SECTION 3

1. Materials are exchanged at exchange surfaces by crossing cell plasma

membranes.
2. Majority of cells are too far from exchange surfaces for diffusion alone to supply
or remove their tissue fluid.
3. Materials are rapidly distributed to the tissue fluid once absorbed and waste
products are returned to the exchange surface for removal.
4. Mass transport system maintains diffusion gradients that bring materials to and
from cell-surface membranes.
5. Size and metabolic rate of an organism affect the amount of material exchanged.
6. Passively or actively exchange takes place for respiratory gases, nutrients, and
waste products.
7. Surface area to volume ratio is important for efficient exchange across the body
surface.
8. Specialized exchange surfaces have large surface areas relative to the volume of
the organism, are thin, and selectively permeable.
9. To maintain a diffusion gradient, the environmental medium needs to move, and
there should be a transport system to ensure the movement of the internal
medium.
10. Factors that affect the rate of diffusion of substances into cells include
concentration gradient, surface area, and length of diffusion path.

Gas exchange in single-celled organisms:

 Small size with large surface area to volume ratio

 Oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange occurs through diffusion across body
surface

Gas exchange in insects:

 Insects have evolved mechanisms to conserve water

 Tracheae, an internal network of tubes, are used for gas exchange
 Tracheoles extend throughout all body tissues, allowing oxygen to be brought
directly to respiring tissues
 Diffusion gradient is created when oxygen is used up by cells, causing gaseous
oxygen to diffuse from atmosphere to cells and carbon dioxide to diffuse from
cells to atmosphere
 Spiracles on body surface are used for gas exchange, with water loss being
prevented by keeping them closed for much of the time
 SECTION 3
 Efficient gas exchange relies mostly on diffusion and requires short diffusion
pathway, limiting the size insects can attain

 Gills are a specialised internal gas exchange surface in fish, similar to the lungs in
humans and tracheal tubes in insects.
 Countercurrent flow is a mechanism that increases the efficiency of gas exchange
in fish gills.
 Gill lamellae increase the surface area of the gills and are arranged at right angles
to the filaments.
 Countercurrent flow involves water and blood flowing in opposite directions over
the gill lamellae.
 Maintaining a difference in oxygen concentration and a diffusion gradient across
the entire length of the gill lamellae is key to efficient gas exchange.
 The countercurrent exchange system allows for about 80% of the available
oxygen in water to be absorbed into the blood of the fish.
 If the flow of water and blood were in the same direction, only 50% of the
available oxygen would be absorbed by the blood.

Remember to refer to blood and water flowing in opposite directions in the

countercurrent system, and note that countercurrent flow is an efficient means of
exchanging gases across the gills of fish.

 Plant cells, like animal cells, require oxygen and produce carbon dioxide during
respiration.
 During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen, which
reduces gas exchange with the external air.
 When photosynthesis is taking place, most of the carbon dioxide is obtained
from the external air, while most of the oxygen diffuses out of the plant.
 When photosynthesis is not occurring, oxygen diffuses into the leaf and carbon
dioxide diffuses out.
 Diffusion takes place in the gas phase, which makes it more rapid than if it were
in water.
 Leaves have adaptations for rapid diffusion, including small pores called stomata,
interconnecting air-spaces throughout the mesophyll, and a large surface area of
mesophyll cells.
 SECTION 3
 Plants have evolved to balance the conflicting needs of gas exchange and control
of water loss.

 Terrestrial organisms like insects and plants face a challenge in balancing the
need for efficient gas exchange with the requirement to conserve water.
 The gas exchange surfaces of terrestrial organisms are inside the body, which
makes water conservation a challenge.
 Insects have adaptations to reduce water loss, such as small surface area to
volume ratio and the ability to close spiracles.
 Plants cannot have a small surface area to volume ratio because they need a
large surface area for photosynthesis. They have a waterproof covering over parts
of the leaves and can close stomata to reduce water loss.
 Xerophytes are plants adapted to living in areas with limited water supply and
have various adaptations to reduce water loss, such as needle-like leaves and a
thick waxy cuticle.
 The main way to survive in habitats with limited water supply is to reduce the rate
of water loss through evaporation.
 Modifications to leaves, such as rolling, thick layers of hairs, and reduced surface
area to volume ratio, can reduce water loss.

 Mammals have a large volume of living cells and maintain a high body
temperature, which requires efficient gas exchange.
 Lungs are specialized surfaces in mammals for efficient gas exchange between air
and blood.
 Lungs are located inside the body to protect delicate structures and prevent
water loss.
 Lungs consist of highly branched tubules called bronchioles that end in tiny air
sacs called alveoli.
 The tracheal walls are made up of muscle, lined with ciliated epithelium and
goblet cells.
 The alveoli are lined with epithelium and have elastic fibers that allow them to
stretch and spring back during breathing.
 The volume of oxygen absorbed and carbon dioxide removed is large in
mammals due to their size and high metabolic and respiratory rates.
 SECTION 3
 Air is forced out of the lungs when the air pressure in the lungs is greater than
that of the atmosphere.
 There are three sets of muscles that control pressure changes within the lungs:
the diaphragm and two sets of intercostal muscles.
 Breathing in is an active process that uses energy, and it occurs when the external
intercostal muscles contract, the diaphragm muscles contract and flatten, and the
volume of the thorax increases. This results in a decrease in pressure in the lungs,
and air is forced into the lungs due to the greater atmospheric pressure.
 Breathing out is a largely passive process that does not require much energy. It
occurs when the internal intercostal muscles contract, the diaphragm muscles
relax and are pushed up by the contents of the abdomen that were compressed
during inspiration, and the decreased volume of the thorax increases the pressure
in the lungs. This results in a greater pulmonary pressure than atmospheric
pressure, and air is forced out of the lungs.

 The site of gas exchange in mammals is the epithelium of the alveoli, which are
minute air sacs in the lungs.
 To maintain a diffusion gradient at the alveolar surface, exchange surfaces must
be thin, partially permeable, and have a large surface area.
 The movement of both the environmental medium (air) and the internal medium
(blood) is necessary to maintain a diffusion gradient.
 The alveoli are easily damaged and are often located inside an organism for
protection. In mammals, breathing is necessary for ventilation of the lungs.
 There are about 300 million alveoli in each human lung, with a total surface area
of around 70 m2.
 Each alveolus is lined with epithelial cells only 0.05 µm to 0.3 µm thick, and
surrounded by a network of pulmonary capillaries.
 Diffusion of gases between the alveoli and the blood is rapid due to factors such
as slowed red blood cells in capillaries, reduced distance between alveolar air and
red blood cells, thin walls of alveoli and capillaries, and a large surface area.
 Breathing movements and blood flow through the pulmonary capillaries maintain
a steep concentration gradient of gases for efficient exchange.
 The diffusion of gases in an alveolus is illustrated in Figure 4.
 SECTION 3
 The human digestive system is a long muscular tube with associated glands.
 Enzymes produced by these glands hydrolyze large molecules into smaller ones
for absorption.
 The digestive system is an exchange surface for absorption of food substances.
 Major parts of the digestive system include the esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, colon, rectum, and anus.
 The stomach stores and digests food, especially proteins, with the help of
enzymes produced by its walls and glands.
 Enzymes in the ileum walls and glands further digest food and absorb water.
 The inner walls of the ileum are folded into villi to increase surface area.
 Digestion breaks down food physically and chemically.
 Enzymes are important for digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
 All digestive enzymes function by hydrolysis.
 Carbohydrases hydrolyze carbohydrates into monosaccharides and require more
than one enzyme for complete hydrolysis.
 Amylase is produced in the mouth and pancreas to hydrolyze starch into maltose.
 Maltase, produced by the ileum lining, hydrolyzes maltose into glucose.
 Muscles in the intestine wall push food along the ileum, where it is further
digested and absorbed.
Structure of the ileum:

 The ileum is designed for absorbing the products of digestion.

 It has a folded wall with finger-like projections called villi.
 The villi have thin walls lined with epithelial cells, and a network of blood
capillaries on the other side.
 Villi increase the surface area of the ileum, accelerating the rate of absorption.
 Epithelial cells on the villi possess microvilli, further increasing the surface area for
absorption.

Adaptations for absorption in the ileum:

 The ileum uses diffusion and co-transport to absorb products of digestion.

 Glucose and amino acids are absorbed using these processes.
 Triglycerides are absorbed through the formation of micelles and are transported
to the endoplasmic reticulum, where they are recombined into triglycerides.
 Triglycerides then combine with cholesterol and lipoproteins to form
chylomicrons, which are released from epithelial cells through exocytosis.
 SECTION 3
 Chylomicrons pass through lymphatic vessels into the bloodstream, where they
are hydrolyzed by an enzyme in endothelial cells of blood capillaries and diffused
into cells.

 Proteins have a specific shape that is important to their function.

 Hemoglobin is a protein with a quaternary structure, made up of four
polypeptide chains linked together.
 Hemoglobin can bind with oxygen in a process called loading or associating, and
release oxygen in a process called unloading or dissociating.
 Hemoglobin with a high affinity for oxygen binds easily but releases it less easily,
while hemoglobin with a low affinity for oxygen binds less easily but releases it
more easily.
 Hemoglobin's ability to bind and release oxygen is important for its function in
transporting oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
 Hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen can change under different conditions, such as
in the presence of carbon dioxide.

 Haemoglobin does not bind oxygen evenly when exposed to different partial
pressures of oxygen, resulting in a graph called the Oxygen Dissociation Curve.
 The shape of the haemoglobin molecule makes it difficult for the first oxygen
molecule to bind, but the binding of the first molecule changes the quaternary
structure of the haemoglobin molecule, making it easier for the other subunits to
bind to an oxygen molecule.
 Different species have different types of haemoglobin molecules with different
shapes and affinities for oxygen, and the shape of haemoglobin can change
under different conditions, resulting in many different oxygen dissociation curves.
 The further left the curve, the greater the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen,
while the further right the curve, the lower the affinity of haemoglobin for
oxygen.
 Haemoglobin has a reduced affinity for oxygen in the presence of carbon dioxide,
and the greater the concentration of carbon dioxide, the more readily
haemoglobin releases its oxygen (the Bohr effect).
 The reduced carbon dioxide concentration shifts the oxygen dissociation curve to
the left, while the increased carbon dioxide concentration shifts the curve to the
right.
 SECTION 3
 The pH at the gas-exchange surface is slightly raised due to the low
concentration of carbon dioxide, which changes the shape of haemoglobin to
one that enables it to load oxygen readily and increases its affinity for oxygen.
 The lower pH in respiring tissues changes the shape of haemoglobin into one
with a lower affinity for oxygen, enabling it to release oxygen into the tissues.

 Diffusion is only efficient for short distances.

 Larger organisms require a mass transport system to efficiently supply materials
over larger distances.
 Organisms exchange materials between themselves and their environment, and
in small organisms, this exchange occurs over the surface of the body.
 As organisms increase in size, their surface area to volume ratio decreases,
making it difficult to meet their needs through body surface alone.
 Whether an organism requires a specialized transport medium and pump
depends on its surface area to volume ratio and how active it is.
 Many organisms' transport systems share common features, including a suitable
medium, a form of mass transport, a closed system of tubular vessels, a
mechanism for moving the transport medium, and a means of controlling its flow
to suit different parts of the organism.
 Animals use muscular contraction, either of the body muscles or a specialized
pumping organ like the heart, to move the transport medium within vessels.
 Mammals have a closed, double circulatory system in which blood is confined to
vessels and passes twice through the heart for each complete circuit of the body.
 Although a transport system is used to move substances longer distances, the
final exchange from blood vessels into cells is rapid because it takes place over a
large surface area, across short distances, and there is a steep diffusion gradient.

 There are two pumps in the heart, one deals with oxygenated blood from the
lungs and the other with deoxygenated blood from the body.
 The ventricle has a thick muscular wall that contracts strongly to pump blood
some distance to either the lungs or the rest of the body.
 Mammals have a system where blood is returned to the heart to increase its
pressure before distributing it to the rest of the body, to prevent a drop in
pressure and slow blood flow.
 The left and right ventricles are separated to keep oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood separate.
 SECTION 3
 Each chamber of the heart is connected to large blood vessels carrying blood
towards or away from the heart.
 The aorta is connected to the left ventricle and carries oxygenated blood to all
parts of the body except the lungs.
 The vena cava is connected to the right atrium and brings deoxygenated blood
back from the tissues of the body (except the lungs).
 The pulmonary artery is connected to the right ventricle and carries
deoxygenated blood to the lungs, and the pulmonary vein is connected to the
left atrium and brings oxygenated blood back from the lungs.
 The heart muscle is supplied by its own blood vessels called coronary arteries,
which branch off the aorta shortly after it leaves the heart.
 A heart attack occurs when an area of the heart muscle is deprived of blood and
oxygen.

 The heart undergoes a sequence of events that is repeated around 70 times each
minute when at rest.
 The cardiac cycle involves contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) of the
heart.
 Valves control the flow of blood separately in the ventricles and atria in two
stages.
 During relaxation of the heart (diastole), blood returns to the atria through the
pulmonary vein and the atrioventricular valves open to allow blood to pass into
the ventricles.
 During contraction of the ventricles (ventricular systole), blood is forced out of
the ventricles and into the aorta and pulmonary artery, with the semi-lunar valves
preventing backflow of blood.
 Valves in the cardiovascular system prevent backflow of blood when pressure
differences would result in blood flowing in the opposite direction from that
which is desirable.
 The pressure and volume changes in the heart during the cardiac cycle are
regulated to maintain a closed circulatory system.

 There are different types of blood vessels: arteries, arterioles, capillaries, and
veins.
 SECTION 3
 Arteries carry blood away from the heart and into arterioles. Arterioles are smaller
arteries that control blood flow from arteries to capillaries. Capillaries are tiny
vessels that link arterioles to veins.
 Arteries, arterioles, and veins all have the same basic layered structure, but the
relative proportions of each layer differ between each type of blood vessel.
 Arteries have a thick muscle layer and a relatively thick elastic layer to transport
blood rapidly under high pressure from the heart to the tissues.
 Arterioles have a relatively thicker muscle layer than arteries and a relatively
thinner elastic layer to carry blood under lower pressure from arteries to
capillaries.
 Veins have a relatively thin muscle layer and a relatively thin elastic layer to
transport blood slowly under low pressure from capillaries in tissues to the heart.
They also have valves to ensure that blood flows towards the heart and does not
flow backwards.
 Capillaries have a thin lining layer, a narrow diameter, and a narrow lumen to
exchange metabolic materials between the blood and the cells of the body. They
allow for rapid diffusion of materials between the blood and the cells, and no cell
is far from a capillary.

 Water in flowering plants is mostly transported through xylem vessels.

 Transpiration, the evaporation of water from leaves, is the main force that pulls
water through xylem vessels.
 Water evaporates from the surfaces of cells surrounding stomata, and diffuses
out of air spaces into the surrounding air.
 Water lost from mesophyll cells by evaporation is replaced by water from the
xylem either via cell walls or via the cytoplasm.
 Water moves up the stem in the xylem due to the cohesion-tension theory, which
creates a negative pressure within the xylem vessels.
 Xylem vessels have no end walls, which allows water to move continuously from
roots to leaves.
 Figure 4 summarizes the movement of water from the soil, through the plant, and
into the atmosphere.

 Translocation is the process by which organic molecules and some mineral ions
are transported within a plant.
 SECTION 3
 Phloem is the tissue responsible for transporting biological molecules in
flowering plants.
 Phloem is made up of sieve tube elements, which are long thin structures
arranged end to end.
 Sugars produced during photosynthesis are transported from the sites of
production (sources) to the places where they will be used directly or stored for
future use (sinks).
 The mechanism of translocation involves the active transport of sucrose into sieve
elements from photosynthesising tissue, followed by the bulk movement of
sucrose through sieve tube elements via mass flow.
 Mass flow occurs due to a hydrostatic pressure gradient created by water moving
from the xylem into the sieve tubes by osmosis.
 The high hydrostatic pressure at the source and low hydrostatic pressure at the
sink cause a mass flow of sucrose solution down this gradient in the sieve tubes.
 Sucrose is actively transported out of the sieve tubes and into sink cells by
companion cells.
 Evidence supports and questions the mass flow hypothesis for the mechanism of
translocation.

 Woody stems have an outer layer of bark and an inner layer of phloem that
extends around the stem.
 In a ringing experiment, a section of the bark and phloem is removed around the
whole circumference of the stem while it's still attached to the plant.
 After some time, the region above the removed tissue swells while the region
below it withers and dies.
 This suggests that the phloem is responsible for transporting sugars in plants.
 Tracer experiments using radioactive isotopes can be used to trace the
movement of substances in plants.
 The blackened regions on X-ray film correspond to where phloem tissue is in the
stem, indicating that phloem is responsible for sugar transport.