I found it easy to put it out of my minda

I want to meet the girl who introduced me to this place

Listening to this girl's introduction makes me feel pleasant

I found my mind wandering while watching the videoa

The events described in the voiceover are relevant to my

everyday life

I had vivid imagery of the characters while I was watching this video

Immersion tendency Do you easily become entirely involved in films or TV shows/ n.a n.a n.a 5.32 1.05 0.88
Shin (2018) dramas?
CHEN AND YAO | 533

TABLE 2 (Continued)

Study 1 Study 2
Scales Items M SD Cronbach's α M SD Cronbach's α
Do you ever become so absorbed in a TV program or visuals that
people have problems getting your attention?

How mentally alert do you feel at the present time?

Do you ever become so involved in a film that you are not aware of
things happening around you?

How often do you find yourself closely identifying with the

characters in a storyline?

Do you ever become so immersed in a video game that it is as if you

are inside the game rather than moving a joystick and watching
the screen?

Do you normally enjoy the virtual environment experience?

When you experience virtual games, how completely are all of your
senses engaged?

How much do the visual aspects of the virtual environment

involve you?

How much do the auditory aspects of the virtual environment

involve you?

Abbreviation: VR, virtual reality.

a
Items that are reverse coded.

TABLE 3 Correlation table of dependent variables outcomes. We also explored the roles of two underlying me-

Recall Affective Cognitive Behavioral chanisms, telepresence and transportation. Our findings show that
immersive VR elicited positive behavioral intention towards a
Recall 1.00 0.07 0.04 0.05
promoted rental property but hindered the recall of specific details
Affective attitude 0.07 1.00 0.62 0.52
about the apartment. Telepresence mediated the negative effect
Cognitive attitude 0.04 0.62 1.00 0.58 on memory performance. Although the narrative message and
Behavioral intention 0.05 0.52 0.58 1.00 transportation did not affect memory, attitude, and intention, im-
mersive VR combined with a narrative voiceover led to the poorest
memory performance, suggesting a telepresence‐transportation
telepresence did not mediate the effects of VR immersion on affec- additive effect.
tive attitude (B = 0.04, SE = 0.10, p > 0.05, CI = [−0.17, 0.24]), cogni-
tive attitude (B = 0.03, SE = 0.12, p > 0.05, CI = [−0.21, 0.28]), and
behavioral intention (B = −0.02, SE = 0.10, p > 0.05, CI = [−0.19, 8 | STU DY 2
0.22]). H2b–d were rejected.
We then investigated whether transportation mediated the ef- Immersive VR and 360° videos can elicit feelings of telepresence as
fects of narrative voiceover on a user's recall, attitude, and behavioral well as influence decision‐making processes (Cowan et al., 2021; Jang
intention. The results show that transportation did not mediate the et al., 2019; Tsai et al., 2020). Although high‐end VR gears induce
direct effects of the narrative message on recall (B = 0.08, SE = 0.09, more immersive experiences through heightened telepresence
p > 0.05, CI = [−0.04, 0.30]), affective attitude (B = 0.07, SE = 0.05, (Cummings & Bailenson, 2016), they can be expensive and cumber-
CI = [−0.00, 0.17]), cognitive attitude (B = −0.01, SE = 0.03, CI = some. Therefore, 360° videos are widely adopted in the marketing
[−0.07, 0.06]), or behavioral intention (B = 0.08, SE =0.05, CI = [−0.00, context as an effective alternative. Simulated 3D virtual marketing
0.19]). H4a–c were rejected. content can be viewed on a regular computer screen and is readily
accessible to average consumers for everyday use. We focus on this
form of virtual marketing in Study 2 to increase the external validity
7.4 | Discussion of the findings from Study 1 and further investigate the roles of
telepresence and transportation in a more natural virtual marketing
Study 1 investigated the impact of VR immersion and narrative context. We used the same set of stimulus materials as in Study 1.
voiceover on users' cognitive performances and persuasive In an online experiment, participants viewed the 3D virtual property
534 | CHEN AND YAO

T A B L E 4 Means and standard

Narrative Descriptive Total
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD deviation by conditions for memory,
affective attitude, cognitive attitude, and
Recall VR 2.00 1.56 2.79 1.99 2.40 1.82
behavioral intention
360° video 3.58 1.43 3.14 1.77 3.37 1.60

Total 2.82 1.68 2.97 1.87 2.89 1.77

Affective attitude VR 5.99 1.07 6.28 0.53 6.13 0.85

360° video 5.84 0.91 5.88 0.87 5.86 0.89

Total 5.91 0.99 6.08 0.74 6.00 0.88

Cognitive attitude VR 5.52 1.08 5.59 0.79 5.55 0.93

360° video 5.35 0.86 5.16 0.86 5.26 0.86

Total 5.43 0.97 5.37 0.84 5.40 0.91

Behavioral intention VR 5.64 1.10 5.79 0.84 5.72 0.97

360° video 5.04 0.97 5.33 0.97 5.18 0.98

Total 5.33 1.07 5.56 0.93 5.45 1.01

Abbreviation: VR, virtual reality.

shown that these immersive tendencies could influence users' im-

mersive experiences and persuasion outcomes (Shin et al., 2020).
Previous research has also found that a user's media use experience
may lead to habituation (Saywer, 1981) and reduce the impact of
novel media stimuli (Yim et al., 2017). To account for these effects,
we include two additional variables—immersive tendency and media
experience—as controls.

8.1 | Methods

8.1.1 | Participants

A sample of 336 English‐speaking MTurk workers living in the United

F I G U R E 1 The interaction between immersive virtual reality
(coded as 1) versus 360° video (coded as 0) on a flat screen and
narrative (coded as 1) versus descriptive voiceover (coded as 0) on
memory (recall)
tour in 360° video on their computers. They were randomly assigned
to view the virtual tour with either the narrative or descriptive voi-
ceover. We then measured their subjective feelings of telepresence
and transportation.
We sought to retest H3 and H4 in the second study. In addition,
because we found that immersive VR combined with a narrative
voiceover led to the poorest memory performance in Study 1, we
wanted to examine the telepresence‐transportation additive effect.
Thus, we hypothesized that:
H5: Telepresence will negatively impact the effect of transpor-
tation on users' recall performances.
Finally, Shin and Biocca (2018) noted the importance of users'
tendencies toward immersion in media content. A recent study has
States was recruited to participate in Study 2. A priori power analysis
suggested that a sample of 244 would provide sufficient power
(greater than 80%) to detect differences tested at a false positive rate
of 5%. Participants received financial incentives for their participa-
tion. Seventy‐four participants who failed an attention check ques-
tion or dropped out before completing the study were excluded from
the analysis; thus, the final dataset contained 262 participants (149
males, 113 females; age [mean] = 40.44; age [SD] = 13.53).
8.1.2 | Measures
Measures of self‐reported telepresence, transportation, recall, af-
fective and cognitive attitudes, and behavioral intention were kept
the same as in Study 1. We used Shin and Biocca's (2018) immersive
tendency scale in this study (10 items). Participants were asked to
evaluate their tendency to become immersed in the virtual worlds
using a 7‐point rating on items such as “When you experience virtual
games, how completely are all of your senses engaged?” (M = 5.32,
CHEN AND YAO | 535

T A B L E 5 Direct effect and interaction effect of immersive (IM) virtual reality and message (MS) voiceover on memory, affective attitude,
cognitive attitude, and behavioral intention

Memory Affective attitude Cognitive attitude Behavioral intention

Source df F p df F p df F p df F p
IM 1 9.65** 0.00 1 2.81 0.09 1 3.16 0.08 1 8.73** 0.00

MS 1 0.28 0.58 1 1.03 0.31 1 0.14 0.71 1 1.50 0.22

IM × MS 1 3.91* 0.05 1 0.59 0.44 1 0.61 0.44 1 0.15 0.69

Error (mean square) 114 (2.88) 114 (0.76) 114 (0.81) 114 (0.95)

Note: Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square errors.

**p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

F I G U R E 2 The indirect effect of

perceptual immersion on user memory via
telepresence: A mediation analysis. CI,
confidence interval; VR, virtual reality

FIGURE 3 Results of the moderated mediation model in Study 2

SD = 1.05, α = 0.88). Previous media experience was measured by
one question, “How often have you watched 360‐degree videos?”
(1 = never to 5 = always; M = 2.87, SD = 1.25).
8.2 | Results
two factors: immersive tendency and past media experience. We eval-
uated the significance of the direct and indirect effects with 5000
bootstrap samples to create bias‐corrected 95% CIs. (Figure 3 displays
the model and the combined results of this analysis; Figure 4 illustrates
the effects of the interaction between telepresence and transportation
on memory, attitudes, and behavioral intention.)

We performed a series of moderated mediation models using PROCESS

(Hayes, 2018; Model 14) to examine the direct effect of narrative voi- 8.2.1 | Direct effect of narrative voiceover
ceover (H3), the mediation effect of transportation (H4), and the mod-
erating effect of telepresence (on the effect of transportation: Path b; The conditional indirect model showed that narrative voiceover did
H5) on users' cognitive and persuasive outcomes. We also controlled not have a direct effect on recall, affective attitude, cognitive
536 | CHEN AND YAO

FIGURE 4 Interaction between telepresence and transportation on memory, affective, cognitive attitude, and behavioral intention

attitude, or behavioral intention. (Recall: B = 0.16, SE = 0.17, CI =
[−0.18, 0.49]; affective attitude: B = .06, SE = .10, CI = [−0.14, 0.26];
Cognitive attitude: B = 0.13, SE =0.10, CI = [−0.07, 0.33]; behavioral
Intention: B = .11, SE = .12, CI = [−0.12, 0.35].) This result is consistent
with findings from Study 1. H3a–d were not supported.
8.2.2 | Effect of transportation and telepresence on
cognitive performance
Recall: Representing users' recall as an outcome, the results showed a
full moderated mediation effect (index = −0.04, SE =0.02, CI = [−0.10,
−0.01]). The interaction effect of telepresence and transportation on
recall was significant (B = −0.16, SE =0.07, CI = [−0.29, −0.03]), in-
dicating that the mediation (i.e., the indirect effect of narrative voi-
ceover on a user's recall through transportation) was moderated by
the level of telepresence. The conditional indirect effects further
showed that the indirect positive effect of narrative voiceover on
users' recall scores through transportation was significant only when
users had lower levels of telepresence (B =0.29, SE =0.14, CI = [0.01,
0.58]). As levels of telepresence increased, users' cognitive perfor-
mances decreased, and the mediation role of transportation dis-
appeared (medium telepresence: B = 0.13, SE = 0.14, CI = [−0.14,
0.40]; high: B = −0.03, SE = 0.16, CI = [−0.35, 0.29]). Therefore, the
proposed moderated mediation by H4a and H5 has supported:
transportation mediated the effect of narrative voiceover on users'
recall score differences only when users had low levels of
CHEN AND YAO
telepresence. Telepresence negatively impacted the indirect positive
effect of narrative voiceover on recall through transportation.
8.2.4 | Effects of transportation and telepresence on
persuasive outcomes
Affective attitude: Using affective attitude as an outcome, we found a
full moderated mediation effect (index = 0.03, SE = 0.01, CI = [0.04,
0.06]). Transportation mediated the positive relationship between
narrative voiceover and affective attitude on all levels of tele-
presence (low telepresence: B = 0.19, SE = 0.08, CI = [0.03, 0.36];
medium: B = 0.31, SE = 0.08, CI = [0.15, 0.47]; high: B = 0.43, SE =
0.10, CI = [0.24, 0.61]). In addition, the result showed that the in-
teraction effect of telepresence and transportation on affective re-
sponses was significant (B = 0.12, SE = 0.04, CI = [0.04, 0.19]). As
levels of telepresence increased, users' affective attitudes also in-
creased. Therefore, the proposed mediation model by H4b was
supported for affective attitude. The result also showed that tele-
presence boosted the indirect positive effect of narrative voiceover
on affective attitude through transportation.
Cognitive attitude: Our model also found a full moderated mediation
effect of transportation on cognitive attitude (index = 0.03, SE = 0.02,
CI = [0.00, 0.06]). Transportation mediated the relationship between
narrative voiceover and cognitive attitude on all levels of tele-
presence (low telepresence: B = 0.22, SE = .08, CI = [0.05, 0.39];
medium: B = 0.31, SE = 0.08, CI = [0.15, 0.47]; high: B = 0.41, SE =
0.10, CI = [0.22, 0.59]). In addition, the result showed that the in-
teraction effect of telepresence and transportation on cognitive re-
sponses was significant (B =0.09, SE = 0.04, CI = [0.02, 0.17]). As
levels of telepresence increased, users' cognitive attitudes also in-
creased. Therefore, the proposed mediation model by H4c was
supported for cognitive attitude. Telepresence boosted the indirect
positive effect of narrative voiceover on cognitive attitude through
transportation.
Behavioral intention: The moderated mediation model was not a good
fit for predicting users' behavioral intentions (index = 0.02, SE = 0.02,
CI = [−0.02, 0.06]). However, transportation mediated the positive
relationship between narrative voiceover and cognitive attitude on all
levels of telepresence (low telepresence: B = 0.20, SE = 0.10, CI =
[0.00, 0.40]; medium: B = 0.29, SE = 0.10, CI = [0.09, 0.48]; high:
B = 0.37, SE =0.11, CI = [0.14, 0.59]). Although the results showed a
trend that the telepresence by transportation interaction might have
led to more positive behavioral intention, the effect was not statis-
tically significant (B = 0.08, SE = 0.05, t = 1.82, p =0.07).
Across four moderated mediated models, users' immersive ten-
dencies were positively correlated to their affective attitudes
(B = 0.18, SE = 0.06, CI = [0.06, 0.30]), cognitive attitude (B = 0.24,
SE = 0.06, CI = [0.12, 0.36]), and behavioral intention (B =0.30,
SE =0.07, CI = [0.16, 0.45]). Users' past media experiences were po-
sitively correlated to their cognitive performances (B =0.43, SE =0.10,
CI = [0.25, 0.62]).
| 537
8.3 | Discussion
Study 2 replicated key findings from Study 1. For example, Study 1
found that immersive VR combined with a narrative voiceover led to
the poorest memory performance. Study 2 further indicated that
elevated telepresence and transportation negatively impact users'
memories of the presented content. However, the same combination
of telepresence and transportation led to more positive affective and
cognitive attitudes.
In addition, Study 2 revealed that the positive effects of the
narrative voiceover on affective attitude, cognitive attitude, and be-
havioral intention work through users' increased feelings of trans-
portation. Transportation only mediated the effect of the narrative
voiceover on a user's recall when that user had a lower level of
telepresence. We did not find this effect in Study 1, likely because of
the low power in the analysis.
The two individual difference variables we added in Study 2,
immersive tendency and previous experience, were positively asso-
ciated with the outcome variables. Previous media use was positively
associated with memory performance. Users' immersion tendencies
were positively associated with their affective attitudes, cognitive
attitudes, and behavioral intentions. The consistent findings point to
avenues for future research.
9 | GE NERAL DISC US SION
Due to the Covid‐19 pandemic and metaverse construction, immersive
technologies such as VR and 360° videos will play an increasingly
important role in providing consumers with remote product experi-
ences (Gibbons, 2020; Newton, 2021; Walk‐Morris, 2020). Our studies
examined the direct, indirect, and interaction effects of VR‐induced
telepresence and narrative‐induced transportation on a user's memory
performance, attitude, and behavioral intention after viewing a virtual
property tour. This study extends the existing literature on virtual
marketing and contributes to theoretical discussions on telepresence
and transportation.
The two studies investigated the direct effects of immersion VR
and narrative evidence, and the indirect effects of telepresence and
transportation, on users' cognitive performances and persuasion
outcomes. Study 1 used a college sample and compared high per-
ceptual immersive VR with its low immersive counterpart, a 360°
video. Study 2 validated and expanded on findings from Study 1 with
a larger and more diverse sample. From two studies, we found that a
combination of enhanced telepresence and heightened transporta-
tion led to the lowest recall rate of details presented in the marketing
content. The same combination of telepresence and transportation
also had a positive effect on attitude and behavioral intention.
Telepresence played a large role in users' memory performances
but had a little direct impact on participants' attitudes and behavioral
intentions. In Study 1, telepresence mediated the negative effect of
high perceptual immersive VR technology on memory. In Study 2,
telepresence reduced the positive indirect effect of transportation on
538 | CHEN
memory, such that elevated telepresence and transportation led to
the lowest recall rate. On the other hand, transportation significantly
impacted attitude and behavioral intention but had little direct in-
fluence on memory performance. Study 2 demonstrated that trans-
portation fully explained the positive effect of the narrative voiceover
on participants' affective and cognitive attitudes and their behavioral
intentions to visit the promoted property. However, the mediation
effect of transportation on recall is conditional on a low level of
telepresence.
9.1 | Theoretical implications
Our research confirms the importance of telepresence and transpor-
tation in immersive virtual experiences. Conceptually, these two
constructs overlap in multiple ways. At the process level, both tele-
presence and transportation emphasize “attention shift” and “mental
model construction” of the presented content (Green, 2004;
Ijsselsteijn & Riva, 2003; Lee, 2004; Shin, 2019; Wirth et al., 2007). As
outcomes, they both “immerse” users in media content (Cummings &
Bailenson, 2016; Gerrig, 2019). However, previous studies have failed
to specify the differences between the two processes. Filling this gap,
our studies have shown that the influence of telepresence is primarily
cognitive, while the effects of transportation tend to be affective and
attitudinal.
Our findings are consistent with several similar studies on VR
(Bailey et al., 2012; Shen et al., 2019; Wang & Yao, 2020) in which
heightened immersion and telepresence lead to a decrease in cog-
nitive performance. Collectively, these studies suggest that the in-
fluence of telepresence is primarily cognitive. As media users become
deeply immersed in the 3D virtual space, the perceptual inputs from
the virtual world become more abundant and vivid, and the cognitive
resources needed to process spatial information might also increase
(Parong et al., 2020). Due to this increase, such enhanced tele-
presence might force VR viewers to prioritize processing other in-
formation over encoding the details of concrete objects, which in
turn could lead to a decrease in memory performance.
This speculation is consistent with previous conceptualizations of
telepresence. Researchers agree that experiencing telepresence in-
volves cognitive processes that integrate spatial information and
form a mental model of the space (Lee, 2004; Thon, 2008; Wirth
et al., 2007). For instance, the two‐step model (Wirth et al., 2007)
described telepresence as processing spatial cues from the environ-
ment for a mental model of self‐location within the space. Thon
(2008) denoted telepresence as a process in which attention shifts to
the virtual space to construct a mental model of it. More direct
empirical evidence comes from Parong et al. (2020), who found
that telepresence was positively associated with spatial learning
outcomes.
Consistent with previous research, our study found that trans-
portation explained the positive persuasive effects of a narrative
voiceover on participants' affective and cognitive attitudes and be-
havioral intentions. We speculate that participants who were
AND YAO
transported by the narration might have had fewer critical thoughts
about the information presented in the virtual property tour and
subsequently developed strong story‐consistent attitudes. When
people feel immersed in a story or narrative, they shift their attention
from the environment to the narrative by actively constructing
mental representatives of characters and potential conflicts (Green &
Brock, 2000) and becoming emotionally attached to the characters
(Sestir & Green, 2010).
In our research, when telepresence and transportation were both
elevated, participants' memory performances decreased the most,
yet they formed the most positive attitudes and behavioral intentions
toward the stimuli. This finding points to a possible overload of
cognitive resources, a selective information process that occurs when
provided information exceeds a user's processing capacity (Fisher,
Huskey, et al., 2018; Fisher, Keene, et al., 2018; Lang, 2000). Our
results suggest that cognitive overload might be a double‐edged
sword for cognition and persuasion in the VR environment; the im-
mersive experience and narrative might have exceeded participants'
cognitive capacity and forced them to forego detailed information
processing to form a holistic evaluation of the presented content.
9.2 | Practical implications
Our research has several practical implications for media interaction
design, content strategy, and human‐centered experience. The find-
ings from our two studies recommend that content developers of
virtual marketing carefully match the user experience with the con-
tent strategy. For example, creating a deeply immersive virtual ex-
perience with a vivid narrative would be the most effective strategy
when the marketing goal is attitude formation and behavioral change.
However, if the goal is to increase product‐related memory and
knowledge among consumers, immersive VR may not be the best
choice. Virtual marketing cannot rely solely on the latest and most
powerful technologies. Marketers need to find an intricate balance
between the technology, content, and marketing objectives to
achieve the optimal strategy.
Findings from our second study also highlight the importance of
users' individual differences in virtual marketing. The impacts of im-
mersive technologies are not uniform; they are affected by disposi-
tions and previous experiences. While advanced VR gears may bring
the most vivid media content viewing experience, engaging content
delivered via familiar mediums may be just as, if not more, effective.
10 | CO NCL US I ON
Social distancing during the pandemic and industries' investments in
metaverse have offered unique challenges and opportunities for
branding through immersive VR, presenting new possibilities for op-
timizing advertisers' branding efficiencies. Within this context, our
research contributes to work on marketing and consumer behavior
by examining the conceptual similarities and differences between
CHEN AND YAO
telepresence and transportation and exploring the interactions be-
tween these two processes in the confines of virtual marketing. Our
studies identified the cognitive role of telepresence and the persua-
sive role of transportation. Telepresence mediated the negative ef-
fect of immersive VR on users’ cognitive performance and led to a
reduced recall of marketing content. A stronger feeling of transpor-
tation further hampers memory. On the other hand, transportation
explained the positive effect of narrative voiceover on affective,
cognitive, and behavioral intentions. A stronger feeling of tele-
presence boosts these effects and leads to better persuasive out-
comes. Further, Study 2 controlled for two user traits, immersion
tendency and past media experience. The positive correlations be-
tween immersion tendency and persuasion outcomes and between
past media experience and cognitive responses highlight the possible
active role of users.
11 | LIMIT ATION S AND FU TU RE
RESEARCH
The current research has several limitations. For example, Study 2 in-
cluded two human traits as control variables. However, consistent
correlations highlight the active role of users in this participatory virtual
experience. This finding also falls in line with recent conceptual devel-
opment of immersion that suggests that media quality, user motivation,
and issue awareness jointly influence media effectiveness (Shin &
Biocca, 2018). Future research could focus on identifying different roles
of user traits (i.e., immersive tendency, novelty; Shin, 2019).
Additionally, the research showed that increased telepresence
led to a decreased recall of the presented content. This finding
suggests that telepresence as a cognitive process prioritizes other
information processing over the encoding of concrete objects in a
complex virtual environment. We speculate that an increase in de-
mand for cognitive resources to process spatial cues in telepresence
might have negatively impacted information retention and recall.
However, we did not have the data to empirically test this effect in
the present research. Future studies should further investigate this
correlation by comparing recall of content items in the presented
environment against spacial memory.
Finally, Study 2 was conducted as an online experiment on
MTurk. A few participants failed the attention check questions and
were therefore removed from the current study. The drop‐out rate
suggests that online experiments may involve more sampling issues
than controlled laboratory experiments. However, we tightly mana-
ged the inattention issue and only included participants who passed
both attention check questions, thus reducing the risk to internal
validity but adding merit to external validity. Replicating the results
from the controlled laboratory experiments in Study 1 with an online
population, Study 2 presented robust findings with higher general-
izability and advanced theories in immersive virtual marketing.
CO NFL I CT OF INTERES T S
The authors declare that there are no conflict of interests.
| 539
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The data that support the findings of this study are available on
request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly
available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.
ORC I D
Chen Chen http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1013-6932
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APPENDIX
1.1 | DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY
We conducted a heterotrait–monotrait ratio of correlation (HTMT)
analysis to assess the discriminant validity of the two latent variables,
telepresence, and transportation (Henseler et al., 2015). The HTMT
measures similarities between latent variables. The results revealed
an HTMT value of 0.24 which implies that the HTMT criterion did not
detect collinearity problems between telepresence and transporta-
tion, and that these two variables are different from each other.
1.2 | ATTENDANCE CHECK QUESTION
Throughout the questionnaire, the participants completed two at-
tendance check questions. An example of the attention check
question is as follows.
Instruction: For the following question, please check strongly
disagree.
I was mentally involved in this experiment:
Strongly Disagree_Somewhat Disagree_Slightly Disagree_Neutral_
Slightly Agree_Somewhat Agree_Strongly Agree.