in, Cul RinellejEvans: (Editor) Christelle Ekron Elbie Oosthuizen Elsabé Taljard Heather Erasmus Sakkie Prinsloo Van Schaik PUBLISHERSContents Editor. . Contributors. About the cover . . PART 1 THEORETICAL INTRODUCTION: SOCIAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL COMMUNICATION Chapter 1 Theoretical foundation of communication skills for the professional teacher............+++++ Heather Erasmus, Rinelle Evans & Sakkie Prinsloo LI Introduction... Peete cnr se vetiee 1.2. Defining and characterising communication ....... 1.3 Communication models . . 1.4. Elements of communication . 1.5. More barriers to communication . 1 Frames of reference 2 Credibility. 3 Selective perception. . . 1.5.4 Cultural and semantic barriers. 1.5.5 Attitudes and dispositions 1.6 Different modes of communication . 1.6.1 Non-verbal communication. 1.6.2 Verbal communication: oral. . 1.6.3 Verbal communication: aural .. . 1.6.4 Verbal communication: written . 1.6.5 Multimodal electronic communication ........ 1.7 The dynamic pathways and directional flow of messages 1.7.1 Internal communication in schools . 1.7.2. External communication in schools . 1.7.3 Directional flow of messages in schools . 1.8 Summary .. Chapter 2 Communication skills for the classroom... . 35 Rinelle Evans, Christelle Ekron & Sakkie Prinsloo 2.1 Introduction .....-+++ : . +36 37 2.2 Definition of instructional communication... 2.3. Difference between instructional communication and social communication 38 eee) 2.3.1 Purpose. . -2.3.2 Context..--+ ++ 2.3.3. Rules or procedures 2.3.4 Time ..++eeees 2.3.5 Power relations . « 2.3.6 Language skills 2.4 Application of instructional 2.4.1. Proficiency in the lang 2.4.2 Teacher credibility. . . 2.4.3 Teacher clarity... 2.4.4 Teacher immediacy . 2.4.5. Phatic communication 2.4.6 Giving instructions 2.4.7 Questioning skills 2.4.8 Empathetic listening a 2.4.9 Giving feedback/prai 2.4.10 Behaviour management... « 2.4.11 Negotiating and enlisting cooperation - 2.4.12 Physical and personal space «- 2.4.13 Social media . 2.4.14 Minimising noise 2.4.15 Reflection - 2.5 Summary .. communication skills in classroom contexts juage of instruction. «6.6... s an instructional skill... ing/motivating leamers.. «+++ fencoura Chapter 3 Using your voice safely ....- Elbie Oosthuizen 3.1 Introduction 3.2. Your voice and your teaching career « 3.2.1 Vocal loading - . : 3.2.2 Environmental factors . 2.3 Healthy issues... 3.3. Voice problems . . 3.3.1 Working definition of a voice problem... 3.3.2 Common complaints from teachers 3.3.3 Why wait so long? .... 3.4. The phonatory system. 3.4.1 Optimal body integration. 3.4.2 How do these “out-of-alignment” positions affect 3.5 How does the voice work? on 3.5.1 Anatomy and function of the larynx. 3.5.2 Hormonal changes: puberty, menstruation and ageing 3.5.3 Voice development ..... 3.6 Vocal hygiene . 3.7 Conclusion .. viiPART 2 THE MULTILINGUAL CLASSROOM: LANGUAGE AND CULTURE Chapter 4 Explaining the cultural diversity of the South African Cease OE ER sane seen eeee +99 Rinelle Evans 4.1 Introduction............ seeee eneesneneeanane 100 4.2 Diversity as manifest in South African classrooms . . eae 4.2.1 Diversity: definitions and characteristics ween eee 102 4.2.2 Other concepts related to diversity. en ~ 105 4.2.3 Why is there such diversity in our classrooms? .... . . -109 4.3. Why English currently dominates .......... ace 4.4 Managing diversity in the classroom .. . . oe 112 4.5 Conclusion . . fa 116 Chapter 5 Explaining the linguistic diversity of the South African classroom... .. a ‘i see 119 Elsabé Taljard 5.1 Introduction....... 5.2 Languages of the world. 5.3 Languages of Africa. . . 5.4. Languages of South Africa . 5.5. The current linguistic landscape in South Affica . 5.6 The linguistic history of South Africa . 5.7 Reasons for language diversity. . .. . 5.8 Braille......... 5.9 Sign language ... 5.10 Conclusion . Chapter 6 Understanding social spaces and cultural practices... Rinelle Evans 6.1 Introduction . 6.2 Social spaces. . 6.2.1 First space 6.2.2 Second space. 6.2.3 Third space cea 6.3 Some cultural and social practices. 6.3.1 Significance of naming. . 6.3.2 Greetings. 6.3.3 Proxemics 6.3.4 Touching 6.3.5 Attire and adomment . 6.3.6 Some occasions to celebrate. 6.3.7 Absenteeism . 6.4 Conclusion Bibliography A 5 5 aTheoretical introduction: Social and instructional communicationTheoretical foundation of communication skills for the professional teacher musaRing ntaatelaed Be SakKielPrinsloo; OBJECTIVES ‘ter studying this chapter you should be able to * use argon and concepts associated with communication appropriately + describe how interpersonal communication takes place in society + define effective communication * explain the key elements of the communication process + identity barters to effective communication and how to minimise their effect + describe the different types and modes of communication used in an orga ‘exemplify effective use of the four basic communicative skils ‘© discuss the merits and appropriate use of multimodal electronic communication + explain the dynamic pathways and directional flow of messages used in an organisation. tion KEY TERMS Barriers These are physical or psychological obstacles that hinder the messages between the sender and the recipient. They may result in dramatic differences between what the sender wanted to say and what the recipient understands (also see noise). Behavioural response This is a cognitive or physical reaction by the recipient of a message and ‘could involve thinking, speaking, listening, writing, or perceiving, Channel A sensory route along which a message is conveyed; visual or auditory being the pri- mary communication carriers. Context Spatial and relational factors that determine where, how and with whom one com- ‘municates about a certain topic. Credibility Quality of deserving to be believed and trusted. Decoding This is the process by which received messages are converted into understandable information. In all interpersonal communication the effectiveness lies mainly in the degree to which the recipient's decoding and the sender's encoding of the message correspond. Encoding The message is systematically “translated” into a set of symbols which the recipient will understand, ie. sounds (language), figures, pictures, diagrams and gestures, Episode A short part of a larger communicative event; has a definite beginning and end Feedback This is the process by which the recipient takes on the role of sender, and the sender that of recipient.CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER Did you know? Afoetusis able to react toits mother’s voice and other external nos- 5 at around 24 weeks, After being bor, a baby interacts with other humans by babbling, caying and squealing until itis able to pro- duce its cst words with meaning at 12 months. By the time a child of seven goes to schoo, he cor she ought to produce atleast 4000 words. Frame of reference or perception It i the set of opinions, atitudes and values fn our fe experience and according to which you judge behaviours, ides, people mig Trans, It becomes the unique window through which You perceive and experience Perception is not necessarily based on facts. ely Kinesics The study of gestures, body movements and facial expressions Medium A format used in communication, e.g. printed, electronic, graphic. ‘Message This isthe information that the sender wants to convey to the recipient. & tas two aspects, Le. the information that the sender conveys, and the recipient’ in tion of it, verread Mode A particular style of communication, e.g. verbal or non-verbal Noise Anything that distorts or interferes with a message. It is not only sound but any ‘or emotional experience that cistracts attention or distorts the meaning of a messageeg.3 stuffy, unpleasant smelling classroom (sensory) or a child who is hungerlupset (ematora psychological) cannot pay attention well (also see barriers). Reciprocity The interaction between two things for mutual benefit. 4-4) INTRODUCTION: Human beings are social creatures, which means we depend on others and thi: only when we are part of a community of other human beings. As humans out primary interaction with other people is verbal and non-verbal communicate we listen to and speak with different people as we exchange ideas and info tion, Often during a conversation we smile, wink, nod and touch others; times we frown or scowl. This social exchange is called communication, unlike animals or insects, we use a particular code called language to do $0. infants we learn the language and culture of our community ~ both verbal non-verbal. As we mature our world expands, and we may learn anothet guage. We certainly become exposed to more people’s ways of 48 and thinking. All this interaction entails communication of som F" ‘As humans, every waking moment we are communicating (0 make ou needs, feelings and attitudes known to each other, This allows 58) build many relationships that will make us feel connected. Over time we have developed ways to connect even bette another socially and have invented machines and technotoeiés © this, In a time Tine we may identify the wheel, the ears the 46 the rocket but alongside these we developed the postal ser telephone and the internet, All these means of communication © Wwe are part of the world in which we live, Distance is n0 10982 drance ~ we Skype, FaceTime or WhatsApp. We can eve? mike selves understood fairly well by using electronic software and oT tions, which translate our words into other languages. This Bf our world shrink ~ not physically but in terms of the eas° it te Wwe can cross borders into unfamiliar contexts and share wil ni previously unknown to us. However, all these inventions 0° art of our “global village” have not necessarily improved with oF |THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER I of our communication, limited misunderstandings or brought about harmonious living, Why not? Well the reason for this is that we have lost sight of the ultimate purpose of communication, what the process entails and the end product that we all want from a communicative episode ~ i.e, understanding and cooperation. Furthermore, our communication has become increasingly voiceless, faceless and asynchronous. In this chapter we are going to unpack the theory related to interpersonal communication 1in a social context and also establish what the implications are for us as human beings if we do not communicate effectively. Understanding the theory will help you as a teacher to develop the necessary skills for not only communicating with colleagues, parents and the management team but also to communicate effectively with your learners, specifically within the instructional domain of the classroom, TASK 1.1 Think for a moment of all the times you communicated with your world today. Who did you speak to? How many people were in your presence when you last spoke to someone? What did you read? Did you leave a note for someone or send a text message? How did you use your other senses? Did you use a device to communicate? 2 DATING DAI YN TET ade) Une Ute As early as the fourth century 8c, the Chinese philosopher, Confucius along with his Greek and Roman counterparts Plato, Aristotle, Cicero and other intellectuals, were already formulating ideas about human communication and its importance as a social skill. Communication takes place when a certain message is conveyed from one person to another. Who says what to whom and how? What is the effect of the message? Such a brief interaction between at least two role players would constitute a communicative episode. Com- munication takes place in every human interaction yet formulating a Precise definition is not easy and depends on the theoretical or philo- sophical stance the writer has. In the previous section, we already alluded to a definition of communication, Can you find it? For the Purpose of this textbook, we base our definition on the Latin root of the word, and consider phrases such as to make known, to share, t0 make common, and community to be a good starting point. Communicating helps us establish and maintain relationships. When we want things done, we ask for help or give instructions, We manage projects or teams, We advertise products in order to make People desire and buy them. And as a teacher we use communication skills to impart information and create in leamers the desire to know and discover. ears Did you know? As long ago as 1962, Marshall McLuhan described how tech- nology would make the world shrink to function like a small village where everyone knew about everyone's business but shared responsibilities. The internet and World Wide Web have permit- ted the instantaneous ‘transmission of informa- tion across vast distan- 2s to an incomparable degree. This has connected people who do not even know each ‘other and who may never meet yet they share the same interests and conceins. Are you part of an online com- munity?101 CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICAT 6 (oa Wy SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER ‘an communication involves at least two indy each other. Tubbs and Moss (1994) descriy. eating meaning between 20 people”. If we a communication we can conclude that jt derstanding that has resulted in a my We can deduce that hum: who wish to say something to interaction as “the process af © the word “meaning” in terms o} both parties having reached an un‘ .cceptable thought or action. : : ve Aixam 1s pomibic © “alk to youmalt by way of Aer aay recalled memories, this silent discourse ~ called intrapersonal communica. ‘Mill be discussed more fully when we talk about being a reflective teacher fy now we focus on interpersonal communication. a TASK 1.2 Consider the following quotation: Kruger and Van Schalkwyk (1997: 58-60) maintain that “Successful com munication happens when the message is understood correctly by the receiver and the feedback given to the sender is acceptable”. Which aspects of our discussion in this section are part of the quote? can you elaborate on this definition? Let’s look at some characteristics of communication. Communication is ic. This means that it changes constantly and no words can ever be repeal exactly the same way as circumstances and role players vary constantly. Andersen (1994) indicates that communication is a complica Fs dependent not only on context but culture as well, which will shape unde ing and response. We use four different communication contests (0 shoe cach has a different purpose and hence a different function that wil dem the dominant style of communication. 4 Ina social environment the emphasis will be on interpersonal cones In the corporate environment it will be on establishing busines negotiating deals, ur pe In a sales environment it will be on ps " suuading others to purchase tet to inerease your sales, : Jn a Jearning environment it will be on extending the Ano onl others and developing their ability to apply it. acing not “The greatest part of your daily ei routine is. spe munic environment so that you can fi ine is spent com r inction in society. At times you 7 Someone face 10 face wh y. face 10 face when you bump into them on campus perbons ei a leamer or lead as eee H Small group discussion, Even asking a question ©" ce munication, Amare’ Sf4PS on the sports fields is considered fe, tes. Social media is propane interpersonal communica s probably aaa ich YOU ably the most common way in which YO ae . 1 are typing in a chat room, talking 0” *™ Your peers, Whether yoTHEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSI watching TV or listening to a radio programme, the other party cannot see you. Finally, you may choose either a verbal mode or non-verbal mode in which to communicate with your audience, As we have seen earlier communication involve: iating a message encoded by a sender to a recipient who then must decode it with the purpose of achieving acceptable understanding on the part of the recipient. The sender establishes this from the feedback from the recipient. Mostly we anticipate a behavioural response from our recipient ~ this may involve many steps such as thinking, talking, listening, observing and ultimately taking action. So the ultimate aim of communication is to elicit a certain behavioural response from the recipient. This response may lead to action by the recipient (for example the effective execution of tasks and assignments in a class situa- tion). So although action is the ultimate result of the communication process, behavioural responses such as thinking, talking, listening and observing are all integral parts of the process that occur before taking action. Shannon and Weaver (as quoted in Smit & Cronjé, 1999: 374) identified the following five elements of the communication cycle: + The sender who initiates the message + The message + The medium through which the message is sent + The recipient who has to react to the message + ‘The feedback provided by the recipient that indica been received. fes that the message has ‘We shall elaborate on these elements in Section 1.4 later, People interested in discovering how things work and what steps are involved have over the years attempted to conceptualise the communicative process by schernatising it in models. Notice how the various models that follow have increased in complexity as technology and research have progressed. ‘We can trace the first model as far back as Aristotle whose representation was linear and monodirectional. ‘This model reflects the importance that orator public and crowd-directed form of communication ~ held in Occasion Figure 1.1 Aristole’s model of communication Once the telephone ~ bidirectional, faccless but synchronous mode of com- munication was invented ~ Shannon and Weaver who worked for Bell Labora- tories drew a more complex model of communication to indicate how this device operated iowaL TEACHER T 1,3 COMMUNICATION MODELS (ais) 7fr 7 CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER Information See ae yTranamtior Receiver Destination © O =, camer O O ae Signal, Recbived Message t signal Noise source Figure 1.2 Shannon's 1948 model of the communication process While Shannon’s early model in Figure 1.2 is a useful one in that it identi the most important components of communication, the sender and receiver their general relationship to one another, it merely indicates the flow of infor mation through a medium, It does, however, raise the issue of noise or bart affecting communication. But a key concept associated with communicati is that destinations provide feedback on the messages they receive so that information sources can adapt their messages. In the interactive model below Schramm elaborates on Shannon’s model with the cybernetic concept of feed= back (Weiner, 1992). Docodor Figure 1.3 Schramm’s 1954 model of communication e int ‘This model schematises the ; communication process showing it 9s th action between two parti sends tothe gation beeen Where the sender sends to the receiver but identities thar nee 8 the feedback message is received and interpreted ation, cheoding and decoding play significant roles in message iM"THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER 1 TASK 1.3 Given what we have already discussed, can you identify aspects Schramm’s model ignores? In what way is there an improvement on how Aristole thought about communication? Now study Berlo’s S-M-C-R (Source Message Channel Receiver) model of communication quoted in Mortensen (1972), which shows just how compli- cated the process really is ~ the sender is the source and the recipient is the receiver but both come with characteristics that will affect the understanding of the message (recall Andersen’s definition) as they encode and decode respective- ly, It also suggests that elements of the message will affect communication and the choice of channel used in the process. These are the five senses that we use as humans. The Berlo model, however, does not acknowledge the feedback loop, which we know is vital for ensuring that the intention of the sender’s mes- sage is fully understood. Encodes Decodes source |——+| message Receiver Communication Content Chea skis ee eh Treaimont Attitudes Sue (Mie Code Knowledge ; Social systom Scnecn) cutao Ea ae Figure 1.4 Berlo's 1960 model of interpersonal communication ‘The final model suggested by Evans (2005) combines the elements of the previous ones but emphasises that a single individual takes on both the roles of sender and receiver during an exchange. She also points out the notions of context and internal barriers, which determine the type and quality of the inter n, ‘This model also suggests that communication is not linear or merely sional but rather a figure of 8 as the message needs first to be cogni 9CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER processed by the receiver before a new message is formulated and retumeg the original source in the form of feedback. Furthermore, if you look closely «| what appears to be inside each person’s head you will notice subtle difference: “This illustrates the unique frame of reference on which we each draw. I is then. slight differences that we overlook or do not take into account which often cage confusion or misunderstanding and then force the sender to rephrase the mey_ sage for clarity and better comprehension ... or an argument ensues! Feedback Message \ gender Recinent EPSO0E Exteal/Intemalnolse Message Feedbeckpath Sender Recipient @s Figure 1.5 Evans's 2005 model of @ communicative cycle 4), ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION, We shall now use this Evans model to explain what interpersonal communis ton entails and elaborate on the key elements involved in a communicative sode. Firstly, any social interaction that takes place verbal or non-verbal - and matter how brief it may be could be called a communicative episode. It!§ be art of a series of communications between people but has a definite beei™ and end and is coherent in isolation, Think about a soap or a radio d= is serialised. You could tune in tonight and still understand what’s hap?" | although there is reference to persons and events that happened previous" whole picture in Figure 1.5 represents a communicative episode. 10 (Ossitee)THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER TASK 1.4 Think of three communicative episodes in which you engaged today. Complete the table below accordingly. ‘Where id it With whom did [What did you | How did you take place? you engage? | speak about? | feel during the episode? Secondly, all communication takes place within a particular context. This gen- erally refers to * the physical space where the communication takes place (e.g. at a shopping mall, in front of the television, at a sports meeting, at a candlelit dinner or in a place of worship, formal/informal) * with whom and the nature of the relationship (e.g. superior, peer, subordin- ate) * the mood of the moment (e.g. stressful, relaxed, fatigued) what the topic is about (e.g. serious, casual, important, informative, enter- taining) * the amount of shared experiences or knowledge. This implies whether pre- vious communication has taken place between the parties or it can mean sharing an understanding of the history of a country (e.g. apartheid in South Africa) and how things operate in a particular culture. These five variables of Place, person, emotions, topic and background determine what the speakers say and how they say it. Although some sources treat the sender and receiver as two separate elements, ‘we choose to describe them together. The people in Figure 1.5 have a split face — suggesting that we cach take on the role of sender and receiver at different times of the episode. The sender is the source of the message. The sender also starts the communication cycle with the aim of conveying or obtaining information, In the learning environment the initiator is usually the teacher. The ideas or inten. tions that the communicator has to convey to the recipient first have to be sys- tematically “translated” into a set of symbols that the recipient will understand, We call this encoding a message. Sounds and letters of the alphabet (language), figures, pictures, diagrams and gestures are symbols used when encoding. As a teacher, you must consider the learner’s previous experience, prior knowledge and linguistic proficiency when you communicate with him or her, i (ora) 11a CHAPTER 1 THEORI 12 cricat founDATIow OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER “Lev’s cum our attention to the other role we play as recipient of a my “The receiver is the participant who is the original focus of, and reason fy, sie Munication episode. The recipient interprets (decodes) the message ng fated and sent by the sender. Decoding is the process by which messages 2) fumed into understandable information by the receiver. The effectiveness oy jnrerpersonal communication depends mainly on the degree t0 which ter ters decoding of the message agrees with the sender's encoding of the same y sage. There are six points to | take into account when decoding messages: 1, What the sender means to say 2. What is actually said 3, What the recipient hears 4. What the recipient thinks he or she hears 5, What the recipient says in reply 6. What the sender thinks the recipiont said. ‘The recipient’s reaction to the message will be influenced by his or her listen skills and ability to read non-verbal signs. Furthermore the way the messes interpreted will be determined by recipient’s frames of reference. The result wil be a feedback message to the sender, which will indicate whether or not thea ginal intention of the sender has been understood. ‘The fourth element is the message. Any information that the sendet to convey verbally or non-verbally, whether by means of language, gestuts figures, is the message. A message has two aspects, i.e. the content (informatit) that the sender encodes and conveys, and the way the recipient receives a decodes and interprets it. The message can be any of the following: the ts of information; a demonstration of skills; sharing experiences or feelings expression of attitudes or perceptions. Linked directly to a message is isin form: feedback. This is the response to the message by the recipient: recipient takes on the role of sender, and the sender that of recipient. There ent reacts to the sender’s message, from which the sender can usually whether the message was properly understood. The faster this feedback place, and the more comprehensive it is, the more effective the communi will be (Kroon, 1991: 374-3755 Smit & Cronjé, 1999: 375-376). The 100 reciprocity must be part of communication — there is a shared respons? Participants through feedback in communication to negotiate appropriate standing of the intended message. This implies that the message sent wes de ae and che — has been favourable for both parties. As @ we aa eee of clear messages and the appropriate e oe a pale or else optimal learning and behavio' ree rae of communication is the medium, The medium E important medium us sender to the recipient. The verbal medium". used to convey I ectures, tlk ings and ont insracnon. Convey Messages and includes lear aly language. Non-verbal media egies upon the ort rote maps, model pecan include actions, gestures and sian es Point and vider ve nya davvings will fall into this category. ims combine elements of verbal and non-¥" wiTHEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER 1 media include any printed text e.g, assignments, worksheets, study notes, assess- ‘ment instruments, posters, learning support material and textbooks. We also need channels or conduits through which to send and receive messages. These are our visual (eyes), auditory (ears), olfactory (nose), tactile (skin) and gusta- tory (taste) senses, which alert us to sensory information. Paralinguistic cues are considered part of non-verbal communication and broadly relate to how words are uttered. The quality of your voice, the volume and speed you use, your intonation and even how you use your breath all convey particular messages about you. Your listener can hear whether you are male or female, a child or an adult. They can gauge how far away you are from them and from which direction your message is coming. They can even judge (sometimes incorrectly) whether you are a large or petite person. We know when someone is angry even if we don’t see them. A whisper also says a great deal more than a shout. However, some people when they are truly annoyed tend to lower their voice rather than raise it. Much about a speaker’s emotions and attitudes can be deduced from how they speak, An intake of breath may show shock or surprise; the exhalations of air in the form of a sigh, moan or yawn all suggest a particular physical and emotional state, The clicking of a tongue may be enough to scold a sensitive child. Do you think laughter can be classed as paralanguage? Paralin- guistic cues may be used intentionally; sometimes for dramatic effect and some- times to hide or fake emotions. Most often they are an unconscious trait of our speech. Paralinguistic cues are limited but not uncommon in written communication. In writing, we generally choose a particular font type, size or colour to carry @ specific message. Emoticons and symbols can also convey how we feel. Do not underestimate the power of paralanguage. As a teacher, you will always be communicating intentionally and unintentionally using the spoken and written word, supplemented by non-verbal and paralinguistic cues, Even Your posture, the distance you stand away from others or your handwriting on the board will be communicating a message. TASK 1.5 Take turns saying the following sentences in different ways: * You're kidding me? * Do you love me? * May | borrow your textbook? * Don't you have any money for me? What the sender intends saying and what the recipient hears may differ dra matically as a result of noise or disturbances in the whole communication epi- sode, his sixth element involves obstacles in the environment, the suitability of modes used and barriers between. the sender and recipient, such as differing language proficiency, attitudes, experiences, intellectual ability and perceptions. ‘Tubbs and Moss (2003: 13) explain that “anything that distorts the information transmitted to the receiver or distracts him or her from receiving it” can be seen Cais) 13 aCHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION S 14 KILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER as a barrier to the communication process, which has the potential t9 cay breakdown in the process. ‘The Evans model emphasises th immediate environment ~ the big spi as well as the internal, personal, psychi splashes behind each person’s head. Disturbances which occur in the environment and hamper the effecting of the selected communication channel are classed as external noise, Phy noises in the environment make it difficult to receive a message, they disrag thoughts and impede concentration as well as prevent the clear receipt oft message. There may also be physical obstacles between the sender and rec, ents e.g. distance between the teacher and learners in a very large classroom the overcrowded position of the learners’ desks. Contributing to this category barriers could be physical problems that the sender or receiver has with regar to the chosen communication channel i.e. reduced physical ability such as poo eyesight or impaired hearing or even sensitivities to colour usage. Such sensory barriers can - to a degree ~ be managed by the sender eg. sending rowdy learners outside the classrooms aerating a hot, stuffy classroom; changing the times of cleaners working in the corridors or lawnmowers in te school grounds; enlarging transparencies or pictures that are too small; movag) leamers to a better physical position in the classroom; or even soundproofing against traffic or aircraft near the school. If these distractions are not addres the sender’s message is hindered from reaching the recipient as intended ard vice versa. Internal noise occurs within the participants’ psychological make-up. Mest ing is determined mostly by factors within us. In the communication procs our internal noise determines our perception and how we perceive a persom determine their credibility in our eyes. Emotional barriers are often not visible the sender and are therefore more difficult to negotiate or change. The sent cannot manage this aspect of the communication as he or she does not i what is happening inside the receiver’s head or heart. Perhaps the learner is hu gry, or upset about not being chosen for a team. Other prejudices and pert? tions may also hinder the message being interpreted effectively This aspeet € discussed fully in the next section. external, physical noise in the participany ash in the middle relates to sensory nq ological noise indicated by the shag By HES UNITS EIA Ue) Lo WU Lo uae bg from the environmental barriers already explained in Section 148 ae ah Pavchologicl barriers manifest during interpersonal communice! at four of the five barriers are all created by, or exist within, the: er of the message, 1.5.1 Frames of reference ‘Your frame of reference has in other words, am a direct effect on your ability to interpret on your encoding and decoding skills. People #2" ©‘THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER T stand each other if they have something in common, This may be illustrated in the rather extreme example of a nomad from the Sahara Desert who is not able to interpret traffic light messages when he visits a big city for the first time. ‘There has to be an overlapping of the sender and receiver’s frame of reference for communication to be successful. The larger the area of overlap, the greater the possibility of effective communication. ‘The smaller the overlap, the greater the chances of ineffective and distorted communication. ‘As human beings despite being unique individuals we are imbued with values from our culture. This, together with our life experiences, forms our personal frame of reference, also called schemara (plural). It is through this lens that we view the world and this plays a vital part in how we function and interact with others. This becomes the way we perceive our world and hence determines the interpretation of any message that is communicated to us. Researchers divide a person’s frame of reference into three main components, through which all information flows (Smit & Cronjé, 1999: 388-390): 1. The cognitive component: this contains all the knowledge that a person has on acertain subject, as well as actual prior experience. 2. The affective component: this relates to feelings, emotions and prejudices that often result in stereotyping others with the consequent “halo” or “horn” effects. 3, The behavioural component: this represents reactions, intentions and habits. ‘These three components all influence each other, and together influence our perceptions of the world and each other. However, perception is subjective and fallible: it is the individual’s interpretation of a situation. According to Albert Mehrabian, Professor Emeritus of Psychology, UCLA, (1971) “People are drawn toward persons and things they like, evaluate highly, and prefer; and they avoid or move away from things they dislike, evaluate negatively, or do not prefer”. 1.5.2 Credibility Credibility has to do with how believable the source is from where the message originates. Some people refer to it as the immediate “gut feeling” they get about a person when meeting them for the first time. Remember what you thought at the beginning of the year when you walked into the lecture hall and saw who your lecturer was? This is called subjective credibility and is based on you opin- ions and feelings. It also relates to how the speaker is dressed and speaks. Object- ive credibility is based on facts and evidence. When you hear that the lecturer, in fact, is a professor with an excellent track record, you may listen more atten- tively even though he or she is wearing a torn pair of jeans and slip-slops. Certifi- cates hanging in the dentist's consulting room somehow make you believe that he or she knows what he or she is doing. Age as well as ability are often strong determiners of whether we accept what the speaker is saying, ‘And to put this into the context of being a teacher McCroskey (1977) explains that “Teacher credibility is a perception on the part of the learner and does not », Although teachers may engage in communica- necessarily correspond to reality”. tive behaviours to promote the dissemination of knowledge they will not be con- Kine) 15CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER sidered credible or competent unless learners perceive them to be 50, Peroe teacher credibility is associated with teaching effectiveness as well as leamer ceptions of their cognitive learning, affective learning and motivation for they hold the teacher responsible. We shall explore teacher credibility more ‘a when discussing instructional communication in Chapter 2, : 1.5.3 Selective perception Above we have seen that external and internal noises create barriers to eoq| munication and as a result of our different frames of reference we see and unde stand messages differently. However, this is complicated further by the fact iy at times as receivers we choose to be selective in our perception, + Selective perception can cause a disruption in the channels of communicaag if the message conflicts with what the recipient already knows, feels or is ued to. An example of this would be the experienced educator who, after may years of teaching successfully, using familiar methods, resists the implemen, tion of new prescribed methods, or may refuse to acknowledge the changeia demographics of the class. + The message may be correctly sent in its entirety, but the recipient concen trates on the part of the message that fits in with his or her frame of referent and that he or she feels most comfortable with or that will serve his orb purpose best. + Fatigue: tired and exhausted people find it difficult to communicate, becats| they cannot concentrate or listen attentively so they take what they can fra] an exchange. + Communication overload is a further reason for selective perception. Typiel reactions of recipients in these cases of selective perception are as follows: ~ Rationalising: the recipient does this so as to give socially acceptable 38) for not accepting the full meaning of the message. He or she looks for loopholes and emphasises them so as to negate the message’s true mean ~ Selective recall: even if the message is correctly received ancl interpre] overload causes the receiver to not be able to recall it when he or ‘she has! react ~ incorrect decoding has happened, and the reaction that follovs then not be exactly what the communicat tor intended. Effective communication really amounts to ensuring that the sender aware of all po ble barriers that could derail the communication episode TASK 1.6 Think how workin literacy class or a pi you communicate, 19 in a school for learners with challenges, oF #° aault reschool infant class will affect how you change th® 16 (omnes)THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER 1 1.5.4 Cultural and semantic barriers Barriers linked to cultural or semantic issues create much difficulty when com- municating. Strong accents, poor enunciation or unfamiliar intonation ~ even highfalutin vocabulary used with a comprehensible accent has negative impact on how well the recipient interprets the message. Not knowing the appropri- ate communication styles e.g. when to bow and how deep to bow in Japan cre- ates uncertainty and poses a potential barrier to fluent communication. Even the way another person may be dressed or the way their hair or head cover- ing is positioned may make you feel hesitant; even negative about interacting freely. Teachers, in particular, must not make assumptions about their leam- ers’ familial background or prior learning. Someone who does not readily join in a conversation or struggles to express themselves is not necessarily ignorant or unintelligent. Their culture may dictate their submissiveness or they may lack proficiency in the language being used by the others. In our multilingual South African society, language is often a barrier, which causes misunderstanding and unnecessary tension between people. Not all cit- izens are equally proficient in the majority languages or English as a common Janguage of wider communication. When speaking to persons from a different culture, the sender should communicate simply and accurately without sound- ing condescending. Using gestures or demonstrating also helps the receiver to comprehend more fully. Feedback will play an important role in establishing Whether meaning has been achieved. The speaker should thus also check for understanding by asking appropriate questions. As receivers, our thoughts about the sender may lead to stereotyping, prejue dice and even discrimination, These matters will be dealt with in depth in Chap- ter 4, ‘The last barrier we discuss generally has to do with the sender and cannot easily be controlled or changed by the receiver. Dit you know? ly ged by The average rate of natural conversational 1.5.5 Attitudes and dispositions speech in most lan- A speaker who appears unapproachable or suffers from poor self-es- 90298518 130 and 140 teem, who is pedantic, flippant, condemning or haughty, will not "45 per minute. Auc- manage to establish a good rapport with others. People who look ‘neers can speak any- down on others and feel themselves to be superior on cultural, fin. Whee between 250 and Guise, economic oF academic grounds do not invite socal inter- ymin action, Persons who speak too loudly or softy also make conversa- yu Sach, Yu tions unpleasant. about 110 words a minute. When ina hurry we peak more rapidly, also when saying some- thing urgent, or when we ae nervous or exci ed. The rate of speech slows down wen we are tired or bored, Communication is impeded if the participants are currently experiencing strong feelings of fear, aggression, anger, frustration or depression. It is also difficult to communicate with people who are tactless, rude, abrupt, curt, bad-tempered, impatient, humourless or shy. Anyone who does not play by the rules of accepted conversation- al etiquette and keeps interrupting or holding the floor is deemed a “vexation to the spirit”, Strained relationships with others need to be resolved before effective communication can take place.CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION 4.6 DIFFERENT) SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER MODES OF COMMUNICATION In our discussion about the communication cycle we identified the channey | the senses as vital in the communication process. Traditionally communic tion has used sight and hearing channels primarily as we tend to use non-yen bal modes involving gestures, facial expressions and body movements, modes use words and even pictures. We speak and hear or write or draw sym. bols we can understand. For this communication we use the terms oral, aun] and written modes, Written modes may also include graphic and tactile medi, ‘As communication techniques have advanced features from each of these mode have been merged to produce multimodal electronic communication episodes like films, interactive television, iPads, ereaders and computer experiences, The implications of these different modes or styles will be explained below. 1.6.1 Non-verbal communication ‘According to Badenhorst (1995: 50), it is not always necessary to use words order to address someone. For example, by ignoring a person, you are com municating just as clearly as if you had shouted. The human body is incre) ibly versatile and can be used to send numerous non-verbal messages. Peopl speak with their bodies: so-called “body language” is used to give directions} show emotions ~ anger, pleasure, boredom, or disagreement. Even your post and the distance you stand away from others will be communicating a m Some non-verbal symbols are used deliberately for emphasis, e.g. you cv remain silent and look at your audience in order to attract their attention; or 04 could wag your finger to convey a threat, A person’s facial expression plays same role. Forms of non-verbal communication may being said verbally, for example: facial expr or the expression in one’s eyes); gestures the way you sit or stand, The study of esies (Du Plooy-Cilliers & Louw, 2003), also be used to accentuate what i sions (a smile, a questioning the way in which the head is hell stures and body language is called 5} TASK 1.7 With a partner, demonstrate the body language of someone who is sh afraid or uncertain, How does this differ from someone who is angvY frustrated? How would you portray excitement and happiness? How woud you recognise a happy or hostile learner? How should a teacher learners that they are welcome in that classroom? Schmuck and Schmuck (1997; 153) point out the importance of 0% communication in the classroom G Te verbal "i Teachers and learners use non-vetb! muni ‘ nication in various ways in class, They nod in agreement, gesture } het explaining oF reprimanding, make eye contact or avoid it bY ook the heads of the leamers, ‘They may change the tone of their yoice 10THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER the topic they are talking about. Their posture and facial expressions also speak loudly. Non-verbal communication is mostly used unconsciously. It is not easily con- tollable and can also be easily misinterpreted. It is often culturally sensitive ~ a gesture in one culture can have an offensive meaning in another. This “silent language” can have various interpretations too ~ for example, blushing can be a sign of pleasure, embarrassment or anger. Furthermore the non-verbal com- munication of influential learners may be copied by other leamers in class and may spread negative behaviour. As a teacher you are always a role model. Your dress code, appearance and mannerisms are all part of the non-verbal communi cation you demonstrate as a professional. All your non-verbal communication is watched closely and you need to know how to use it effectively. It would be unacceptable, for instance, for a school principal to frown while welcoming newly appointed staff members on the first day of the academic year. However non-verbal communication can also facilitate positive relationships in class. By taking in the whole class, and moving the head and eyes around, teachers give learners the assurance that they all are important and that the teacher is aware of all of them and what they are doing. 1.6.2 Verbal communication: oral I Oral communication is by far the most commonly used medium of communication to convey messages or feelings. Verbal communi cation i.e. listening and speaking relies upon the use of words but words rarely get their meaning through the way they are understood and used by people (Du Plooy-Cilliers & Louw, 2003:71), As we said earlier, research has shown that education leaders spend about 80 per cent of their day in verbal conversation (Van der Westhuizen, 1997: 214). This is a simple and quick method for conveying infor- mation — but it is perhaps the most volatile style of communication, which can easily lead to misunderstanding. ‘here are far more opportunities for speaking than writing and reading. All typical humans speak long before they can write or read and some communities® lifestyle never requires them to become liter~ ate in the traditional sense of the word, ‘The advantages of oral com~ munication are that it is a simple and natural medium for hum itself to immediate feedback, and it is 0 communication, It also does not re tone of voice can create an inviting atmosphere Did you know? By 18 months a toddler can speak roughly 50 words but under. stands five times as, ‘many. Children who acquire two languages simultaneously may take longer to speak but have a linguistic advantage because they then speak both codes equally well n beings, It lends wally quicker and cheaper than written ire any tools, Mere words and a friendly Modern technological develop- ments especially the cellular telephone have capitalised upon and promoted this style of communication, Oral communication rian, Information and more egalit often more personal, less formal in be conveyed instantly and in real time. It makes questioning possible, which means that uncertainties can be clarified immediately. "The disadvantages of verbal oral communication are many: + Firstly it is volatile and once something has been said it cannot be withdrawn or easily altered or denied.CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER + Secondly it is a mode that is very sensitive 10 disruptions. Neverthe, physical barriers can be minimised oF eliminated by the sender. The em Pvt gan be made acoustically suitable, the speaker can use technology cae aie ot cay ee ces Oe eS their voices ively by varying their tone, speed, pitch and volume, In Chapter 3, the read fhe importance of using one’s voice as a powerful com will be sensitised to 1 i ’s nunieative tool as poor quality of speech, inaudibility or a too-loud voice aa detracts from the message. «And finally, it is an unsatisfactory method if the information is comple Usually the message is not recorded so the whole communication procs cometinies has to be repeated, which increases the chances that the mest: will be distorted. From these points we can conclude that in oral communication volatility an perception play important roles and the uniqueness of persons must be ce fully considered when encoding the message before it is sent. 4.6.3 Verbal communication: aural Listening is the flipside of speaking. It is more than hearing, which is but a bio} Jogical reaction to sound. Listening, on the other hand, is a mental process Gl ing for thought and reaction. It is the process of hearing, recognising and ine preting or comprehending the spoken language. It is an activity ofthe mind anil not only the ear! Listeners must make an effort to understand what they hear. Listening is an important communication skill and can be developed. co centrates on the decoding part in the communication model. Remember th sender and receiver roles are reversed as the episode develops. It is used in both verbal and non-verbal communication. “There are four stages of listening: 1. Becoming aware of the message via verbal sight channels 2. Understanding the message 3. Evaluating or appraising the message 4, Reacting to the message, known as active listening, ‘This ensures that the receive the message takes part in the discussion constructively and makes @ meatit ful contribution and the initiator of the message receives valuable feedback should contribute to the success of the communication episode. si Being able to listen intently and patiently to what other people have © facilitates interaction among all role players in an oral verbal communi tive episode. Most of us do not listen properly to other people. While they’ talking to-us, we may he thinking about the correct answver to give the SC next task we need to attend to. ‘According to Grant and Borcherds (2011: 45), hearing and listenin& are confused, a Hearing is physical process during which sound is conveyed (© the breil, the ears and you are then able to recognise the combination of sounds Effective listening i 20THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER 1 speech. Listening, on the other hand, is a complex, cognitive practice as you interpret what has been said, ; Egan Gerard (1988) in Grant and Borcherds (2011) once said: You do not listen with just your ears: you listen with your eyes, your sense of touch, you listen by becoming aware of the feelings and emotions that arise within yourself because of this contact with others [...]. You listen with your mind, your heart, your imagination, Empathy plays such an important role in listening that the psychologist Carl Rogers (1961) called listening the “art of love”. It will serve you well in your social life and your career to develop finely-tuned listening skills, as you may spend as much as 45 per cent of your working day in listening activities. Techniques for improving listening skills Practise these techniques during each conversation to hone your listening skills: * Convey empathy: react in such a way as to show empathy, i.e. the ability to put yourself in someone else's place and to understand his or her viewpoint. Examples: “I appreciate your position”; “I think understand. oidyou oa? * Repetition: repetition involves repeating the sender's words pai wich cis in order to show that the information communicated has been , that the most basi understood, or to check the meaning of the mesiage. Example: ‘NaTMemost bei of eae will take me a week to catch up my work." Listener: need to understand and be understood. Thus the best way to understand people isto listen to them. No wonder Epic- tetus once said: “We have two ears ‘and one mouth so that we can listen twice as much as we speak.” * Paraphrase: paraphrasing means restating the speaker's message in your own words. It is used when you want to confirm that you understand the speaker's feelings, or to help the speaker to evaluate his feelings about the matter under discussion, or to help the speaker find a solution to a problem. Example: Speaker: “I know that Jabu is a strong leader and prefect, but he makes very heavy demands on the younger learners." Teacher: "You feel that he makes too many demands on the younger learners.” Summarising statements: these statements sum up much of what has been said, and highlight the key ideas. Use them when you Want to focus the discussion, confirm mutual understanding at a specific Point in the discussion, or get agreement on certain points in order to conclude the discussion. Examples: "As | understand it, you feel that ...": “The point of what you are saying is, therefore, .."; "So we have agreed to the following 1.6.4 Verbal communication: written Written communication in the modem, 21st-century world is the second most ‘mportant medium of communication and is used primarily when there is no (mae) 21CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL F » quNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER face-to-face communication or immediate feedback, Hi ‘een developed like email or other social opportunity fo: oll that have bi new technologies i ; (SMS, WhatsApp, Instagram and Twitter) use the written style but alsy tate iramediate response opportunities, Often senders choose the written ol in order to prevent misunderstanding and to establish a record of the comme! tation episode, Written communication is generally more formal and com than speech. It has a particular structure depending on the genre and mg ter the technical skill of good writing. As electog practice is required to mast fail (email) increasingly replaces formal letters the style has also become mop Formal, However, whenever writings simplicity and clarity are the two ‘mental rules. ‘The advantages «be prepared with forethought and revised where necessary + appear more official or authoritative «communicate a message to a large number of people in different geographi al or inaccessible regions, The 21st-century technology has vastly incre accessibility and the speed with which messages are delivered. + document decisions permanently and keep a record of processes or evens iq furure reference «+ caprure and fix a message if there is a danger that a spoken message <= become so distorted that the original message would be unrecogniseble «+ be read immediately or kept until a more suitable moment and it can also] reread at leisure to enhance understanding when convenient + be duplicated easily so that it may appear simultaneously in a numb: places + communicate large amounts of detailed information and even include #9" ics. + be produced in different formats or sizes to suit challenged readers ¢- Bal of written communication are numerous as text can: era + be translated into different languages + elicit a reply or some form of action more easily + be packaged in a wide range of different formats ~ single sheets, books, mi] zines, newspapers, posters, notices, leaflets, brochures and in electronie al versions, + be used to reinforce an oral presentation - PowerPoint, slides. The disadvantages of written communication are also numerous: + Formulating te takes more time than oral communication. Readers need more time to digest information when itis wet Written text has to be accurate and error-free. Writ i Z i ee work provides no paralinguistic clues for possible emotiv’ which cause misunderstandings to occur more easily for ‘example: itis 8 se make Olhers cr print manvsli, Purkermore, scar spate problematic as ites up a great deal of pact neral generally does not offer an opportunity for instant feedback.THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACKER I Written communication plays an important role in the school and classroom. Here, one thinks about correspondence to the education department, and writ ten messages to staff, parents and learners, In a classroom itis essential that the planning of lessons should be done and accurate written records be kept: + To refer to when checking curriculum coverage + for contingency planning should a teacher be absent * for teacher reflection to improve lessons or for future use. When planning written communication, the following principles should be adhered to if you want your written message to be lucid. * Write in such a way that the entire content focuses on the purpose of the mes- sage (Smelzer & Leonard, 1994: 112-118). Ensure your written communication is faultless, It is i and education leaders to use standard and munications, A badly written letter could d; that of the school, Wherever possible, address the jportant for teachers lawless language in their com- jamage the image of the sender and recipient by name. Choose your words carefully and use simple words rather th hensible ones. As Winston Churchill stated, “Big men use litle words and litle inen nse big words”, Short words that are easily understood are easier to read, and the chances of a misunderstanding between the communicator and the recipient are also reduced, an long incompre- Use words with a concrete meaning rather than ones with an abstract mean- ing, The former are often more specific, while abstract words could result in confusion. Look at the following examples (see Smelzer & Leonard, 1994; 116): Abstract Concrete ‘She was a good lamer. She ataned en 20 per cent average ands reaching he potenti esmemeine Doitby Fay 19 tay 2076, We made a good proft. We made a substantial prof of R10 000 Use words sparingly. Avoid long complicated sentences and definitions Remember a written communication is o ften sent to a person you do not know personally and nothing you write should demean or embarrass them, for example: “Please find enclosed the copies of the receipts, which were issued for your child’s School fes for this year. If, after comparing them to your own calculations, you still feel that you have setled your account, you are welcome to contact me as quickly as Possible.” A better way of putting this would be: “Enclosed are the copies of the receipts for your school fees. Please let me know if the amount does not agree with our records,” Another example: “Your child’s literacy skills are below average.” A better way would be: “TumiCHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER 1 24 + Use the active rather than the passive voice. + Use positive words, which convey courtesy. The difference between pos is struggling with her reading and toriting skills and should be encouraged» ial aloud every day.” and negative wording is not a matter of content, but of emphasis and poin view, Never refer to a person's child in negative terms ~ remember every is a cherished member of a family and even if you have had an adverse expr ence with the child you must always be positive because as a teacher ex, action you take must always be in the best interest of the child. The exampla elow illustrate the difference (see Smelzer & Leonard, 1994: 121), = Negative wording: “Jacques will not be able to get his report tomorrow.” “Tam not available on Thursday 20 May.” “You were wrong when you said that Ms Masowa lost your son’s repon| Jacques was the one who lost it.” — Positive wording: “Jacques will be able to get his report on 21 June.” “T will be available on Friday 21 May.” “As you requested, we looked into the matter of Jacques’ lost report and mt have definitely established that he collected it from Ms Masowa.” Itis often necessary to convince people to work together voluntarily to help ct out a task. This happens in communities as well as in the classroom and int school environment and as a teacher you will be required to motivate perl to cooperate. Smit and Cronjé, (1999: 380) identify following five phase persuasive writing: creating awareness, understanding, persuasion, action reminding. ‘The following is an example of a task that could happen in any schoc! bi remember that a school is always part of the community in which it is Joc} and people from this community should become involved: You may decide, together with the learners, to clean up the untidy sch grounds and to plant indigenous trees. The staff, learners and parent Om munity must be involved and first have to be made aware that there #2 need for a neat, wellared-for school building and grounds, and thet te Possible to create an environment that will positively influence the cut of learning at the school. An understanding of the problem is als0 &", before anyone can be persuaded to take action. All those involved hav" Sore eccken windows, dirty classroom wall, littered schoo! | and that the protien ence, Negatively affect the whole schoo! con are not convened at BElORGS to everyone. If the recipients ofthe Sion takes place wen importance, they will not react positive el the message. It is the be Tecipient participates in the action Ne ier Mae es that the phates ae sane’ Fesponsibilty to structure the mTHEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER 1 Writen communication is not limited to announcements or field trip reports, and media articles. Even the task briefs and examination papers you prepare need to be formulated and worded very carefully _Steve Jobs ~ an Amer- to ensure that the leamers are not baffled and emotionally perturbed ca" entepreneu, when they receive them, Initially, you may discuss an assignment oral- 2d inventor, was the ly but you will probably prepare a printed handout or use the chalk- __Cofounder, chairman, board. You may even screen a PowerPoint to support your presenta- 274 CEO of Apple tion. Twenty-six little squiggles, which we call the alphabet make up [=~ an exceptionally 4 s A successful computer an infinite number of words with meaning! Use them carefully. earerelo yal non Did you know? why they named the 1.6.5 Multimodal electronic communication Apple Compute after a fruit? Well, once when This form of communication is generally associated with technology he was ona diet, he and involves non-verbal, verbal, written and graphic styles and tech- —etyrned from a visit 10 niques ~ increasingly the mode of communication in the 21st century. an apple orchard and Unlike the audiences of Shakespeare’s day, ours is a visual rather thought people would than an auditory culture. Exposure to a variety of media has reduced —_know the name, think lity to listen. Although we do hear a great deal, communica- it non-threatening, and tion has become more visual and pictures or action shots expound far _3ss0¢i ‘more in the papers and adverts than even a clever radio clip does. Although many teachers still use a chalkboard or fiipchart effective- ly, various sophisticated multimedia teaching tools have become affordable and thus more readily available to teachers. Today teachers can share their instru tional message on a large screen using a multimedia DVD or play an audio clip ~ by simply slipping in a disc or clicking on an internet link, The data project- or coupled with an electronic slide show like PowerPoint or Prezzie is another powerful teaching tool that stimulates interest and shares a message both visual ly and aurally. So much that cannot be seen with the naked eye or reached by the ordinary citizen is brought right into the heart of the classroom, ‘This shift in the means we have to communicate necessitates an adaptation of our communicative skills as, in order to send and receive messages effect ively, we need to have well-developed technological, visual, non-verbal, verbal and aural literacy skills. Since the invention of the World Wide Web or internet, this type of communication has effectively made most communication readily ‘nd instantly available as well as fixed it permanently for repeated use, Further- ‘more once any communication episode is digitised, it is recorded, disseminated globally and henceforth belongs to the public domain unless authors have taken. Careful steps to secure it, Even then the likelihood of it being invaded by hackers is real so it is a medium that must be used with due eaution, However, it has Precipitated a knowledge explosion and heralded this century as the information ‘age where information is readily available at the press of a button to a signifi- tly larger number of people, Although it has revolutionised comm ion in terms of availability and access to knowledge and facilitates the ease of sending and receiving messages, the styles it uses conform to most of the principles discussed above. Its reliance upon electronic technology can make it inaccessible to many impoverished or Femote communities. As such it must therefore be seen as one of the commu cation styles and not hamper communication if it is not available. Furthermore(CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL FOUNDA} 26 (ems!) sion oF COMMUNICATION SRILS FORTHE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER while itis a source for teachers and their leamers like the traditional library i redo yor communication ceachers must use it responsibly and wa rooms, This is to add value to effective communication for the bey ae caer leamers and the optimal learning environment they must cee the schools and institutions of leaming. The teacher must remain the a wee of the message and any other medium should enhance this message, become it a | ‘Although using electronic material increases audience interest and anticipation, its primary purpose is to elaborate visually and/or aualy cn content being taught. It ought t0 assist the leamers to understand and recall iy content better. “The box below gives some simple but key design principles to apply when pe} paring an electronic slide show: Design principles for effective electronic slideshows « Keep your presentation short. It is part of your lesson; not the lesson. « Your slides must be readable so keep the text simple, only use phrases not full sentences, + Try to represent as much data visually as possible. «+ Avoid cluttering the slides with too much texture or irrelevant graphs (visual noise), and choose the appropriate font. This will help your mes: sage remain clear and keep it from becoming confusing. + A teaching context is not where you show off your technical skis low the audience - your learners - to focus on the message being delves rather than sorting through all the other “wow” information in the" of vivid movement, colour or sound. The slides can act as your lesson outline but you must elaborate o” te points, not read them. Text (font type and size) 4 + 646 rule: no more than six words across and six sentences dwn: ably no more than 25 words on an entire slide. Sufficient empty space i.e. white space that surround: improves the readability of the text. Choose a non-serif font e.g. Arial/Calibri/Comic sans/Helvetice Use sentence case for headings. Avoid capital letters. * Indent subpoints. Best: 28-36 point in a standard font. Headings can go uP *? may be shadowed andior bold, ‘Avoid a font which places mt og ; each lett: ly to the ne * Align flush lett server eset Use bulleted key words only; omit all unnecessary detail Use one idea per slide, * Check grammar; 5 tenor aeprit®] Use UK (British) spelling as norm.THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKLLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TexCHER 1 Himorort. Design consistency * Layout: most effective in landscape format (horizontal, 3x4 ratio) Place all headings or visuals in the same position on each slide using the same size and font. * Keep the same background colour; | or pause. only change to indicate a new topic Be consistent with the types of transitions, text movement or other ani- mations. Less is more. Colour and sound * Limit visuals to two/three colours detract, * Light text on a dark back: or blue. Avoid “hot” “bleed” or vibrate. Restrict the use of red to numbers showing a deficit. Never use red and green together as viewers who are colour blind will not be able to distinguish between them, Colours carry emotional connotation red/orange heighten restlessness wi ness. per slide, Too many colours confuse/ ‘ground reads best. Choose any shade of green colours like red, pink or orange. They tend to ns and elicit certain responses e.g. hile blue and green enhance calm- * Short video clips (two-to-three minutes) are most effective. Graphic images (diagramsichartsidrawingsiphotositables) * Use to reinforce ideas but use sparingly. * Text must not dominate when the focus is on the image. * Ensure the image is large enough to interpret with ease. * Use geometric shapes e.g. arrows or circles to direct the eyes to import- ant aspects of the slide. Animations/transitions ‘+ Must add value not just be a gimmick. * Avoid too much continuous movement; make it slower rather than faster, Ley ULES RIN oly SLO Daal NT OF MESSAGES While our simple definition of communication in Section 1.1 stated that it ‘vas primarily a process that created meaning between two or more people, we acknowledged that it was function and context dependent. Andersen (1994) cat- Cgorically reminded us of the cultural responsibility factor by saying that it was “an inseparable part” of the process. Humans are social beings and belong to social groups, be they families or organisations and these are set within a com- GES) 2‘CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICAT! [ON SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER unity with a special culture that regulates its members. Power hierarchies a bften developed and these usually dictate acceptable communication practic eg, elders are addressed in a particular manner by younger members and con ‘munication pathways are strictly adhered to, for example children speak to ty mothers who then negotiate with their fathers on their behalf. Members of the social groups tend to accept their roles and positions in the group since they ay ‘mutually interdependent and the power of the group acts as a safety net for thei survival in the wider community. When individuals act responsibly within te group it provides for their basic needs, their security needs and eventually thei ultimate opportunity for self-actualisation as set out in Maslow’s hierarchy o needs. Humans tend to develop formal organisations to further facilitate their sur vival. We can define organisations as social structures within a community tht generally comprise a number of people who share specific goals that cannot ty achieved by the individuals acting on their own. Organisations interact with th public at large and may also be influenced by the changes that take place i society. They are deliberately established or constructed for different purpose} organisation has a unique contribution to make towards achieving the orga. tional goals and has specific responsibilities. Generally the individual belong’ associates voluntarily with the organisation. __ A school or any other learning institution is an organisation with the spe ic purpose of furthering the facilitation and spread of knowledge for its met bers by providing an environment for optimal learning. In most countries it financed/subsidised by national taxes and is administered by governmest 4] macro level. As it offers a public service it must be sensitive to, and able f} adapt to the environment in which it operates. It cannot operate in isolations uses networks and other support systems, so it relies on effective bidirectio™ Communication (transmitting, processing and receiving) to execute its a Gmmunication in any mode that takes place within the organisa munication and that taking place with entities outside is % fueriat communication, The effectiveness of this communication is dt fe Heard Paicibles that we have already discussed withthe on¢ P& its specific hierarchy sf £008 understanding of the particular organi An institution of eso eS operational and logistical mates. : ining’ * Purpose of communication and oon vcilitate education. All the different Styl gi Theat! and verbal, be they oral, written or using & seers will vary from one on one, to small oF JB fa , Se t0 face or less personal. All these different opPO! ;PPropriate styles of communication, defined by its mandate to fa involved eg, multimedia,THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER ing times (learners, teachers, administrative staff and management) and may be formally or informally conveyed. They may use non-verbal or verbal, either oral or written, or even electronic modes. ‘The functions of internal communication in schools could be categorised as follows: + Developmental function — empowering individuals + Information function — giving information about events or institutional proced- ures Relation-building function — facilitating healthy interpersonal relationships Command function - giving and executing instructions + Management function — balancing between task or people-driven style i.e. get- ting job done according to specific criteria (quality, standards, time, budget etc.) while taking the worker’s needs, concerns etc. into account to avoid ambiguity or misunderstandings of requirements, 1.7.2 External communication in schools. External communication in schools generally involves the sending of messages to suppliers, service providers, stakeholders, sponsors, and the broader com- munity (business managers, parents, the Department of Education officials, other learning institutions, community, town or city officials), These messages are usually very carefully crafted as they are vital for the growth and success of the organisation and need to reflect a favourable, professional image of the school. Like internal messages they make use of various styles that are appropri- ate for the occasion. The recipient is usually less personally known so cognisance of possible barriers to understanding must be carefully considered. If written, the school’s official letterhead and logo is always used - this applies to the use of electronic media as well. The effectiveness of external communication relies upon the credibility of the message, which is achieved through accuracy, sim- Plicity and clarity of details. The recipient who generally has limited knowledge of the institution, unlike the recipients of intemal messages, has to rely on the ‘truthfulness of the sender. Creating a sense of trust, sincerity and respect is vital in all external communication episodes as this will define the perception of the recipient and promote a favourable response. TASK 1.8 1. In the box below there are scores of jumbled examples of internal and external communications. Complete the table provided. Examples of internal and external communication Presentations, Speeches, Skype conferences, In-house training events, Lessons and classroom interactions, Press releases, News articles, Social gatherings, Lunches, Team-building exercises, FaceTime call, Memos, GS) » 1CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR THE PROFES 30 SIONAL TEACHER Neen Emails, Notes, Interviews, Circulars to parents, Agendas, Corridor gos. sip, Telephone conversations, Minutes, Letters of gratitude for support, TviRadio interviews, Roadside banners, Electronic news flashes on | _ notice boards, Marketing material - posters, leaflets, brochures, Web page updates, Facebook entries, Announcements (staff room, inter- com, assembly), Meetings (staff, departmental, learners, management, governance boards ), Notice board, Pigeon-hole messages, Staff meet- ings, Reports, Letters/email/faxes to departmental officials, Requests to sponsors, Proposal presentations to sponsors, SMS reminders to par- ents, iPad interactive lesson ‘Spoken Written Both Internal communication Extemal communication 2. Based on your experience in schools so far look at these examples and try to identify the purpose of each and then categorise them into at least five different functions 1.7.3 Directional flow of messages in schools We have discussed the principles related to the internal and external commut cation episodes in the school environment. Did you manage to sort and tabu late the examples easily? We now look at the pathways that a school as « hier archical institution demands for the flow of messages. Principals may have 2 “open-door policy” but this mainly indicates their desire to demonstrate they are approachable and concerned about the welfare of all the stakeholder # the school. As in all social structures it is advisable to know and use the co communication pathways to avoid misunderstandings amongst its members. In schools, communication takes place mainly in two ways: formally informally. Both formal and informal pathways of communication 29 i upwards, downwards, horizontally or diagonally (Kroon, 1991: 379). Figu®® illustrates the different pathways/routes of communication for the flow of ges in a school. ial Every school ought to have definite formal pathevays of communications wi are known to each teacher in order to plan, organise, coordinate and Om school activities properly. The ways these operate are described below? eis + Downward pathway: the line of authority laid down by the organist structure determines the way in which information flows downW@tes og purpose of dovmward communication i to direct the behaviour of 8 Tg bers and leamers, and to coordinate and give guidance in order ™ | everyone aware of the school’s mission, aims and outcomes, POUEY #7 oa cedures, so as to ensure that effective teaching takes place- Down at “ ‘munication in the classroom will also have the same puxpose #8 im D° 1