PE

FPE 242: NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

(NDT)
Ultrasonic Testing

By JB

FPE 242 UT 1
List some common NDT methods
Common NDT methods include:
• Visual-Optical
• Liquid penetrant inspection
• Magnetic particle inspection
• Ultrasonic testing
• Radiographic testing
• Eddy current testing
• Acoustic emission testing

FPE 242 UT 2
THEORY AND PRINCIPLES
• Nature of Sound Waves
• Sound waves are vibrations of the particles making up a solid, liquid,
or gas.
• It is a mechanical energy and requires a medium to propagate.
• Since there must be something to vibrate, sound waves cannot exist
in a vacuum.
• This is in contrast to non-mechanical waves such as electromagnetic
waves (e.g. Light, xrays, …) which can travel through vacuum.
• The only human sense that can detect sound waves is hearing, and
that sense is restricted to a relatively narrow range of vibration
frequencies called “the audible range”.
• It follows that there will be vibration frequencies that are so low or so
high that they cannot be detected by the human ear.
FPE 242 UT 3
• The unit of frequency is the hertz, abbreviated as Hz, defined as “one
cycle of vibration per second.”
• Sounds below approximately 16 Hz are below the limit of human
hearing and are called “subsonic vibrations”.
• Sounds above approximately 20,000 Hz are too high to be heard and
are called “ultrasonic vibrations.”
• Between those two values, in the audible range.
• In ultrasonic flaw detection, most testing is carried out in the MHz
range (0.5 MHz to 25 MHz).

FPE 242 UT 4
• Transducers
• It is fortunate that there are devices called “transducers” that will
change sound waves into electrical energy that can be displayed as
visual signals on a cathode ray tube (CRT) or liquid crystal display
(LCD) screen.
• This allows all sounds, including those outside the audible range, to
be detected and studied.
• A transducer is defined as a device that will change one form of
energy (mechanical) into another (electrical), and vice versa.
• Materials exhibiting the piezoelectric effect are commonly used to
both generate and detect sound waves.

FPE 242 UT 5
• Sound Vibrations
• A vibration is an example of periodic motion, a term that suggests that the body
or particle concerned is undergoing some repetitive change of position with time.
• Another example is a pendulum swinging back and forth at a steady rate or
frequency.
• The number of cycles completed in one second is defined as the frequency of the
vibration.
• With sound vibrations, frequency is perceived as the pitch of the sound, whereas
amplitude is the loudness of the sound.
• For sound waves in solids, liquids, and gases, the vibrating bodies are the
particles making up the substance, and the restoring forces are the elastic bonds
holding the substance together.
• The particles can be imagined to be joined together by springs. If one particle
moves toward its neighbor, the spring gets compressed and tends to push the
invader back “home.” Similarly, if it moves away from its neighbor, the spring gets
stretched and the particle is pulled back into place.

FPE 242 UT 6
• Audible sound is an example of a vibration mode called a
“compression wave.”
• It travels from the source by a succession of shunting actions from
one particle to the next.
• Each particle vibrates at the frequency of the sound, oscillating to and
fro by a distance that is the amplitude or loudness of the sound.
• As each particle oscillates, it squashes the “spring” to the next
neighbor and starts the neighbor oscillating.
• As the oscillation passes from one particle to the next, and the next,
and so on, the sound wave is said to travel or “propagate” through
the material.
• Note that individual particles do not migrate to another place; they
only oscillate about a mean position.

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• Modes of Propagation
• Compressional waves / Longitudinal waves
• Shear waves / Transverse waves
• Surface waves / Rayleigh waves
• Lamb waves / plate waves

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• Compressional waves / Longitudinal waves
• The type, or mode, of sound wave propagation described above (compression
wave) can exist in solids, liquids, or gases.
• Other modes of vibration can exist, but only in solids.
• The various ways in which sound can propagate are usually described in terms
of the direction of particle motion in relation to the direction in which the
sound wave travels.
• Compression waves can be defined on this basis as waves in which the
particle motion is in the same direction (parallel) to the direction of
propagation.

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• Shear waves / Transverse waves
• All three media (solids, liquids, gases) have forces that bind the particles
together to resist squashing or pulling apart (compression or tension).
• Solids, unlike liquids and gasses, also have rigidity that is a resistance to shear
loads.
• It is the rigidity that has to be overcome when snapping a stick, for instance.
• The name for this resistance to shear loads in solids is called “the modulus of
rigidity,” and it allows sound to propagate in a different way under certain
circumstances.
• This new mode of propagation is known as a shear wave and is defined as a
wave in which the particle motion is at right angles (perpendicular) to the
direction of propagation.

FPE 242 UT 10
• Surface waves / Rayleigh waves
• If a shear wave is set up so that it just skims along the surface of a solid, it
again changes mode to one, which is contour following with a peculiar
particle motion.
• This contour following wave is called a surface wave and is defined as a wave
in which the particle motion is elliptical, with the major axis of the ellipse
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

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• Lamb waves / plate waves
• Lamb waves, like surface waves, propagate parallel to the test surface and
have a particle motion that is elliptical.
• They occur when the thickness of the test material is only a few wavelengths
at the test frequency and where the test piece is of uniform thickness.
• In other words, they can exist best in plate, tube, and wire.

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• Properties of Sound Waves
• Velocity
• Wavelength
• Period

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• Velocity
• Sound travels at different speeds through different materials.
• The two main factors affecting velocity are the:
• density and the
• elasticity of the material.
• The velocity of the compression wave for a given material can be
calculated from the Equation:

FPE 242 UT 14
• where
• Vc = compression wave velocity
• E = Young’s modulus of elasticity
• ρ = material density
• σ = Poisson’s ratio
• Shear waves are able to exist in solids and they do not travel at the
same velocity as the compression wave in a given material. This is
because it is the modulus of rigidity, rather than Young’s modulus,
that dictates the velocity, and the modulus of rigidity is lower than
the modulus of elasticity.

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• The shear velocity can be calculated from:

• Or alternatively:

• where
• Vs = shear wave velocity
• G = modulus of rigidity
• ρ = material density
• σ = Poisson’s ratio

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• Wavelength
• Wavelength is the length of one wave and is given as the ratio
between the velocity and frequency.

• where
• λ = wavelength
• V = Velocity
• f = frequency

FPE 242 UT 17
• Example 1. Calculate the wavelength of a 5 MHz compression wave in
steel, given that the velocity of sound in mild steel is 5960 meters per
second (m/sec).
• Example 2. Calculate the wavelength of a 5 MHz compression wave in
aluminum, given that the velocity is 6400 m/sec.

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• Example 1 Ans: λ = 1.192 mm
• Example 2 Ans: λ = 1.28 mm

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• Period
• T=1/f

• Where
• T= period
• f= frequency

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• Reflection
• The boundary between one medium and another—for instance, steel to air at the
far side of a steel plate—is called an “interface.” At an interface, a proportion of
the sound may be transmitted to the next medium and the remainder reflected
back to the first medium.
• The proportions that will be reflected or transmitted depend upon the properties
of the materials on either side of the interface. Each material is given a factor that
is used to calculate reflectivity at an interface. This factor is called the “acoustic
impedance” and given the symbol Z. Acoustic impedance is the product of
density and velocity for that material.
• Stated mathematically:
• Z=ρ×V
• where
• Z = acoustic impedance
• ρ = material density
• V = material velocity

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• To calculate the percentage of energy reflected at an interface
between any two materials, the following formula is used:

• Where Z1 & Z2 are the acoustic impedance of the materials on either

side of the interface.

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• When a beam of sound traveling through a metal sample encounters
a discontinuity such as a crack, lamination, void or nonmetallic
inclusion there is an interface. On one side is the sound metal and on
the other the discontinuity. At this interface, some energy will be
reflected and some transmitted. If the discontinuity side of the
interface is air then the reflection is total; but even for a nonmetallic
inclusion, most of the energy will be reflected. This property of sound
waves allows for the detection of discontinuities in materials.

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• Example 3. Calculate the percentage energy reflected at a steel to
water interface, given that the acoustic impedance for steel is 46.7
and that for water is 1.48.
• Example 4. Calculate the percentage energy reflected at a steel to air
interface, given that the acoustic impedance for steel is 46.7 and that
for air is 0.0004.

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• Example 3 Ans: Reflected energy = 88.09%
• Example 4 Ans: Reflected energy = 100%

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• Couplant
• The property of reflection can also be a problem because if a
transducer is simply placed on a part there must be an air gap,
however small. But a solid to air interface creates 100% reflection, so
the sound goes straight back into the transducer without transmitting
into the metal!
• To overcome this problem there has to be some way to exclude the
air using a medium that will match the acoustic impedance of the
transducer to the metal. Since this medium must also allow the
transducer to be scanned over the surface of the metal it needs to be
a liquid, grease, or paste. Such a substance is called a “couplant.”
• There are many suitable substances that can be used as couplants,
the main criteria being the best possible match and no adverse
chemical reaction between the couplant and the metal.
FPE 242 UT 26
• Commonly used couplants are:
• Water
• Kerosene
• Oil
• Grease
• Wallpaper paste
• Glycerin
• Special gels designed for the purpose

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• Refraction and Mode Conversion
• When the sound is introduced at an angle to the surface called the
“angle of incidence,” the waves can be reflected or refracted.
• Refraction refers to the transmitted portion of the sound energy at
the interface; the proportion of energy reflected is the same as before
but the reflected energy leaves the interface at an angle of reflection
equal to the angle of incidence.
• The angle of refraction on the other hand is determined using Snell’s
law.

FPE 242 UT 28
• Snell’s law
• Snell’s law states that the sine of the angle of incidence divided by the
velocity in Medium 1 equals the sine of the angle of refraction divided
by the velocity in Medium 2.
• Sin ϴ1 / V1 = Sin ϴ2 / V2
• where
• sin ϴ1 = The sine of the angle of incidence
• sin ϴ2 = The sine of the angle of refraction
• V1 = The velocity in Medium 1
• V2 = The velocity in Medium 2

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• Mode Conversion
• As the beam of sound is introduced at an angle of incidence to a solid,
another phenomenon begins to arise, and that is mode conversion.
Although the incident beam is a compression wave, a refracted shear
wave begins to develop in the solid as the sound crosses the
interface, in addition to the refracted compression wave.
• For small angles of incidence, the amplitude of the shear wave is
small and can be ignored, but as the angle of incidence increases, so
does the amplitude of the shear wave. Eventually, both the shear
wave and the compression wave are about equal in amplitude. Snell’s
law shows us that the two modes will not refract through the same
angle because the velocity of the shear wave is less than the
compression wave.
FPE 242 UT 30
• Example 5. Calculate the angle of refraction in steel for an incident
angle in water of 10° given that the compression wave velocity of
sound in water is 1480 m/sec and in steel 5960 m/sec.
• Example 6. Calculate the angle of refraction of the shear wave in steel
for an incident compression wave of 10° in water, given that the shear
wave velocity in steel is 3240 m/sec.
•

FPE 242 UT 31
• Example 5 Ans: ϴ2 = 44.37
• Example 6 Ans: 22.34

FPE 242 UT 32
• Reflective Mode Conversion
• Mode conversion also takes place inside a solid when an ultrasonic
beam strikes a reflector at an angle of incidence other than
perpendicular. In ultrasonic flaw detection, this mode conversion can
cause confusion, depending on the relative amplitudes of the
reflected compression wave, and the mode converted shear wave.

FPE 242 UT 33
• Beam characteristics
• Sound waves propagate as a beam. As distance increase from the
source there is a gradual loss of sound energy through a phenomenon
known as “attenuation.” Attenuation is the combined effect of a
number of parameters:
• Diffraction effects
• Absorption (friction and heat)
• Scatter
• Beam spread

FPE 242 UT 34
• The Decibel System
• When measuring sound intensities, the unit of measurement is the
bel. The bel being a large unit of measurement, it needs to be broken
down into smaller units. These units are called decibels or dB. To
calculate the difference between two signal amplitudes, the following
formula is used:

• where
• A1 = the first percent signal height
• A2 = the second percent signal height

FPE 242 UT 35
• Example. Two signals are noted on the screen. The first has an
amplitude of 80% full screen height (FSH) and the second is noted to
be 40% FSH. Calculate the difference in dB between the two.

FPE 242 UT 36
• Ans: 6.02 dB. (The 80% signal is 6 dB greater than the 40% signal. It
can be seen from this calculation that +6 dB is twice the amplitude.)

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EQUIPMENT FOR ULTRASONIC APPLICATIONS
• Ultrasonic systems are either battery operated portable units,
multicomponent laboratory ultrasonic systems, or something in
between.
• Ultrasonic system generally comprises the following components:
• Transducer
• Pulser (clock)
• Receiver/amplifier
• Display (screen)

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Analog

FPE 242 UT 39
Digital

FPE 242 UT 40
• To understand how a typical ultrasonic system operates, it is necessary to
view one cycle of events, or one pulse. The sequence is as follows.
• The clock signals the pulser to provide a short, high-voltage pulse to the
transducer while simultaneously supplying a voltage to the time-base
trigger module.
• The time-base trigger starts the “spot” in the CRT on its journey across the
screen.
• The voltage pulse reaches the transducer and is converted into mechanical
vibrations (piezoelectricity), which enter the test piece. These vibrations
(energy) now travel along their “sound path” through the test piece. All this
time, the spot is moving horizontally across the CRT.
• The energy in the test piece now reflects off the interface (back wall) back
toward the transducer, where it is reconverted into a voltage. (The
reconverted voltage is a fraction of its original value.)

FPE 242 UT 41
• This voltage is now received and amplified by the receiver/amplifier.
• The amplified voltage is sent to the “vertical (Y axis) plates” (top and
bottom) in the CRT. At this time, the upper Y axis plate attracts the
spot upward.
• This motion produces the “signal” on the screen that signifies the
time that the energy has taken to make the round trip through the
test piece, from the moment the energy leaves the transducer until it
is received by the transducer.
• The spot is set to start its trip at the time the energy enters the test
piece. This is manually adjusted by using the delay or zero control.

FPE 242 UT 42
• The same “packet” of returning energy has by this time reflected
down off the test piece’s top interface and now makes a second trip
down through the test piece. (The spot continues its horizontal
journey across the screen.) The energy reflects once more off the
back wall interface and returns again to be received and amplified.
• The amplifier once again sends the voltage to the Y axis plates. The
spot is again drawn up toward the upper Y axis plate, this time at a
“later” position on the time base. This is a “repeat signal” (multiple)
that is lower in amplitude because of factors such as attenuation and
other losses.
• The spot is then released to continue its journey across the screen,
and the above sequence repeats again and again until the energy in
the test piece has been attenuated. The display will show multiple
repeat signals, as many as are available in the calibrated time base
and according to the amount of amplification (gain) selected.
FPE 242 UT 43
• For example, if the screen is calibrated for 500mm of steel and the
test piece is 100m thick, there will be five signals on the screen,
representing five “round trips” of 100mm thickness. (The energy has,
in fact, traveled two inches each trip, one forward and one back, but
it is displayed as a series of 100mm trips on the screen.)
• The clock now sets off the pulser a second time and the next pulse is
produced. The complete scenario is repeated over again, n number of
times per second. The n number of pulses per second is referred to as
the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) or the pulse repetition rate (PRR).

FPE 242 UT 44
• The Controls and Their Functions
• Instrumentation varies by manufacturer; however, there are three controls
that are common to most ultrasonic flaw detection equipment. These
controls are:
• sweep (range),
• delay, and
• gain.
• Other may vary between instruments by respective manufacturers;
however, the following features are generally common to most:
• Single and Dual Transducer Selection.
• Frequency Selection.
• Gates
• Electronic gates are used to produce some action based on a signal being present in
the gate. A gate is a device that is inserted into the time base at a user-selected
location.
FPE 242 UT 45
• Reject.
• This control is used to dismiss low-level “noise” on the screen. The effect of reject is visual.
• Storage Memory
• Digital instrumentation usually provides the facility to store calibrations or waveforms.
• Displays
• There are a few different ways that the ultrasonic information can be displayed. Typically:
• “A scan” presentations are viewed with conventional ultrasonic flaw detection equipment.
• “B scan” displays show a “slice” through a section of the test piece. In other words, a cross-
sectional view. The signals show as bright spots or lines on the screen.
• “C scan” is a “map” type of display. It is a “plan” view of the test piece.
• The B scan and C scan techniques are well suited to applications where a
permanent record is required. It is common to digitally store A, B, and C scan
data.
• Transducers
• The transducer is the actual “front end” of the system. Other terms used to describe the
transducer are “probe,” “search unit,” and “test head.” The use of an inferior quality
transducer on the best system can result in deficient data.

FPE 242 UT 46
TECHNIQUES
• The ways in which sound waves propagate through materials and are
attenuated, reflected, or transmitted dictate the different ultrasonic
methods or techniques used to detect the many types of
discontinuities that can exist in materials.
• Common techniques are:
• pulse-echo,
• through transmission,
• tandem.

FPE 242 UT 47
• pulse-echo,

FPE 242 UT 48
• through transmission,

FPE 242 UT 49
• tandem.

FPE 242 UT 50
• Any of the techniques that may be used requires calibration of the
ultrasonic system so that the time base can have some meaning in
terms of material thickness.

• Figure: discontinuity detection in welds using pulse-echo technique

FPE 242 UT 51
• Advantages of through-transmission are:
• Discontinuities in highly attenuative materials may be detected by noting a reduction
in the received energy.
• The complete section can be tested.
• There are no initial pulse constraints.
• Limitations of through-transmission
• Through-transmission testing relies on energy reduction as it is “shadowed
by” a material discontinuity.
• Energy reduction can be caused by factors other than the anomalies
sought. Examples include:
• Loss of couplant on either side
• Misalignment of transducers
• Change in material attenuation
• There is no positive indication of a reflector and therefore discontinuity depth
information is not possible.
• Variations in surface finish (roughness)

FPE 242 UT 52
• Contact vs Immersion techniques
• Inspection of components can be achieved through contact or
through immersion techniques. In contact technique, the transducer
is placed directly in contact with the test component. As mentioned
earlier a couplant is applied between the transducer and component
to ensure maximum transmission of energy.
• In immersion technique, the component being inspected is immersed
in a liquid (usually water). The liquid acts as couplant hence no
additional couplant is required. The transducer is not in contact with
the component in immersion technique.

FPE 242 UT 53
FPE 242 UT 54
• Advantages of immersion include:
• Consistent coupling conditions and scanning capability
• Variable beam angles and beam focusing
• Interface gating and contour following is possible
• Improved near-surface resolution and use of higher frequencies
• Most contact scanning techniques can be used in immersion testing.
In addition, the same transducer can be used for both compression
wave and angle beam techniques. To generate any angle of shear
wave, the transducer is simply tilted to the appropriate incident angle
derived from Snell’s law.

FPE 242 UT 55
• Disadvantages of immersion include:
• Setting up is more complicated
• The part must be compatible with water
• Air bubble formation interferes with the test

FPE 242 UT 56
• VARIABLES
• There are a number of variables that can influence an ultrasonic examination. Some of
the more common variables that may have an effect on the results of a test are:
• Temperature and Velocity
• Temperature is an important factor when considering ultrasonic examination.
Temperature affects the velocity of sound in most materials to a greater or lesser degree
depending on the material.
• Attenuation
• In addition to the change in velocity, temperature can also affect the amount of
attenuation in some materials. Apparent changes in attenuation can be indicative of
changes in the material structure.
• Frequency and Grain Size
• At high frequencies, reflections from grain boundaries increases leading to much noise.
This reduces the signal to noise ratio. Lower frequencies should therefore be used when
inspecting large grained components such as castings.
• Resolution
• Pulse length can affect the resolution characteristics of the system. Short pulse lead to
higher resolution.
FPE 242 UT 57
• Surface Conditions
• An important variable is that of surface condition. The differences in surface
finish can result in large variations in the results of an examination. Paint or other
coatings can have similar effects. Tightly adhering coatings on the surface
generally allow good transfer of the energy. Loose or flaking coatings are
undesirable and should be removed prior to conducting the examination.
• Diameter Changes
• Changes in the diameter of the test surface can result in changes in test
sensitivity. The effective transducer size is limited to its contact area. It is highly
desirable to perform the system calibration on a surface with a diameter similar
to the one being scanned on the component under test.
• Contact Pressure and Couplant
• The amount of couplant used and the contact pressure on the transducer can
create differences in signal amplitude. Too little couplant will leave the surface
dry and therefore create an air boundary between the transducer and the
component surface. Excessive pressure can squeeze the couplant from under the
transducer.

FPE 242 UT 58
• Dendritic Structures
• Dendrites are branch-like grains that exist in certain metal structures
and can cause problems, particularly in stainless steel welds. These
dendrites form in the direction of heat dissipation during the welding
process. A single grain can grow from one weld pass to the next,
leaving elongated grains that can effectively redirect the sound
energy.
• Gain
• The use of excessive gain can exaggerate otherwise insignificant
indications. This emphasizes the need for precise calibration.
• Other Factors
• Other factors such as transducer frequency, diameter, and angle can
affect the examination results.

FPE 242 UT 59
• It is necessary to follow a qualified procedure when carrying out an
examination, particularly when repeatability is an issue.
• Ultrasonic examination requires careful consideration of all the
variables.
• The practitioner needs to be mindful of these variables and others
that may present themselves.
• Attentiveness, awareness, and the ability to recognize anomalies are
important.

FPE 242 UT 60
EVALUATION OF TEST RESULTS
• When NDT is specified, the following information must be provided:
• The component description
• The test method
• The specification for the test
• Not all indications from an NDT test indicated presence of a defect.
• Improper implementation of procedure can lead to false indications.
• When test is repeated following proper methodology the false indications will
disappear.
• True indications can be either relevant or non-relevant.
• Non relevant indications are caused by design features of the component
such as section changes.
• Relevant indications are caused by flaws / discontinuities.

FPE 242 UT 61
• Depending on the size of these flaws the indications can be
considered either acceptable or not acceptable.
• A flaw that is considered unacceptable is then categorized as a defect.
• All defects must be repaired before component is put to service.
• Flaws that are acceptable must be monitored periodically to ensure they
don’t grow and exceed acceptable limit.
• The accept / reject criteria are normally provided for in codes and
standards being implemented or by customer specifications.

FPE 242 UT 62
FPE 242 UT 63
• Test reports must be written after each inspection. Always ensure
that as a minimum the following details are recorded clearly and
concisely.
• Identification
• Date, Time, and Place of examination
• Examiner’s name and certification level
• Component examined and its serial number if applicable
• Procedure, specification, or standard to which the test was
performed.
• Note any revision number, changes, or deviations from the procedure.

FPE 242 UT 64
• Equipment
• Instrument used, including serial number
• Transducers used, including frequency, serial number, and angles
• Calibration standards or reference block(s)
• Couplant used—include batch number where appropriate
• Calibration
• Time base (range and units per division)
• Calibration sensitivity and DAC (Distance Amplitude Correction) curve (if used)
• Scanning sensitivity
• Reference level for recording
• Examination details
• Area scanned
• Limitations and interferences
• Percentage complete coverage
FPE 242 UT 65
• Results
• Indications noted—percent DAC (Distance Amplitude Correction)(as
appropriate), location of indications
• Classification of discontinuities (if required)
• Scale drawing or plot of indications
• Comments—surface condition, temperature, etc

• Note.
• Reports should be concise and accurate.
• The person reading the report may not be very familiar with UT.
• A drawing or sketch is easier to follow than a lengthy description.

FPE 242 UT 66
• When determining whether ultrasonics is the most appropriate test
method, consideration should be given to the following:
• Part and geometry to be examined
• Material type
• Material thickness
• Material process—cast, wrought, etc.
• Type of discontinuities to be detected
• Minimum discontinuity size to be detected
• Location of the discontinuities—surface-breaking or internal
• Orientation of discontinuities (very important when selecting a test
technique)
• Accessibility to areas of interest
• Surface conditions
• Type of examination record required
FPE 242 UT 67
• Ultrasonic inspection is ideal for locating small, tight discontinuities
assuming the following:
• The sound energy can be projected at some angle that will respond
favorably to the orientation of the reflector(flaw).
• The relationship between the size of the discontinuity and the
material’s grain structure allows for an acceptable signal to noise
ratio.
• The surface condition is suitable for scanning. A poor scanning surface
will not only require a more viscous couplant but possibly the use of a
lower test frequency. This may not provide the necessary resolution
for the test.

FPE 242 UT 68
• The advantages of ultrasonic examination are as follows:
• Inspection can be accomplished from one surface
• Small discontinuities can be detected
• Considerable control over test variables
• Varieties of techniques are available using diverse wave modes
• High-temperature examination is possible with the correct equipment
• Examination of thick or long parts
• Inspection of buried parts, e.g., shafts in captivated bearing houses
• Accurate sizing techniques for surface-breaking and internal
discontinuities is possible

FPE 242 UT 69
• Discontinuity depth information
• Surface and subsurface discontinuities can be detected
• High speed scanning is possible with electronic signal gating and
alarm system
• “Go/No-Go” testing of production components
• Test repeatability
• Equipment is light and portable
• Area evacuation of personnel is not necessary
• Special licenses are not required as with radiation sources
• Minimum number of consumables

FPE 242 UT 70
• Some of the limitations of ultrasonic examination are as follows:
• Discontinuities that are oriented parallel with the beam energy will
usually not be detected.
• Orientation of the discontinuity (reflector) is the most important factor in
detecting discontinuities.
• Discontinuities that are similar to or smaller than the material’s grain
structure may not be detected.
• Thin sections may present resolution problems or require the
implementation of special techniques.
• Uneven scanning surfaces can reduce the effectiveness of the test.

FPE 242 UT 71
• Signals can be misinterpreted. This includes spurious signals from
mode conversion or beam redirection, etc.
• In general, this method requires a high level of skill and training.
• Permanent record of the examination results is not typical.
• The records are limited to physical documentation rather than an actual
reproduction of the test, e.g., as is possible with radiography.

FPE 242 UT 72