2016

ARCHITECTURAL CONSERVATION

Part A
I. Answer all questions. Each question carries 5 marks:

a. What do you mean by research?

• The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search
• Re is a prefix meaning again, a new or over again Search is a verb meaning to examine
closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe
• Describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of
knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles
•Research is a human device invented and developed not only to push far the limit of human
knowledge but to improve the quality of individual and group life.

Research can be classified from three perspectives:

1. Application of research study
2. Objectives in undertaking the research
3. Inquiry mode employed

b. Examine the merits and limitations of observation method?

(1) Simplest Method: Observation is probably the most common and the simplest method of
data collection. It does not require much technical knowledge. Although scientific controlled
observation requires some technical skill of the researcher, still it is easier than other
methods. Everybody in this world observes many things in their daily life. A little training can
make a person perfect, to observe his surroundings.
(2) Useful for Framing Hypothesis: Observation is one of the main bases of formulating
hypothesis. By observing a phenomenon continuously, the researcher may get well
acquainted with the observed. He came to know about their habits, likes, dislikes, problems,
perception, different activities and so many other things. All these help him a lot to form a
hypothesis on them. Any researcher, therefore, has to be a good observer.
(3) Greater Accuracy: In other methods like interview, questionnaire etc., the researcher has
to depend on information provided by the respondents. So, these are indirect methods and
here the investigator does not have any means to examine the accuracy of the data supplied
by them. But in observation the observer can directly check the accuracy from the observed.
He can apply various devices to test the reliability of their behaviour. So very often the data
collected through observation is more reliable than these collected through interview or
questionnaire.
(4) A Universal Method: Observation is a common method used in all sciences, whether
physical or social. So, it has greater universality of practice. As a common method, it is very
easily followed and accepted.
(5) Observation is the Only Appropriate Tool for Certain Cases: Observation can deal with
phenomena which are not capable of giving verbal information about their behaviour,
feeling and activities simply for the reason that they cannot speak e.g., infants or animals.
Observation is indispensable for studies on infants who can neither understand the quarries
of the researcher nor express themselves clearly. In the case of animals’ observation is the
only way out. For deaf and dumb persons, for serious cases of abnormality or mad persons,
for non-cooperative persons, for too shy persons and for persons who do not understand
the language of researcher, observation will be the only appropriate tool.
(6) Independent of People’s Willingness to Report: Observation does not require the
willingness of the people to provide various information about them. Often some
respondents do not like to speak about themselves to an outsider. Some people do not have
time or required skill to provide important information to the researcher. Although
observation cannot always overcome such problems, still relatively speaking it requires less
active co-operation and willingness of respondents. Observation is ever possible without the
knowledge of the respondents.

Limitations of Observation:
(1) Some of the Occurrences may not be Open to Observation: There are many personal
behaviours or secret activities which are not open for observation. For example, no couple
will allow the researcher to observe their sexual activities. In most of the cases people do
not allow the outsider to study their activities.
(2) Not all Occurrences Open to Observation can be Observed when Observer is at Hand:
Such problems arise because of the uncertainty of the event. Many social events are very
much uncertain in nature. It is a difficult task on the part of the researcher to determine
their time and place. The event may take place in the absence of the observer. On the other
hand, it may not occur in the constant presence of the observer. For example, the quarrel
and fight between two individuals or groups is never certain. Nobody knows when such an
event will take place.
(3) Not all Occurrences Lend Themselves to Observational Study: Most of the social
phenomenon is abstract in nature. For example, love, affection, feeling and emotion of
parents towards their children are not open to our senses and also cannot be quantified by
observational techniques. The researcher may employ other methods like case study;
interview etc. to study such phenomena.
(4) Lack of Reliability: Because social phenomena cannot be controlled or used for laboratory
experiments, generalizations made by observation method are not very reliable. The
relative-ness of the social phenomena and the personal bias of the observer again create
difficulty for making valid generalization in observation. P.V. Young remarks that in
observation, no attempt is made to use instruments of precision to check the accuracy of the
phenomenon.
(5) Faulty Perception: Observation is a highly technical job. One is never sure that what he is
observing is the same as it appears to his eyes. Two persons may judge the same
phenomena differently. One person may find something meaningful and useful from a
situation but the other may find nothing from it. Only those observers who are having the
technical knowledge about the observation can make scientific observation.
(6) Personal Bias of the Observer: The personal bias, personal view or looking at things in a
particular way often creates obstacle for making valid generalization. The observer may have
his own ideas of right and wrong or he may have different pre-conceptions regarding an
event which kills the objectivity in social research.
(7) Slow Investigation: Observation is a time taking process. P.V. Young rightly remarks that
the valid observation cannot be hurried; we cannot complete our investigation in a short
period through observation. It sometimes reduces the interest of both observer and
observed to continue their observation process.
(8) Expensive: Observation is a costly affair. It requires high cost, plenty of time and hard
effort. Observation involves travelling, staying at the place of phenomena and purchasing of
sophisticated equipment’s. Because of this it is called as one of the most expensive methods
of data collection.
(9) Inadequate Method: According to P.V. Young, “the full answers cannot be collected by
observation alone”. Therefore, many suggested that observation must be supplemented by
other methods also.
(10) Difficulty in Checking Validity: Checking the validity of observation is always difficult.
Many of the phenomena of observation cannot be defined with sufficient precision and does
not help in drawing a valid generalization. The lack of competence of the observer may
hamper validity and reliability of observation.

c. What are the important aspects of questionnaire?

A questionnaire consists of formalized and pee-specified set of questions designed to
obtain responses from potential respondents.

d. Write short notes on pilot survey?

• A pilot survey is a mini-survey where the researcher sends out a questionnaire to a
smaller sample size compared to the actual target audience. By collecting
information from a convenience sample, you can predict the response patterns of
participants and make any required changes to your research.
• The main objective of a pilot survey is to test the research tools including the
questions, survey structure, and distribution channels. If done in the right way, it
helps you to discover challenges that can affect the main data collection process.
As an organization conducting market research or trying to gather feedback on a product or
service, you can send out your pilot survey to some of the stakeholders in your company
including employees. A pilot survey isn't just about collecting relevant information from
respondents; it is also about testing your survey functionalities at different touch points.
e. What are the characteristics of a good research report?
A good research design is those design which; • Minimises bias, maximises accuracy and
reliability of the data collected and analysed to have few errors as possible. Most important
requirement of a good research design is that it should provide adequate information so
that the research problem can be analysed on a wide perspective.

• Some of the major questions that one should keep in mind while designing a new good
well-planned research includes:
• Appropriate type of stud y design
• Objectives of the study
• Type of Data
• Sample size
• Method of Data collection
• Time-Place-Duration of the study
• Appropriate analysis of the collected data
• Interpretation
• Expected outcome and its application
• Expenditure and feasibility of the study etc.

f. How does a case study method differ from a survey method?

A case study refers to an in-depth study in which an individual, group or a particular

situation is studied. This is used in both in natural and social sciences. In the natural sciences,
a case study can be used to validate a theory or even a hypothesis. In the social sciences,
case studies are used extensively to study human behavior and comprehend various social
aspects. For example, in psychology, case studies are conducted to comprehend the
individual behavior. In such an instance, the researcher records the entire history of the
individual so that it enables him to identify various patterns of behavior.

When speaking of case studies, it must be highlighted that they usually produce rich
descriptive data. However, case studies cannot be used to provide generalizations on an
entire population since the sample of a case study is usually limited to a single individual or a
few individuals. For a case study, various research techniques such as interviews, direct and
participatory observation, and documents can be used.

A survey refers to research where data is gathered from an entire population or a very large
sample in order to comprehend the opinions on a particular matter. In the modern society,
surveys are often used in politics and marketing. For example, imagine a situation where an
organization wishes to understand the opinions of consumers on their latest product.
Naturally the organization would conduct a survey to comprehend the opinions of the
consumer.

One of the most powerful research techniques used for surveys is the questionnaire. For this,
the researcher creates a set of questions on the topic for which he will gather information
from the participants. Unlike case studies, the data gathered from surveys are not very
descriptive. Instead, they are statistically significant.

g. Briefly explain, how research presentation can be effectively made?

Presentation in brief: The presentation is a group project. Think of this as a visual version of
your paper. The presentation should include: a short intro, your hypotheses, a brief
 description of the methods, tables and/or graphs related to your findings, and an
interpretation of your data. The presentations should be no more than 10 minutes long.
That’s not much time. Plan on needing about 1 minute per slide. The trick to giving good
presentations is distilling your information down into a few bulleted lists, diagrams, tables
and graphs. You don’t want to be rushed while presenting.
Title slide (1 slide). Title of the talk (probably the same as your paper), the names of all
group members, the class and university names, and the date the talk is given. Introduction
(typically 3-4 slides). Explain why your work is interesting. Place the study in context – how
does it relate to / follow from the scientific literature on this subject. If it relates to any
applied issues (e.g., environmental problems), mention this here. Use some pretty visuals
(Photographs, drawings, etc.) to get the audience excited about the issue and questions you
are addressing. Clearly state your hypotheses.

Materials and Methods (typically 2-3 slides). Clearly summarize the design. Show a picture
of your organisms and justify why they are appropriate for addressing the questions
mentioned above. Show a picture of your lab setup and/or of a person doing some of the lab
work. Show a diorama of your experimental design (with sample sizes, number of replicates,
sampling frequency, etc.). Mention what parameters you measured but do not go into detail
on exact procedures used. Do state what statistical tests you used to analyze your data.

Results (typically 2-4 slides). First show a photograph (or sketch) that shows an interesting
qualitative results (e.g., trays of plants in which one set is noticeably bigger than the other, a
drawing of a happy Daphnia) and state that result. Then display the results in graphical form,
reminding the audience of your hypothesis and stating whether it was supported as you do
so. Use simple, clean, clearly labeled graphs with proper axis labels (no extraneous 3-D
effects please). Do not use light colors (yellow, light green, or pink) in your figures, they do
not show up well when projected. Indicate the results of the statistical tests on the slides by
including values (or asterisks/letters that indicate the significance level) on the same slides
with the graphs. If you have multiple results, state them in a logical order.

Implications and Conclusions (typically 2-3 slides). Correctly interpret your results.
Constructively address sources of error and methodological difficulties. Place your results in
context and draw implications from them.

Acknowledgments (1 slide). Thank anyone who provided advice or assistance. Verbally

thank your audience for their attention and tell them you would be happy to answer any
questions.

h. Describe the precautions that the research should take while interpreting his findings?

• At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that the data are
appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences, the data reflect good
homogeneity; and that proper analysis has been done through statistical methods.
• The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the
process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false generalization and/or
due to wrong interpretation of statistical measures, such as the application of
findings beyond the range of observations, identification of correlation with
causation and the like. Another major pitfall is the tendency to affirm that definite
relationships exist on the basis of confirmation of particular hypotheses. In fact, the
 positive test results accepting the hypothesis must be interpreted as “being in
accord” with the hypothesis, rather than as “confirming the validity of the
hypothesis”. The researcher must remain vigilant about all such things so that false
generalization may not take place. He should be well equipped with and must know
the correct use of statistical measures for drawing inferences concerning his study.
• He must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much intertwined
with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he must take the task of
interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and accordingly must take all those
precautions that one usually observes while going through the process of analysis
viz., precautions concerning the reliability of data, computational checks, validation
and comparison of results.
• He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make sensitive
observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the factors
that are initially hidden to the eye. This will enable him to do his job of
interpretation on proper lines. Broad generalisation should be avoided as most
research is not amenable to it because the coverage may be restricted to a
particular time, a particular area and particular conditions. Such restrictions, if any,
must invariably be specified and the results must be framed within their limits.
• The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research study, there
should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and
theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical
orientation and empirical observation that opportunities for originality and creativity
lie." He must pay special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task of
interpretation.

Part B
II. Answer any two of the following questions. Each question carries 10 marks:

a. What is the significance of research in Architecture?

Research encourages scientific and inductive thinking, besides promoting the development
of logical habits of thinking and organisation. The role of research in applied economics in
the context of an economy or business is greatly increasing in modern times.
• The increasingly complex nature of government and business has raised the use of
research in solving operational problems. Research assumes significant role in the
formulation of economic policy for both, the government and business. It provides the basis
for almost all government policies of an economic system.
• Government budget formulation, for example, depends particularly on the analysis of
needs and desires of people, and the availability of revenues, which requires research.
Research helps to formulate alternative policies, in addition to examining the consequences
of these alternatives. Thus, research also facilitates the decision-making of policy-makers,
although in itself is not a part of research. In the process, research also helps in the proper
allocation of a country’s scarce resources. • Research is also necessary for collecting
information on the social and economic structure of an economy to understand the process
of change occurring in the country. Collection of statistical information, though not a routine
task, involves various research problems. Therefore, large staff of research technicians or
experts are engaged by the government these days to undertake this work.
• Research also assumes significance in solving various operational and planning problems
associated with business and industry. In several ways, operations research, market research
and motivational research are vital and their results assist in taking business decisions.
Market research refers to the investigation of the structure and development of a market for
the formulation of efficient policies relating to purchases, production and sales.
• Research is equally important to social scientists for analyzing the social relationships and
seeking explanations to various social problems. It gives intellectual satisfaction of knowing
things for the sake of knowledge. It also possesses the practical utility for the social scientist
to gain knowledge so as to be able to do something better or in a more efficient manner.
The research in social sciences is concerned with both knowledge for its own sake, and
knowledge for what it can contribute to solve practical problems.

b. Enumerate the different methods of collecting data?

The sources of data can be classified into two types: statistical and non-statistical. Statistical sources
refer to data that is gathered for some official purposes, incorporate censuses, and officially
administered surveys. Non-statistical sources refer to the collection of data for other administrative
purposes or for the private sector.
Primary data
• Primary data means first-hand information collected by an investigator.
• It is collected for the first time.
• It is original and more reliable.
• For example, the population census conducted by the government of India after every ten
years is primary data.

Methods of Collecting Primary Data

i. Direct Personal Investigation

- Under this method, the investigator obtains the first-hand information from the respondents
themselves.
- He personally visits the respondents to collect the information (data).
Merits of direct personal investigation:
(1) Reliable and Accurate
● The data collected is first-hand and original in nature. So, it is more reliable and accurate.
(2) Flexibility
● In this method, the questions can be modified according to the level of the respondent or other
situations.
(3) Additional information
● Some additional information may also be collected along with the required information.
● This additional information can be used in future investigations.
Demerits of direct personal investigation:
(1) Not suitable for a wide area
● It is not suitable when the area of coverage is considerably wide.
(2) Time-consuming
● This method is time-consuming as the investigator personally visits various places and meets
different people to collect information.
(3) Expensive
● This method is expensive, particularly when the field of investigation is large.
(4) Personal bias
● The data collected in this method is subjected to personal bias.
i. Indirect Oral Investigation

- Under this method, instead of directly approaching the informants, the investigators interview
several other persons who are directly or indirectly in touch with the informants.
Merits of indirect oral investigation:
(1) Wide coverage
● A wide area can be brought under investigation through this method.
(2) Economical
● It is economical in terms of time, money, and manpower.
Demerits of indirect oral investigation:
(1) Indirect information
● Since the information is not collected directly from the party, there is a possibility that it will not
be fully true.
(2) Lack of accuracy
● As compared to direct personal investigation, the degree of accuracy of the data is likely to be
lower.
(3) Lack of uniformity
● Information collected from different persons for the same party may not be homogeneous and
comparable.
(4) Possibility of biased information
● Respondent/witness can modify the information according to his personal interest.
ii. Information through Correspondents

- Under this method, local agents or correspondents are appointed and trained to collect the
information from the respondents.

Merits of information through correspondents:

(1) Wide coverage
● This method is useful where the field of investigation is very wide and the information is to be
collected from different parts of the country.
(2) Economical
● This method is quite economical and time-saving.
(3) Suitable for special purposes
● This method is suitable for some special purpose investigations.
(4) Continuity
● It is very useful for collecting information on a regular basis.
Demerits of information through correspondents:
(1) Lack of uniformity
● The information supplied by different correspondents often lacks homogeneity; hence it is not
comparable.
(2) Lack of reliability
● Data obtained using this method may not be very reliable because of the possibility of personal
bias and prejudice of the enumerator.
(3) Less accuracy
● This method cannot be used where a high degree of accuracy is required.
(4) Costly
● A lot of time and money is spent to collect the information through correspondence.

iii. Telephonic interviews

- Under this method, data is collected through interviews over the telephone.
Merits of telephonic interviews:
(1) Wide coverage
● This method is useful where the field of investigation is very wide and the information is to be
collected from different parts of the country.
(2) Economical
● This method is quite economical and time-saving.
(3) Reliability
● The collected data is reliable as it is obtained directly from the party.

Demerits of telephonic interviews:

(1) Limited use
● The disadvantage of this method is limited accessibility to people. This method is not possible for
people who do not own a telephone or mobile.
(2) Visual feedback is not possible
● Telephone interviews also obstruct visual reactions of the respondents, which become helpful in
obtaining information on sensitive issues.

Mailed Questionnaire Method

- Under this method, a questionnaire containing a number of questions related to the investigation is
prepared.
- It is then sent to informants by post along with the instructions to fill.
- The informants, after filling up the questionnaire, send it back to the investigator.

Merits of the mailed questionnaire method:

(1) Wide coverage
● This method is useful where the field of investigation is very wide and the information is to be
collected from different parts of the country.
(2) Economical
● This method is quite economical as it requires less money and labour.
(3) Originality
● The data is very much original because informants are directly involved in the collection of data.
(4) Free from bias
● Every question is interpreted by the respondent in his own way. Hence, it is free from the
personal bias of the investigator.
(5) Maintains secrecy
● This method is suitable for sensitive questions and maintains the anonymity of respondents.

Demerits of the mailed questionnaire method:

(1) Limited scope
● This method is applicable only where the respondents are educated.
(2) Less response
● Most informants do not return the questionnaire.
● The informants are least interested in the investigation; hence, there is a lack of response from
their side.
(3) Chance of misinterpretation
● Informants may not understand the correct sense of some questions, and may not answer them.
Sometimes, informants may provide vague and ambiguous answers.
(4) Time-consuming
● The process is time-consuming, particularly when the information is to be obtained by post.
c. What is the relevance and scope of publishing works in Architectural research? Also
explain the importance of ‘Bibliography’ in research reports.

Importance of Bibliography

• Bibliography is perhaps the most important element in a research exercise. Without

a bibliography, the work is in essence useless. While this may sound extreme, it is
true that research without fact checking is worthless. No professor or referee will
accept a thesis or research paper without citation and citation is incomplete without
a bibliography or reference page.
• The scholars are required to use a format depending on the number of sources used
in the thesis, setting of the sources in the chapters and the source where the
information was taken from. Each element is vital for proper bibliographic listing.
Please remember all your bibliography helps other scholars to find resources they
may not have known to have existed before. It also facilitates the referees or
examiners of the thesis or research paper to trace the steps a student took in
preparing his research work.
• A citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source. More precisely, a
citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression fixed in the body of an
intellectual work that denotes an entry in the bibliographic references section of the
work for the purpose of acknowledging the relevance of the works of others to the
topic of discussion.
Part C
III. Answer any two of the following questions. Each question carries 20 marks:

a. Describe the different types of research, clearly pointing out the difference
between an experiment and survey.

Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular
topic. It is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in
a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and understandings.
According to your Depth of Scope
• Descriptive Research- Descriptive research is a type of research that describes a
population, situation, or phenomenon that is being studied. It focuses on answering the how,
what, when, and where questions If a research problem, rather than the why.
• Analytical Research-It is a specific type of research that involves critical thinking skills and
the evaluation of facts and information relative to the research being conducted. Analytical
research is conducted in a variety of ways including literary research, public opinion,
scientific trials and Meta-analysis
• Exploratory research- It is defined as a research used to investigate a problem which is not
clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better understanding of the existing problem, but
will not provide conclusive results
• Predictive Research -Empirical research concerned with forecasting future events or
behaviour: the assessment of variables at one point in time so as to predict a phenomenon
assessed at a later point in time.

According to the Type of Data Used

• Qualitative Research -They are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and
interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as
discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations
• Quantitative Research-Quantitative research study delves into a phenomenon through
quantitative data collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to
measure them. This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over time.

b. What should be the structure of an effective literature review? Explain the

importance of on-line media in literature reviews.

Functions of a Literature Review:

• It provides a theoretical background to your study.
• It helps you establish the links between what you are proposing to examine and what has
already been studied.
• It enables you to show how your findings have contributed to the existing body of
knowledge in your profession.
• It helps you to integrate your research findings into the existing body of knowledge

Purpose of literature review:

In relation to your own study, the literature review can help in four ways
. It can: • Bring clarity and focus to your research problem;
• Improve your research methodology;
• Broaden your knowledge base in your research area
• Contextualise your findings
There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review:
• Searching for the existing literature in your area of study.
• Reviewing the selected literature
. • Developing a theoretical framework.
• Developing a conceptual framework.
• To search effectively for the literature in your field of enquiry, it is imperative that you
have at least some ideas of the broad subject area and of the problem you wish to
investigate, in order to set parameters for your search. Next, compile a bibliography for this
broad area.
• There are three sources that you can use to prepare a bibliography
: • Books
• Journals
• The Internet.
• To keep track of your references you can prepare your own card index or use a computer
program such as Endnotes or Pro-Cite, Mendeley etc.

Using the online media for Literature Reviews:

• There are several hundred search engines, Web directories, and subject specific
collections on the Internet.
• If your subject area is well represented on the Internet, it's likely that there will be a
subject specific collection.
• We'll take a look at strategies for locating subject specific collections in a moment. • If you
know what category the information, you're looking for falls under (and you can navigate
through sub-categories), then Web directories (e.g., Yahoo, Excite) are a good place to start.
• If you know the title of the publication, or you can describe the contents of publications
that are of interest, then Web search engines can help you locate relevant material

c. What is the significance of report writing? What are the different steps in writing a
report?

In general, reporting writing is very helpful for making the record of documentation. With
the help of reports, we can easily recognize our work. For example, reports play a vital role
in schools and colleges for knowing how many students have joined in this year. Report
writing also helps the director of the industry, business or any organization in order to make
quick decisions and planning of anything. The importance of report writing is that it also
helps to communicate within the company that is workers, to discuss the problems of the
business and to give investor details of everyday running.

Stages of research

1. Identifying the Problem:

• The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to identify a research
problem.

• A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-important phases of the
research process, starting from setting objectives to the selection of the research
methodology. Keeping this point in view, we must draw a line between a research problem
and a non-research problem.

• Intuitively, researchable problems are those who have a possibility of thorough verification
investigation, which can be affected through the analysis and collection of data, while the
non-research problems do not need to go through these processes.

• Researcher need to identify both;

i. Non-research Problem, and

ii. Research Problem.

• A non-research problem is one that does not require any research to arrive at a solution.
Intuitively, a non-researchable problem consists of vague details and cannot be resolved
through research.

2. Reviewing of Literature

• A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables the
researcher to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his
interest that has not been so far researched.

• Through a proper review of the literature, the researcher may develop the coherence
between the results of his study and those of the others.

• If the researcher is aware of earlier studies of his topic, or related topics, he will be in a much
better position to assess the significance of his work and to convince others that it is
important.

• It avoids duplication of the work that has been done in the recent past.

• It helps the researcher to find out what others have learned and reported on the problem.

• It helps the researcher to become familiar with the types of methodology followed by others.

• It helps the researcher to understand what concepts and theories are relevant to his area of
investigation.

• It helps the researcher to understand if there are any significant controversies,

contradictions, and inconsistencies in findings.

3. Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses

 • After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal
statement of the problem leading to research objectives.

• An objective will precisely say what should be researched, to delineate the type of
information that should be collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the study

• A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or supported by

empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research question.

4. Choosing the study design

• The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering
research questions.

• It is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting, processing, and
analyzing the collected data. There are four basic research designs that a researcher can use
to conduct his or her study;

i. survey,

ii. experiment,

iii. secondary data study, and

iv. observational study.

5. Deciding on the sample design

• Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of
sampling is that it involves any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or
portions (called a sample) of a universe (called population) to conclude the whole population.

• It contrasts with the process of complete enumeration, in which every member of the
population is included. Such a complete enumeration is referred to as census.

6. Collecting data

• The gathering of data may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey in any
defined population. There are many ways to collect data.

• The approach selected depends on the objectives of the study, the research design, and the
availability of time, money, and personnel.

• With the variation in the type of data (qualitative or quantitative) to be collected, the
method of data collection also varies.

• The most common means for collecting quantitative data is the structured interview.

• Studies that obtain data by interviewing respondents are called surveys. Data can also be
collected by using self-administered questionnaires. Telephone interviewing records, official
documents, previous surveys, etc.

7. Processing and Analyzing Data

• Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data. Data are edited to
ensure consistency across respondents and to locate omissions, if any.

8. Writing the report

• Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report, Disseminating and Utilizing Results

• The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called a proposal. A
research proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, an offer, a statement of intent or
commitment from an individual researcher or an organization to produce a product or
render a service to a potential client or sponsor.

• A report is an excellent means that helps to establish the researcher’s credibility. At a bare
minimum, a research report should contain sections on: An executive summary; Background
of the problem; Literature review; Methodology; Findings; Discussion; Conclusions and
Recommendations.