SWITCHGEAR PROTECTION

AND
POWER SYSTEMS
(Theory, Practice and Solved Problems)
i A textbook for B.E., B. Tech., M_E. (Electrical),
‘t Technical
: Teacher “s s Training,
Training, Power Engineering
Other
ne Related Books of Special Interest Training Chores and a ready reference book for Engineers in Electricity Boards, Projects, Consultants,
“Testing, Commissioning, Operation and Maintenance of Electrical Equipment”, Switchgear Industry, Power Sector covering EVERY topic on Switchgear Protection. and Power
dy S, Rao System Operation and Automation.
* “Power Transformers and Special Transformers”, by S. Rao
a ©. "Electrical Substation Engineering and Practice”, by S. Rao
a “EHYV-A.C. and HVDC Transmission and Distribution”, by S. Rao
# “Energy Technology — (Non-conventional, Renewable & Conventional)”,
by Dr. B.B. Parulekar and 8. Rao
« Utilization Generation & Conservation of Electrical nergy by Sunil
S, Rao
a “Handbook of Electrical Engincerng” by S.L. Bhatia
« “Electrical Safety, Fire Safety Engineering and Management”
by Prof. H.L. Saluja & S. Rao, New Arrival, Jan. 1999,
w# Industrial Safety, Health and Enviornment Management Systems
by Sunil S, Rao & Er. R.K. Jain SUNIL 8S. RAO
a ALE, (Electrical), M_LE.
Electrical Power by S.L, Uppal & Sunil S. Rao
u Electrical Engineering Technology by Dr. N. Datia
a
# Electrical Machinery by Dr. P.S. Bimbhra
a Electrical Machinery by Dr, S.K. Sen ; |
.
e Electrical Measurement and Measuring Instruments by } |
Dr. R. Prasad
a Generalised Theory of Electrical Machines by Dr. PS,
Bimbhra
u High Voltage Cable Accessories and Cable Instal
lation by T.S. Swaminathan
a High Voltage Engineering by Dr. M.P. Chaursia
« Industrial and Power Electronics by G.K. Mithal
a = Linear Control Systems by B.S. Manhke
. :
« Power Electronics by Dr. P.S. Bimbhra - —
a Power System Analysis by Prof. 8.8. Vadhera x
# Utilization of Electrical Power and Traction by G.C.
Garg . KHANNA
Note : These books are of Topical Interest to Students
and Professionals.
4575/15, Onkar House, Opp. Happy School,
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Phones : 23243042 eFax : 23243043
 Published by:
Romesh Chander Khanna
for KHANNA PUBLISHERS
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Nai Sarak, Dethi-110006,

ISBN No. 81-7469-232-3

All Rights Reserved. Reproductions from this book are stricly prohibit
ed except for Reviews.
No written matter and ilustrations shall be reproduced without written
consent from the
Publishers and the Author.
Reproductions in this book are with express permission from
the correspondingn
manufacturers, They have been duly acknowledged by the author.

Dedicated to
Saroj, Sheetal and Chetan

First Edition : 1973

Eleventh Edition
Twelfth Edition
; 1999 (10 Reprints) |
/ 2007, September
Thirteenth Edition « 2008, October
Fourth Reprint : 2010 |
!
. .

Price : Rs. 250.00 |

Computertypetset at: Softserve Computer Systems,

Delhi
Printed at:. Mohanlal Printers, Delhi.
 FOREWORD
° PREFACE TO THE THIRTEENTH EDITION
— There has been a long-fel
felt t need
n of a book giv g comprehensive and system The widespread acceptance of the earlier Editions promoted this revised and enlarged edition.
Switchgear and Protection atic information of
and Power System Stud The book presents in-depth knowledge about the principles and practices of modern power systern
this need by publishin Pa book €s", The author is to be congratulated for fulfilling
. I: hri Sunil S.Rao, engineering. It gives an integrated approach to the complex phenomena related with Switchgear,
student of mine and I am very the author of IS ¢
happy
py te itee te
to writ this foreword, Protection, Fault-Calculations, Power System Analysis-Operation-Control-Automation, Digital relays,
Homme nner ofthe book,
is un ol Micra-processor based Relays and Microprocessor based Integrated Control and Protection Systems,
and holds a first class BE. degr Energy Systems.
ee in Electrical
{ class MLE, degree in ‘Power Syst The book will serve as a regular text book for electrical engineering courses to prepare the
ems’ of Poona
1 the reputed Electrical Firms and students for the careers in power sector. The book will also serve as a reference book to electrical
KGrlosker Electrical Co Lid, Bangalor engineers working in power sector, electrical manufacturing industry, academic and testing
e
. He is working at Maulana Azad Regional institutions, ctc.
hopal, as a lecturer in+ Electrical
: R
®
“Switchgear Protection and Engineering, and has been teach Since the publication of the first edition of the book Switchgear and Protection in 1973, many
Power Systems” ing
t deaThe on advances have occured in field of the Switchgear, Protection and Power System Automation. While
author
prihneigee"esente 4 the subject
j matter in five sections, spre| ad the conventional protection and switching devices will continue to serve, entirely new type of devices
civeuit breakers fees? oom over 59 chapters. Sectio
interruption, constructional and techniques are now available. The development of SF, and Vacuum circuit-breakers have made
choice, energy maintenan and operational aspects of
ee and tonne vario . the other types nearly obsolete. The static relays have replaced the electro-mechanical relays. EHV-
vacum circuit breakers, and
1 3 disc usse s abou t the
apparatus. EHV A.C. Transm estingof high volt AC and HVDC transmission are now commercially successful, Large interconnected networks are
ission and EVpC tranem wi
iseion voltage switehgear and being automatically controfled from load contro! centres by means of on-line SCADA, AGC and EMS
Section II deals with fa me Systems. The developments in power electronics have resulted in the successful use of static VAR
in the calculation of fault Sources (SVS), HVDC Convertors etc, Digital computers and microprocessors are being increasingly
oy
used for protection and automation. Fibre-optic cables have been successfully used for data
transmission.
Due to the energy crisis and increasing capital costs of power projects, there is a world-wide
trend towards interconnecting adjacent AC Networks by means of EHV-AC or HVDC links.
The techniques of testing and maintenance have advanced with an aim of increased reliability
us pics in power system controls, appl and availability of electrical power supply. Knowledge of specifications, testing, maintenance,
ications of digital computer
quency control and back-up protecti
Power System Network
, Voltage contr
oltage control
i
and compensation of Reactive
on, Power-System Stability
Power, Voltage Stability
commissioning has gained significance. The power system analysis techniques have also advanced
significantly, ,
Automation have been explained India and other developing countries have ambitions development plans in power sector, Some
landmarks in the power sector of India include indigenous capability of design, manufacture and
commissioning of EHV-AC Sub-stations and apparatus, establishment of 400 kV. AC network,
introduction of HVDC Systems, interconnections between Regional Grids, introduction of static
relays and static protection systems, increasing use of digital computers and microprocessors,
expansion of testing facilities, etc.
The technology of protection and automation have been revolutionised by the introduction of
microprocessor based combined protection, control, monitoring systems, Such systems have been
chapter, the book may ser mary and : introduced for substation protection, generator protection, HVDC protection. This book covers the
ve as a text bo. ok in univ
ersities for a course in “Switc cach
Power Systems” in the h hgear Protection and principles and applications of this latest technology and the important topics in Interconnected
under-topra
Poduate
we pos tgr .
a useful guide and refere adu ate curriculum. The book shou Power Systems. The new chapters include EHV-AC Transmission, HVDC Transmission Systems,
nce nemeers, considering the vol ld also serve ag
provides, ume of practical intarmation Interconnections, Power System Automation with SCADA Systems, Power System Planning, Latest
it
Power map of India, Microprocessor based Protection. Energy Technology-Renewable and
Zamwtit
of ver
ing
y pro
theudPor
of ena
theoayoueengthis bow and Expr
author ex ess my Sincere thanks to him for givi Nonconventional and Conventional, The Corelation between Energy Sector and Pawer sector has
ng me the privile Be been illustrated.
Chapters on Power system Calculations and Load Flow Studies, The principles and precedures
B.H.KARAKARADDI of network calculations and load flow studies have been simplified and explained by a few sclved
B.Sc. (Hons), DLT Se. examples, “Recent Advances’ in Intelligent Circuit Brea kers, Fiber-optic Cable Applicaions, Compact
BSc. {Tech} tManch.), FILE
Intelligent Substations, ISO-9000 and TQMI are covered in Appendix-A, while Appendix-B highlights
Sen. M, LEE.
Kan overall system description of Distribution Management System.
Principal
arnataka Regional Engg. Coll The patronage of Academic Institutions and Power System Engineers to
ege this book is-hereby
Surathal, (Si) gratefully acknowledged.
Karnatehe,
— Author
 CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Author gratefully acknowledges SECTION I — SWITCHGEAR AND SUB-STATION APPARATUS
the assistance by various Manutacturer
s and Organisations :
international Electrotechnical Commission. 1. INTRODUCTION ; 1-15
Indian Bureau of Standards. .
British Standards Institution, oe Switchgear and Protection
1.2. Sub-station Equipment ;
3
AEG, West German y. 1.3. Faults and Abnormal Conditions 4
ABB, Sweden. 1.4. Fault Calculations 4
The Aluminium Industries Ltd. India.
Bharat Heavy Electricals Lid. 1 di rp. Boule Viearing Frocess
1.6, Protective Relaying ,5
General Electric, U.S.A as Mata. £7. Neutral Grounding (Farthing) and Equipment Grounding 5
GEC Alsth Lt va, 1.8. Over-voltages and Insulation Co-ordination 6
. sthom Ltd., Bagland. _ 1.9, Some Terms in the Test
Hindustan Brown 6
Boveri ltd (ABB), India. 1.10, Standard Specifications
Hi-Velm Industries Pvt, Ltd. India. 7
1.11. Electro-mechanical Relays and Static Relays 8
Indian Aluminium Company Ltd., India. 1.12, Applications of On-line Digital Computers Microprocessors And
Jyoti Ltd., India. Static Protective/control Devices in Power System
Kirlosker Electric Co, Lid., India, 8
1.13. Interconnected Power System
; Larsen & Toubro Ltd,, India. 9
1.14. Load-frequency Control, Load Shedding
MCB (india) Pvt. Ltd., India. 10
1.15. Voltage Levels in Network and Sub-stations
ne

‘Mitsubishi Electrical Corporation, Japan, iE

1.16. Voltage Control of AC Network
ae

Reyrolle Parson Ltd., England. it

1.17. Statie Var Sources (SVS)
A

13
a

Siemens India Ltd, 1.18. Power System Stability

2

Universal Electric Ltd., India.

13
1.19. HYD Obtion
©

14
Westinghouse Electric Corporation., U.S.A. 1.20. Power System Analysis
=a

14
1.21. Power System Network Calculations and Load Flow 15
1.22. Objective and Tasks 16

2. HIGH-VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT-BREAKERS 16-31

2.1. Introduction 16
2.2. The Fault Clearing Process 16
2.3, The Trip-circuit
vi
2.4, Recent Advances i?
2.5. Classification Based on Are Quenching Mediam 18
2.5, Technical Particulars ofa Circuit-breaker 19
2.7, Assembly of Outdoor Circuit-breakers 20
2.8, Structural Form of Circuit-breakers 22
2.9. Operating Mechanisms 22
2.9.1. Closing Operation 23
2.9.2. Opening Operation 24
2.9.3. Closing Followed by Opening Operating LO 24
2.9.4, Types of Mechanisms ‘ 24
2,10. Interlocks, Indication and Auxiliary Switch. 26
2.11. Circuit-breaker Time (Total Break Time) 27
2.12. Auto Reclosure 27
2.13, Auto Reclosure of EHV Circuit Breakers for Transmission Lines 28
2.14. Auto Reclosure for Distribution Lines (Upto 33 kv) 29
2.15. Weight Operated Reclosing, Pole Mounted Circuit-breakers 29
 (x) (xe)
2.16. Prip-free Feature
2.17. Materials 30 4.18.19. Rated Single Capacitor Bank Breaking Current 71
, 3.18.20. Permissible Maximum Switching Over-voltages When Interrupling
2.18. Design and Development 30
30 Line-Charging, Cuble-charging and Single Capacitor Bank Breaking
. FUNDAMENTALS OF FAULT CLEARING Current V1
AND CIRCUIT-BREAKER RATING NS SNIDCHING PHENOMENA 2 3.18.21. Rated Capacitor Bank Inrush Making Current 71
3.1. Introduction 32-73 3.18.22. Rated Small Inductive Breaking Current 71
4.2, 3.19. Reignition and Restrike 72
Network Parameters : R,L,¢ 3
3.3, Voltage Equation of an RLC Series 32
Circuit
3.4, Sudden Short Circuit of R.L, Series d4
Circuit 4, THE ARC-EXTINCTION 74-82
3.5, Sub-transient, Transient and Steady 34
State 4.1. Introduction
4.6, Current Interruption in A.C. Circuit-br 38 V4
eakors 4.2, The Matter and Plasma
3.7. Transient Recovery Voltage (PRV) 41 44
3.7.1. Effect of Natural Frequency of TRV 42 4.3, Jonization of Gases 5
3.7.2. Effect of Power-factor on TRV 44 4.4, Deionization 16
3.7.3. Effect of Reactance-drop on Power-fr 44 4.5. Electric Arc 76
equency Recovery Voltage 4.6. Arve Formation in A.C, Cireuit-broakers
3.7.4. Effect of Armature Reaction 45 7
on Recovery Voltage 4.7, Modes At Arc Extinction
3.7.5. lffect of the First-pole-io-clear 45 78
3.7.6, The First-pole-to-clear Facto 45 4.7.1, High Resistance Interruption, Blow-out Coils 78
r 4.7.2, Low Resistance of Zero Point Extinction
3.8. Single Frequency Transient a5 79
3.9. Double Frequency Transients 4.8. Arc Interruption Theories 80)
é
3.10, Rate of Rise of TRV ‘7 4.9. Arc Extinction in’ Oil 81
3.11. Resistance Switching, Damping of 8 4.10. Are Extinction in Vacuum 82
TRV, Opening Resistors 4,11. Arc Extinction in Air-blast
3.12. Interruption of Low Magnetizing Curre 53 82
nt, Current Chopping 4.12. Are Extinction in SF, Gas
. 3.138. Use of Opening Resistors 5: 82
wien Switching of Capacitor Bank 56 4.13. Arc Time Constant 82
s
3.14, 3.13.2
Inter . Switc
vupti ne hing
the Term
of inal
Unio: Pence " emission 51
issi Lines
i and Unloaded
é Cable
3 s 58
3.15. Interrupting Short Line Fault 5. AIR-BREAK CIRCUIT-BREAKER 83-88
s (Kilometric Fault)
3.16. Phase Opposition Switching 59 5.1. Introduction ; 83
3.17, Specifying the TRY Wave ‘0 5.2, Construction of Air-break Circvit-breaker 83
3.18. Rated Characteristics of Circu a1 5.3. Arc Extinction in A.C, Air-break CB. 84
it-breakers
3.18.1, Rated Voltage $1 5.4. Lengthening of Arc by Means of Magnetic Fields 85
3.18.2, Rated Insulation Level ot 5.5. Description of a Low Voltage Air-breaker Circuit-breaker 85
3.18.3, Rated Frequency. 61 5.6. Operating Mechanisms for Air-break Circuit-breakers 87
3.18.4. Rated Normal Current (Rate 62 5.7, Series Connected Over Load Trip Coil Arrangement 87
d Current)
3.18.5, Rated Short Circuit-breakin 63 5.8. Air-break D.C. Circuit-breakers for Medium Voltages 87
g Current
3.18.6, Rated Short-circuit Maki 63 5.9. Miniature Circuit-breaker, Moulded Case Circuit-breakers 88
ng Current
3.18.7, Rated Duration of Short-cire o4
uit (Rated Short Time Current}
3.18.8. Rated Operating Sequence és
(Duty Cycle)
3.18.9, Rated Transient Recovery Volta 65 6 AIR BLAST CIRCUIT-BREAKER 89-96
ge for Terminal Faults
3.18.10, Representation of a TRV Wave 66 6.1. Introduction
form by Four Parameter Method 89
3.18.11, Representation of PRY Wave 66 6.2. Construction of an Air Blast Circuit-breaker
form by ‘T'wo-parameter Method 89
3.18.12, Rated Peak Withstand Curre 6.3. Principle of Are Quenching in Abcbs 91
nt
3.18.13. Rated Quantities for Auxiliary és 6.4. Circuit-breakers with External Extinguishing Energy 92
Circuits and Operating Mechanisms
Opening and Closi For
ng 6.5. Resistance Switching in Abch 93
3,18.14, Rated Pressure of Supply for Pneu 69 6.6. Voltage Distribution in Multi-break Circuit-breakers
matic and Hydraulic Operating Devices
3.18.15. Rated Pressure of Interrupting Medi 69 (abch-mocb, SF) 94
um and Insulating Medium -
3.18.16. Summary of Rated Characteristics of HV (A.C.) 89
Circuit-breakers 6.7. Reducing Switching Over-voltages by
3.18.17. Rated Out-of-phase Brea 6g Pre-closing Resistor
king Current 85
3.18.18. Rated Cable-charging Brea 6.8. Generator Circuit Breakers 95
king Current
nl 6%. Compressed Air System for ABCB 96
 {até}
(xtlz)
7. SULPHUR HEXAFLUORIDE (S¥,) CIRCUIT-BREAKER AND SF,
INSULA TED METALCLAD SWITCHGEAR (GIS) 9. VACUUM INTERRUPTER AND VACCUM CIRCUIT-BREAKER 138-153
97-121 9.1. Introduction 138
Part I: Properties of SF, Gas
7.1. Intreduction 9.2. Electrical Breakdown in High Vacuum 139
7.2, Physical Properties of Sf Gas 37 9.3, Are Extinction in Vacuum Interrupters 140
7.3. Chemical Properties of SF, Gas a7 9.4, Construction of a Vacuum Interrupter 146
7.4, Dielectric Properties of SF, Gas 98 9.5, Arc Interruption in High Vacuum 142
a9 9.6. Degree of Vacuum in Interrupters 142
7.6. Are Extinction in SP, Circuit-br
eakers 9.6.1. Construction of a Vacuum Interrupter
100 142
7.6.1. Single Pressure Puffor Type Circuit-br 9.7. Interruption of Short-circuit Currents in Vacuum Interrupters
eaker with Single Flow 143
of Quenching Medium 9.8. Design Aspects of Vacuum Interrupters
7.5.2, Double Flaw of Quenching Medium 101 144
9.8.1. Length of Interrupter 144
163
Part II : Outdoor SF, Circuit Breakers $.8.2. Contact Travel (Contact (GAP) 144
7.6, Types Design - 9.8.3. Contact Shape
103 144
7.7. Single Pressure Puffer Type SI, Cireu 9.8.4. Contact Size and Shape for Required Short-cireuit Breaking Current
it-breaker 145
7.7.1. Configuration of a Single Pressure 104 9.8.5. Contact Material ,
Puffer Type EHV Cireuit-breaker 147
7.8, Double Pressure Dead Tank SF, 105 9.9. Time/travel Characteristics
C.B. (Now Obsolete) 147
7.9. Merits of SF, Circuit-breakers 106 9.10, Contact Pressure 148
7,10. Some Demerits of SF, Circuit-br 107 9.11. Contact Acceleration During Opening 148
eaker 9.12. Contact Erosion
7.11, SFg Filled Load Break Switches 107 148
9.13. Vacuum Level and Shelf Life of Interrupters
7.12. Gas Monitoring and Gas Handling 107 149
Systems 9.14. Checking of Vacuum 149
Part IIL: SF¢ Insulated Metalead 108 9.15, Range of Vacuum Switchgear, Vacuum Controlgear and Vacuum Circuit-breakers
Switchgear (Sub-Station) 149
7.13. Introduetian to SI's Switchgear 9,16. Merits of VCB’s
(GIS) 151
7.14. Advantages of SF, Switchgear 108 9.17, Demerits of VCB’s 151
7.15. Demerits of SF, Insulated 109 9.18. Switching Phenomena with VCB
Switchgear 15]
7.16. General Constructional Features 109 9.18.1. Reignition in Vacuum Circuit-breakers
of SF,-Gas insulated 151
Switchgear (GIS) ‘9.18.2, Capabilities of Modern Circuit Breakers for Medium Voltages 152
* 9.18.3, Switching Over-voltage Problem with Veb for Motor Switching Duty,
7,17. Gas Monitoring 109
7.18. 4 RC Surge Suppressors 152
Gas Filling and Monitoring System
for SF, Switchgear
7.19. Transportation and Handling of 118
SF, Gas
7.20, Gas Transfer Units 118 10. TESTING OF HIGH VOLTAGE A.C, CIRCUIT-BREAKER 154-163
7,21, S¥, Insulated EHV Transmission 1g
Cables (GIC) 10.1. Classification of the Test
145 18d
10.2. Type ‘Tests
7-4. Routine, Site/Field Testing of GIS 10.2.1. Mechanical Test (Endurance Tests)
155
122-430 166
7.22. Routine Testing of GIS 16.2,2. Temperature-rise Tests
156
7.23, Stte/field Testing of GIS 122 10.2.3. Measurement of D.C. Resistance
157
128 10.2.4. Millivelt Drop Tests
157
8. MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT-BREA 10.2.5. No-load Operation Tests and Oscillographie and Other Records
KER AND BULK OIL CIRCUIT-B 157
8.1, Introduction REAKER | "451-137 10.2.6, Dielectric Tests
158
8.2, Tank Type Bull Oil Circuit-br | 131 10,2,7, Basic Short-circuit Test Duties
eaker (Now Obsolete} 158
8.3. Minimum Gil Circuit-breaker 131 16.3, Routine Tests
155
8.4. Principle of Arc-extinction on 133 10.4. Development Tests
Oil Breakers 159
8.5, Pre-arcing Phenomenon 134 16.5. Reliability Tests
159
8.6, Sensitivity to TRV 135 10.6. Commissioning Tests
\ 166
8.7. Circuit-breakers with Internal 135 10.7. Insulation Resistance Measurement at Site
Sources of Extinguishing Energy— 161
Critical Current 10.8, High Voltage Power Frequency Withstand ‘Test (Routine Test)
162
8.8. Contact Assembly , 136 10.9, Routine Tests on Circuit-breakers
162
136 10.9.2. Mechanical Operating ‘esis (Routine Test} 162
 ixiv}

11. SHORT CIRCUIT TESTING OF CIRCUIT-BREAKERS _: 164-189 13.6. Maintenance of Circuit Breakers 203
ILL. Introduction : 164. 13.7. Typical Maintenance Record Card 207
11.2, Stresses on Circuit-breaker During Short-circuit Tests 164 13.8. Pera Voltages Circuit Breaker, Fusegear for Low 907
; nd Medium Voltage
11.3. Short-cireuit Testi Part A: Short-Cireuit Test Plants , 13.9. Maintenance of Vacuum Circuit-breaker 208
nts Short cireunt ‘Testing Plants 165 13.10. Maintenance of SF, Cireuit-breaker , 208
11.4. Dy : Part B : Direct Testing . 13.11. Insulation Resistance Measurement 210
Ls. Re 169 13.12. Insulation Resistance Measurement at Site 210
11.5. Rules o Hype Tests , 170 13.13. Likely Troubles and Essential Periodic Checks
116. Short-time Current Tests on Cireuit-breakers, Isolators, 211
13.14. Installation of Drawout Metalclad Switchgear 219

Bas Short vino

11.77, Basie 7Cr Test Dati
ulies He 13.15, Safety Procedures 214
11.8. Gritical Current Tests ; 174. :
13.36, Installation ear d OTe
of Outdoor Circuit-breakers
hrcuit-br 216
11.9, Short-line Fault Tests
: : ;
7A
11.10. Line Charging Breaking Current Tests 175 SES: Al ND THEIR
14, BRC BUSES "HE APP LICAT. ZIONS me
218-232
11.11. Out-of-phase Switching Tests 176 Mt, Inty duction sees with F 018
13.12. Capacitive Current Switching Tests 176 14.2, “bes evices with Buse 218
11,12.1. Single Capacitor Bank Current Breaking Test 178 nh oe ;
11.18. Cable-charging Breaking Current Test 919
179 moe Bn . . .
11,13.1. Small Inductive Current Breaking Tests
179 5 ret Dea ae Semiconductor Devices and Thyristors
11.13.2, Recommendations for Small Inductive Current Switching Tests 180 oe
145. USE FARK © r mee 999
11.14. Reactor Switching Test 181 ne Shave ornne Flement 399
mite mcs Part C : Indirect Testing 14.8, Specification of a Fuse Link 228
11.15, Unit Testing or Element Testing 183 i4.9. Characteristic of a Fuse
12,16. Synthetic Testing 183 id 10, Cut-off 224
004
is Sa ution Fest 186 14.11, Classification and Categories 224
1119. Componention te «187 14.12. Selection of Fuse Links 295
b
120-4U. Dovclonmn
Development
eT Testing
est — 188 14.18. Protection of Motor 227
of Circuit-breakers 188 14.14. Discrimination 228
14.15. Protection of Radial Lines 228
12, OF CIACUIN UL REMENT AND HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING 14.16. Protection of Meshed Feeders with Steady Load - by HRC Fuses 230
. RS 196-199 14.17, Equipment Incorporating Fuses 230 |
Wt. Introduction 190 14.18. High Voltage Current Limiting Fuses
12.2. Overvoltages 231
191 14.18. Expulsion Type High-voltage Fuse
231
12.3. Design Aspects 191 14.20. Drop-out Fuse 231
12.4, Causes of Failure of Insulation
191 “$4.21. Test on Fuse
12.5. Purpose of H.V. Testing of Cireuit- breakers 232
192
12.6. Tests on a High Voltage Circuit-breakers 193 -:15-A. METAL-ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR, CONTROLGEAR AND CONTACTOR
12.7. Some Terms and Definitions. 233-248
12.8, Impulse Veltage Tests and Standards impulse Waves idd 15.1. Introduction
195 15.2. Types of Switcheear 233
12.9. Impulse Generator 233
195 Ore NYS é
12.10, Test Plant for Power Freque ney ‘Pests 196 . Part A: High Voltage Indoor Metal Enclosed Switchgear
12.11. HV. Testing Transformer 196 15.3, General Features of Indoor Metal-enciosed Switchgear 234
12,12. Sphere Gaps 197 15,4, Draw-out Type Metal-enclosed Switchgear, 235
‘ 15.5, Switchgear with Vacuum Interrupters 237
13, INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE 200-217 Part B : Low-Voltage Metal Clad Switchgear and Low Voltage Circuit Breakers
13.1. Introduction 200 15.6, Unit Type Metal Clad Low Voltage Switchgear and Motor
13.2. Break Down Maintenance Versus Preventive Maintenance
200 Ventral Centers :
13.8. Inspection, Servicing, Overhaul 201 | 15.7. Low Voltage Circuit Breakers 239
13.4. Guidelines for Maintenance of Switchgear 939
201 15.7.1, Classification. . >:
13.5, Field Quality Plans (FQP) / 202 15.7.2. Rated Quantities 39
 (xvi)
txuld}
15.7.3. Test on Low-voltage Circ
uit-breakers
15.8. ‘Explosion-proof’ or ‘Flame- 241
proof Switchgear 16. HVDC CIRCUIT-BREAKER AND METALLIC RETURN
24h
Part C : Low Volta ge Controlgear TRANSIFER BREAKER (MRTB) i on
273-290
15.9, Low Voltage Control Gear and Contractors
: 6.1, Introduction
ti to HVDC Switching
itching System _
16.10, Contactors 242 162. Schematic of a 2-terminal, Bipolar Long Distance HvdeTrans a6
15.11, Some Terms ang Definitions 242 Mission System mn
15.12. Contactor Starters for Moto 243 16.3, Back-to-back HVDC System . ne
rs
15.13. Rated Characteristics of Cont 249 16.4, Multi-terminal HVDC Systems (MTDC) . of |
actors
15.14, Tests on Contactors 244 16.4 Schematic of DC Switching System and Waveform o et
246 IDC with Artificial Current Zeros sot
Part D: Control Boards
15.15. Contral Boards or
Control Panels .6. Conclusion ae ee
15,16, Control Room-layouts 246 16 q Energy Consideration in Breaking Direct Current In Hvde Circuit Br: 28
247 8. Hyde Switching System a a
15-B, MEDIUM VOLTAGE METAL _ 16.8.1. Commutation Principle of Hvdc Circuit-breaker oe
ENCLOSED SWITCHGEAR
SP, CB AND VCB WITH 16,9. Control of di/dt and du/dt on
249-260 16.10. Triggered Vacuum Gaps (TVG) 266
Part 1: Applications and Range 16,11. Surge Suppression — one
15.17. Typo and Range
16,12. Complete Circuit of HVDC Switching System a oe
15.18. Tee and Cired Classifi 249
cation 13.
16,13. Mainin Circuit-breaker
Circuit-breaker for
for Hy Hyde Switching
Switel . oe;
249
Part Il: Constructional Aspects 16.14. Switching Devices in Present Bipdlar HVDC Substations a
15.19. Configuration and
Variants “45.
16.15. Types of HVDC Cireuitircuit-breal kers
er ne
15.20, Drawings and THagra 250
ms . - 16.16. Hyde Circutt-breaker Capabilities and Characteristics ee
15.21, Designation for the Degree 252
of Protection 16.17. Definitions of Switching Time for HVDC Circuit-breakers 88
Part HI: Swi tchgear Phenomens 22 16,18. Short-circuit Ratio (SCR) of HVDC System oon
with Medium 16.19. Conclusions
Voltage Switchgear with SFs
15.22, Cable Terminations Syst C.B. with ¥CB
ems
15.23. General Assessment 25-4 17. ELECTRICAL SUBSTATIONS, EQUIPMENT AND BUS-BAR LAYOUTS 291 .
Criteria 91-339
15,24. Interruption of Inductiv 255
e C urrents and Small Inductive . 17.1. Introduction co ; ; 8
15.25, Switching-on of a Moto Currents 256
r, Voltage Surge Due To
Multiple Reignition 17.2. Substation Equipment and Outdoor Yard Layout ne
15.26, Motor Switching with 287
Puffer Type SF, Circuit-breakers 17.3. isolator and Earthing Switch oes
15.27. Capacitor Switching 258 17.3.1. Requirement and Definitions oe
259 17.3.2. Types of Construction of Isolators oe
15-C. LOW-VOLTAGE CO 17.3.3. Pantograph Isolator 288
NTROLGEAR AND SWITCH
15,28. Applications and Basi GEAR
c Requirements 261-272 17.3.4. Ratings of Isolators and Tests ae
15.29. Components and Mod 261 4, Bus-bar Arrangements in Switchyards _ 29
ular Struetural Configuration
15.30, Switching Devices 261 mes VTA 1 Bus-bat System Recommended for Large Important Sub-stations ae
15.31, Mechanical Rated 17.4.2. Maintenance Zoning 308
Life ofa Switching Device 262
16.32. Design Aspects for 263 17.5. Use a Load Break Switches 08
Long Mechanical Life
15,38. Main Electrical Circuit 264 17.6, Switchgear in Generating Stations ont
an d Components in A Switching
15.34. Main Circnit Component Device 17.6.1. Main Switchgear Schemes
s Associated with Contactor 265
15.35. Protection Aspects Starters of LV 17.6.2, Unit System of Generator Connections : 905
265
15.36. Contact Travel Characte 266 (Scheme Without Generator-cireuit-breaker) 308
ristics of | -V Switching Device
Operating and Closing During 17.6.3, Unit Scheme Employing Generator Circuit Breaker on
Operations , Switching Time
15.37, Connection and Cros Definitions. 17.6.4, Main SWiichgear in Generating Stations B08
s Sectional Ar ea of Cables 266
15.38. Contact Configuratio 267 * 17.6.5. Single and Multiple Generator Transformer Unit ne
n and Design Aspects
15.39, Contact Materials 268 17,7, Auxiliary Switchgear in Power Stations ne
15.40, Contact Speed Durin 268 17.8. lsoluted Phase Bus Systems ao
& Opening Operation
15.41. Auxiliary Switches 269 17,9, Continuous Housing Type Isclated-phase Buses ae
15.42. Tripping Device and 269 17.10. Switching Sub-stations on
Relays
15.43. Degree of Protection, 270 17.11, Layout the Switchyard Equipment an
IP Code
15.44. Medium Vollage Vac 271 “17.12. Location of Current Transformers
uum Contactors for 3.6 te 12 KV
271 17.13. Typical Substation in Distribution System 318...
 fxtnit)
(xix)
17.14, Switchgear for a Medium Size
Industrial Works
-17.15. Bus-bars 318 . Earth Electrodes a nh
378
17.16. Some Terms and Definitions 31g saat integrated Farthing Systems for Two or More Installations ne
17,17. Materials for Bus-bars 325 18.32, Step Potential and Touch Potential oo
17.18, Bus-bar Design 3.20 18,33, Earth-resistance of Earthing System a
17.19, Klectrodynamic Forces on B us-bars During 323 18,44. Earth Resistance Measarement ne
Short-cireuits .
17.20. Important Techno-economic
Consideration for Construction 327 18.35. Harthed Screens
of Sub-stations/switchyards SECTION II - FAULT CALCULATIONS
17.20.1. Activities in Construction 3350
of Sub-station
17.202. Cost: Effectivenass 339 19. INTRODUCTION TO FAULT CALCULATIONS ono
380-402
17.20.3, Ways and Means of 331
Eeonomizing 19.1. Introduction : a
17.20.4, Construction Activities 334
19.2. Procedure of Fault Calculations oe
17.205, Maintenance -of Ove 334
r-head Transmission Line 19.3. Representation of Power Systems a
17.206. Maintenanee s
and Repair 334 19.4. Per Unit Methed es
337 19,5. Advantages of Per Unit. System ee
18-A. TRANSIENT OVERVO
LTAGE SURGES, SURGE .6. Selection of Bases oe _ '
AND INSULATION CO-ORD ARRESTERS —
INATION 7 Single Phase Circuits : Determinations of Base-impedance 203
18.1. Introduction 340-359 i (or Resistance or Reactance} Oo
18.2. Terms and Definitions 340 19.8. Change of Base ae
18.3. Choice of Insulation Leve 34§ 19.9. Circuits Connected by Transformer soe
ls of Sub-station Equipment
18.4. Protective Ratio, Prot 348
ective Margin 19.10, Reactances of Circuit Elements a
18.5. Lighining a49 19,14. Induction Motors soe
18.6. Overhead Shielding 349 19.12. Synchronous Motor 3
Screen (Karthed)
18.7. Lightning Stroke on 350
OH Lines (Overhead Line) 19,13. Thevenin’s Theorem os
18.8. Protective Devices Agai 351
nst Lightning Surges 19.14. Some Terms Oe
18.9. Rod Gaps or Spark Gap 351 19.15. Star-delta Transformation |
18,16. Surge Arresters (Li 352
ghtning Arresters)
18.41. Surge Arrester Spec
18.12.
ifications and Terms 352 20, SYMMETRICAL FAULTS AND CURRENT LIMITING cAC’
REAC TORS 4 03-437
ins
Tests on Surge Arresters 355 20.1, Fault Mva and Fault Current (Steady State} tog
18.13, Rated Voltage of Sur 356
ge Arrester 20.2, Solved Examples oo
18.14, Coofficient of Earthi 356
ng (C.) is the Rati : 20.3, Procedure Recommended by Standards for Short-circuit tis
357 Calculations in Distribution Systems. ie
18-B. NEUTRAL GROUND
ING (NEUTRAL EARTHI 20.4, Reactors in Power Systems te
NG)
18.15, Intreduction to Neu 360-373 29.5, Principle of Current Limiting Reactors ao
tral Grounding
18,16. Terms and Definitio 360 20.6. Design Features of Current Limiting Reactors oop
ns
18,17, Disadvantages of Ung 360 20.7. Dry, Air Cored Series Reactor . ae
rounded Systems
18.18. Advantages of Neutra 362 20.8. Oil Immersed Non-magnetically Shielded Reactor ee
l Grounding
18.19. Types of Grounding 364 20.9, Oil Immersed Shicided Reactors eo
18.20. Reactance in Neutra 365 20.16. Terms and Definitions a
l Connection
218.21, Connection of the 367 20.11, Physical Arrangement of Series Reactors tot
ARC Suppression Coil
18.22. Neutral Point Karthi 468 20.12, Selection of Reactors “
ng of Transformer L.V. Circ
18.23, Neutral Grounding uits, 20.13. Location of Series Reactors a
Practice 369
18.24. Earthing Transform 370 20.14, Effective Short Cirenit Level (ESCL) by Considering Kvar 130
er
18.25. Ratings of Neutral Device 371 Contribution of Shunt Capacitor Banks eS
s
20.15, Effective Short Circuit Ratio (ESCR} :
B72
18-C, SUBSTATION EARTHI
NG SYSTEM AND EQUIPM
ENT EARTHING 21, SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
18.26. Equipment Earthing
(Grounding) 374-388 m
438-447
18.27. Functions of Substa 374 21.1, Introduction
tion Earthing System 438
18.28. Comection of Electrical 375 21.2. Symmetrical Components of 3-phase Systems ioe
Equipment to Station-earthing
18.24, Substation Earthing System 21.4. Operator ‘a’
System 376 ie
ae7 21.4, Some Trigonometric Relations
 (ext)

“ 449 ; 26. a aeeentwin RE LAYS 500-549

5 roo
21,5, Zero Sequence Currents
, os : wh, 2h
2L6. Phase Displacement in Star-delta Transformers 4468 96.2. Basic Connections of Trip Circuit , 500

a 26.3. Auxiliary Switch, Sealing, and Auxiliary Relays 501

22,é Unsymmetrical Faults on an Unloaded Generator 448-469 56.3 1 Auxiliary Switch 5O1

oo Sequence Empedances 448 96.3.2. ‘sealing’, ‘holding’, ‘repeat Operation’ 504

203 meguence Networks of Alternator 448 26.4, Measurement in Relays 502
a ao aee Bavations 449 26.4,1. Magnitude Measurement 503
A, “ ngle ine to Ground Fault on an Unloaded Three-phase 26.4.2. Product Measurement 503
99 ternator at Rated Terminal Voltage 450 26.4.3. Ratio Measurement 503

on 6, reLineubleto Line to Ground Fault on an Untoaded Generator 452 26.4.4, Vector Difference (or Vector Sum) 503
Line Fault on Unloaded Alternator (Generator) 456 26.5. Type of Relays Units 503
26.6. Pick-up , 503
x =
23. FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS 463-475 26.7. Reset or Drop-off 504
23.1, Sequence Networks 463 26,8. Drop Off/pick-up Ratie 504
26.9. Attracted Armature Relay (Electromagnetic Attraction) 504
24, ee OF A.C. NETWORK ANALYSER AND DIGITAL COMPUTER 96.10. Balanced Beam Relay (Electromagnetic Attraction Principle) 506
N FAULT CALCULATIONS 476-484 26.11. Induction Dise Relay (Electromagnetic) 507
24.1, Introduction 47 26.11.1. Plug Setting and Time Setting in Induction Dise Relays 516
24.2, A.c, Network Analyzer (A.C, Calculating Board) ie 26.11.2, Effect of Time-setting pao
24,3. Digital Computers 47 26.12. Induction Cup Relay (Electromagnetic) 510
24.4, Organization ofa Digital Computers is : 26.13. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Relay - Bli
24.5. Process of Solving Engineering Problems on Digital Computers 473 26.14. Rectifier Relay Systems p12
24.6. (i) Short Circuit Studies on Digital Computer 479 26.14.1, Relays for One Quantity | . 512.
SECTION Ut — 26.14.2. Relays for Two Quantities 518
: POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION 26.15. Thermal Relays, Bimetal Relays, Thermocouples 518
+ 7 26.16. Directional Relays 5id
25. y
° INTRODUCTION TO PROTECTIVE RELAYING - 485-499 26.16 1 Principle of Measurements 514
| 25.1. About Protective Relaying : Ta ttt -
25.2. Faults, Causes and Effect 485 26.16.2. Directional Relays 514
i 25.3. im ort, e : ects . 486 26.16.3. Principie of Operation of Directional Element 515
OF A. » ance of Protective Relaying 487 26.17. Polarized Moving Iron Relays 516
20-4. Primary
5
25.5.
Protective
4 . Zones
and Back-up Protection
487 : 26.18.
. . Frequency Cc Relays
a 516
48 26.19. Under. voltage Relays 517
25.6, Pack Up Protection by Time Grading Principle 489 26,20, D.C. Relays 517
aoe ue Protection by Duplication Principle 490 26,21. All-or-nothing Relays 517
6.2. nitoring . :
. oe: 26.22, + Seb 5
25.7. “pinata Qualities of Protective Relaying ion 26.23 Tine Setting mie

Pi 1: ;5
ems and
5.7.4. Selectivity
25.7.2 Relay Time
Diserimination
and Fault Clearing Time 26,24.
‘oA.
io Best Bacility “8
5.7.3. Sensitivit
25.74. Stabilt ty y 492 27, OVERCURRENT PROTECTION AND EARTH FAULT PROTECTION 520-530
25.7.5. Reliability 493 27.1, Introduction 520
25.7.6. Adequateness 493 27.2. Applications of Over-current Protection 521
25.8. Some Terms in Protective Relaying 494 : 27,3: Relays Used in Over-current Protection 521
25.9 Thstineti , : Log 494 27.4. Characteristics of Relay Units for Over-current Protection 521
95.10 Protecting ee Relay Unit, Protective Scheme and Protective System 496 27.4.1. Connection Scheme with Three Qver-current Relays 509
Quantitiesns
Actuating Quantities
20.11, Actuating
25.11. ond Voltage Transformers 496
‘ 27.5, arth-fault Protection
8, av bALE . 523
0
25.12. Electro-mechanical Relays and Static Relays 497 27.6, Connections of Ct’s for Earth-fault Protection . 523
25.13. Power Line Carrier Channel (PLC) 497 27.6.1. Residually Connected EKarth-fault Relay 523
25.14. Programmable Relay 497 27.6.2, Harthfault Relay Connected in Neutral to Earth Circuit 524
25.15. System Security 498 27.7. Combined Earth-fault and Phase-fault Protection 525
25.16. Role of Engineers . 498 27.8. Earth-fault Protection with Core Balance Curren Transformers, (Zero Sequence CT). . 525
498 .
 (xxid) fuatit}
27.9. Frame-leakage Protection
: Part B: Distance Protection of Transmission Lines .
27.10. Directional Over-current Protection
27.11. Directional Farth-fault Protection sat 30.9. Intreduction to Distance Protection of H.V. and E.H.V. Lines G57
5528 30.9.1, Plain Impedance Protection : 559
30.9.2. Directional Impedance Relay 559
28. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
531-535 30.9.3. Reactance Relay 560
28.1, Differential Protection 30.9.4. Mho Relay Admittance Relays - 560
28.2, Applications of Differential Protection nn
| 30.9.5. Offset Mho Characteristic 561
28.3, Principle of Circulating Current Differential nal
t a a r + +

(merz-prize) Protection
+
,
30.1G. Distance Schemes 561
28.4, Difficulties in Differential Protection 531
- ’

30.11. Starting Element (Fault Detectors) 562

28.5, Differential Protection of 8-phase Circuits 53 30.12. Stepped Characteristic G3
28.6, Biased or Per Cent Differential Relay 583
30,13. Three Step Distance-time Characteristic 5o4
28,7. Settings of Differential Relays 55
40.14. Power Swings : 564
28.8. Balanced Voltage Differential Protection 54
30,15. Carrier Assisted Distance Protection 565
534
oe
30.15.1, Carrier Transfer Gntertripping) 565
29, DISTANCE PROTECTION
30,15.2. Carrier Blocking Scheme (Dircctional Comparison Method) 566
28,1, Introduction to Distance Protection 536-54
30.15.3, Carrier Acceleration 567
29,2. Principle of R-X Diagram — 0 30.16. Distance Schemes for Single Pole and Triple-pole Auto-Reclosing 567
29.3. Theory of Impedance Measurement 536 30.17. Connections of Distance Relays , 5687
29.3.1, RX Diagrams of Piaia Impedance Relay el
Part C: Protection of Based on Unit Principle Lines
29.3.2. Plain Impedance Characteristics, 53g
30.18. Pilot Wire Protection Using Circulating Current Differential Relaying 568
oan pevndvantages of Plain Impedance 539
Relay. Part D: Carrier Current Protection of Transmission Lines
3.3.4, Time Characteristic of High 538
S d Imped: 30,19. Carrier Current Protection 571
29.4, Methods of Analysis * 5
. mu mpedance Rolay 30,20. Phase Comparison Carrier Current Protection 574
29.5. Directional Impedance Relay an
29.6. 50 30.21. Applications of Carrier Current Relaying 577
Torque Equation of Directional Impedance
Relay 30.22. Radio Links or Microwave Links 577
23.7. Modified (Shifted) Characteristic ae
29.8, Reactance Type Distance Relay 542
23.9. Mho Type Distance Relay 3 31. PROTECTION OF INDUCTION MOTORS 579-592
29.10. Application of Distance
Protection 5 31.1. Intreduction 579
29.16.41, R-X Diagram 54d 312. Abnormal Operating Conditions and Causes of Failures in Induction Motors 580
29.10.2, Line Characteristics oA 31.3. Protection Requirements , 58t
29,10.3. Condition for Relay CGperation oy 31.4. Protection of Low Voltage Induction Mator, (below 1900V AC) 581
29,104, Operating Time nas 31.4.1, Scheme of Starting Cireuit 581
29. 10.5./Stages of Relay Time te 31.4.2. Bimetal Overload Devices 552
Characteristics
Oe See orainated Characteristics of ns 31.4.3. Short Circuit Protection by Hre Fuses 583
Distance Relays in Three Stations
OMe ognilicance of R-X Diagram and 546 31.5. Protection of Large Motors 58d
Meth i 31.6. Overload Protection of Induction Motors 584
29.10.8. Load Impedance
; hod of Analysis
29.10.59. Line Impedance at 31.7. Protection Against Unbalance A&G
29.10.10. Power Swings ay 31.8, Protection Against Single-phasing (Phase Failure) 587
29.10.11. Choice of Characteristic Mho/reactance we 31.9, Phase Reversal Relay 588
Mho/static 31.10. Phase to Phase Faulé Protection -. 588
a8
36. PROTECTION OF TRANSMISSION 3L11. Stator Earth-fault Protection 580
LINES 31.12. Faults in Rotor Winding
30,1. Introduction 55 691
30.2. 0
55d
Nona; Part A ‘ Overcurrent Protection of Transinission 32. PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS
Lines 593-613
ane on- irectional Pime Graded System of
Feeder (or Line} Protection 32.1. Protection Requirements 593
8. sergctional Time and Current-graded 551
System 42,2, Safety Devices with Power Transformers 595
30.4, Setting of Directional Over-current 7 353
Relays i i 32.3. Low Oi Level—Fluid Level Gauge 595
30.5. Current Graded Systems 5
ass ofa Ring Main 42.4. Gas Actuated Devices BOS
30.6, Definite Time Overcurrent Protection 754
of Lines
30.7. Earth Fault Protection of 8 32.4.1. Pressure Relief and Pressure Relay 5 95
Ol tA tn

Lines
oan

30,8, Summary of Overcurrent

Protection of Lines 32.4.2, Rate-of-rise Pressure Relay 5G
=I a
 a ce |

(xxiv) (xav)
32.4.3. Buchholz Relay (Gas Actuated Relay) 5 —_——— =
‘
32.5, ;
praced «a ; Protection,. Percentage Differential
Differential 9G TAT -ZONE PROTECTION 644-655
34. ay tua ze 644
rrotection of Power Transformer 5g Bet. ABEFOCU CED
:
32.6, Problems Arising i ifferanti: . : ., , 8 *
34.2. Bus Proteetion wage
by Overcurrent Relays of Connected Circuits * 46
645
32.7 Harmonie Restraint and Hanon ees Applied to Transformers eon 84.3. Bus Protection by Distance Protection of Incoming Line as a Remote Back-up 646
“4 . . 304 . matt sas 3 “4g
soe ° Foential Protection of Three-winding Transformer , 504 ae meee pee ie prechional Prints
32.9. ‘enti . of 5, Bus-z oe
32,10, arth faut Protea of Auto-transformers 605 346, Problems in. Bus-zone Differential. Protection 648
32.11, Restricted Earth Fault Protection 606 34.7, Selection of CTS for Bus-zone Protection 649
32.12, Protection of Transformers in Paralle] 606 34.8. Biased Differential Bus-zene Protection 650
32.13. Overcurrent Protection of Power Transformers 608 34.9. High Impedance Circulating Current Differential Bus-zone Protection 650
32.13.41. Overload Protection 200 34.10. High Impedance Differential Protection Based on Voltage Dro 650
32.14, Thermal Over-heating Protection of Large Transformers 610 B4.i1, High imPedance voltage pierential System 6s
82.16 Over-fluxing Protection | 610: ae Hoe eae in Bus Protection. en0
2.16, Protecti mace Trane : 34.13, . 9 s a
. S216. Power Se nce Transformers Are Furnace Plant 61) 34.14. Monitoring of Secondary Circuits 652
32.17, Protection of Rectifier Transformer C8 SARIS 611 34.15. Interlocked Overcurrent Protection for Buszcne and Generator-unit Zone 653
32.18. Protection of Grounding Transformer 612 34.16. Non-auto Reclosure and Simultaneous Three-pole Operation 654
G12 34.17. Bus Transfer Schemes for Auxiliary Switchgear and Industrial Switchgear 654
33, PROTECTION OF GENERATORS
33.1. Introduetion 614-643 —35 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 656-675
a9. Abnormal Conditions
33.2, . and Protection Systems ,
614 4 _
618 so. erento finitions nen
33.2.1. Exte .2. Terms and Defi
33.2.24.2, Th Thermal
ae Overloading,
Oa j 616
616 ; 35.3.
35 4. Accuracy
Burd Class.
y ‘oT . 658
659
33.24, Stator Winding Farts
33.2.8, Unb adi 4, Burden.on
Gt7 35.5. Veetor Diagram of CT
5

33.2.5, Field Winding Faults 617" 35.6. Magnetisation Curve of CT

| 661663
33.2.6. Overvoltages 618 35.7. Open Circuited Secondary of CT 664
; 33.2.7. Other Abnormal Conditio , G18 35.8. Polarity of CT and Connections : 664
,
I, 33.3,
33.3. Percentage
nbage Diff i Protection eeof Alternator Stator Windings
Vilterential S19 35.9. Selection of Current Transformers of Protection Ratings 665
621 35.10. C's for Cizeulating C Differential Protecti B66
33.4. Restricted Earth-fauit Protection by Differential System 623 oe 6 fOr Cane urrent Werenual £70 eon .
33.5, Overcurrent and Earth-fault Protection for Generator Back 9 35,11. C's for Other Protection Systems ; CT's for Distance Protection 868
ve)
33.6. (a) Sensitive Stator Earth-f it P “ i “Up 6% 5
35,12. . :
Type of Construction an
CT's 668
33.7. Protection Against Purn-to tur Poult as a 628 35.13. Core Shapes for Multiturn Wound Primary Type CT 669
33.8. Rotor Earth Fault . n Sault on Stator Winding 629 36.14, Current Transformer for High Voltage Installations 670
33,9.f. R oO he TenT; . ault., Protection
_ 631 35,15.
. . Intermediate CT : : 670
33.10. Negative Sequone, Pena ion of Generators Against Unbal d Load 682 35,15. Testing of CT's (Brief , 672
33.11. Negative Phase Sequence Circuit oe NE ORES ae 35.17. Transient Behaviour of CT's 673
33,12. Stator-heating Protection ‘
33.13. Loss of Field Protection nae 36. VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 676-689
33,14. Reverse Power Protection ; 36.1. Introduction
33,15. Over-speed Protection
676
se 36.2, Theory of Vollage Transformers 676
33.16. Field Suppression 637 36.3. Specifications for Voltage Transformers 678
33,17. Other Protections 637 36.4. Terms and Definitions 678
33.18, Protection of Small, Standby Generators 638 38.5. Accuracy Classes and Uses [B.S, 3914 (1965)}
33.19. Generator Transformer Unit Protection
679
699 36.6. Burdens on Voltage Transformer — 679
33.19.1, Combined Differential Protection for Generator Main Transformer 639 36.7. Connections of VPs .
33.20, Static Protection of Large-Turbogenerators And Main Transformer 639 36.8, Residually Connected VT (Zero Sequence Veltage Filter) 680
G82
33.21. Static, Digital, Programmable Protection System For 36.9. Electromagnetic Voltage Transformer 682
Generator and Generator-transformer Unit 641 36.10, Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CVT) 683
36.10.L. CVT with Stepped Output , 684
 {xxl}
{xxvie}
36.10.2. Protection of Voltage Transformers ; 684 38.20.38. Pnpa Devices and Thyristor Tripping Circuit 7O%
36.11. CVT as Coupling Capacitor for Carrier Current Applications 684 38.20.4, Power Switching Techniques. with “Thyristors” 726
36.12, Choice of Capacitance Values for CVT 684 38.20.5. ‘Priac
36.14, Transient of Behaviour of CVT 796
686 38.20.6. Thermistors 16
36,14. Ferro-resonance (FR) in CVT
686 38.20.7. Resistors
36,15, Testing of Voltage Transformer (BRIEF) 726
G87 38.20.8. Capacitors
36.16, Application of Capacitor Type Voltage Transformer for Protective Relaying 887 38.21. Printed Circuit Boards with Discrete Components F270
727
37. TESTING AND MAINTENANCE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS oe 38.22, Static Relays with Integrated Circuits 727
"690-702 38.22.1. Reed Relays
37.1, Impertance of Maintenance and Setting. 728
690 38,23. Statice Directional Units . 729
37,2. Tests on Relays - .
37.3, Test Equipment . .
690
691
Section il: Digital Civcuits and thier Applications in Protective Relaying
38.24. Logic Circuits
37.4, Routine Maintenance Tests ‘ 730
- 692 38.25, And Function
37.5. Inspection and Testing for Acceptance 731
693 38.26. Or Funetion 733
37.6, Some Tests or CT's : 694 98.27. Not Functien : . : Thad
37.7, Some Tests on PT's ; 694 38.28. Combined Functions
37.8. Some Test Circuits and Procedures for Secondary Injection Tests 734
695 38.29. Memory Function (Storage Function)
37.9. Manufacturer’s Tests SO 735
; 698 38.30. Families of Logic Circuits _
37.10. Commissioning Tests - 736
699 38.31. Applications of Logic Circuits in Protective Relaying 738
SECTION IV — STATIC RELAYS AND STATIC PROTECTION SCHEMES 38.32. Definition and Application 738
- 38.33. Symbol of Operational Amplifier 739
38-4, INTRODUCTION TO STATIC AND MICROPROCESSOR-BASED 38.34. Characteristics of Ideal Operational Amplifier
INTEGRATED PROGRAMMABLE PROTECTION, MONITORING 739
38.35, Seme Applications of Operational Amplifiers 740
AND CONTROL SYSTEMS , 703-720 | 38.35.1, Analogue Level Detector or Comparator 742
38.1. Introduction and Definition 703 38.85.2. Analogue/digitat Conversion
38.2, Static Versus Electromagnetic Relays 743
706 38.35.3. Digital to Analogue Conversion ia
38,3. Limitations of Statie Relays 708 38.35.4. Digital Multiplexers : tan
38.4. Rehability and Security of Static Relays
38.5, Historical Review in Brief . 709 38.355. Encoders
710 38,35.6, Programmaband Decoders
le System _ . 145
ie
bo 38.6, Recent Development of Static Relays
38.7, Present Trends in Protection and Control Technology 940 38.35.77, Microprocessor :
Fil 38.35.8. Microp rocessor Module ital Syst 746
38.8. Modular Concept, Building-block Principle Used in Predominantly TAG
. . 38.35.9. Hybrid of Analogue and Digita ystems
Static Protection Systems 714 38.36. Auxiliary Voltage Supply for Static Relays 746
38.9. Static Relay Functional Cirevits and Index of Functions T14 38.37. Full-wave Rectifier
38.10. Types of Measuring and Alb-or-nothing Relay 747
Units 745
38.11. Analogue and Digital Sub-systems in Protective Relaying 38.38. Smoothing Circuits :
716 . ne
38.12. Analogue Protection Systems
35.39. Voltage Stabilization (Regulation) by Zener Diodes
. 16 38.46. Time-delay Circuits _ ; 748
38.13. Limitations of Analogue Systems ; 718 38.41, Frequency Filters 139
38.14, Digital and Programmable Electronic Static Relays 718 38.42. Symmetrical Component Filters
38.15, 750
Hardwire Digital Systems 718 — OE
38,16, Programmable Digital Protective and Control Systems. 719 _ 39, COMPARATORS AND LEVEL DETECTORS
38,17. Forms of Digital Electronic Cireuits 753-765
719 39.1. Static Relay Functional Circuits
38.18. Integration a Control and Protection for High Voltage AC Substation 753
7i9 39.2. Comparators
_ ” 754
33.3. Amplitude Comparators ; 755
38-B. INTRODUCTION TO ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL STATIC RELAYS T2L-T52 39.4, Phase Comparators 758
See tion I : Solid State Devices . 39.5. Phase Comparator Based on Rectangular (or Squared) Pulses 756
38,19. Semiconducting Materials 791 39.6. Phase Comparators Based on Vector Product Devices . 757
38.20, Solid-state Devices : (Brief Introduction) 722
38.20,1, Semiconductor Diode 89-7. Direct Unstantaneous) and Integrating Type Comparators a
999 so Guestating Amplitude Comparator . ae
¥ _— , . a .9, Operating Time
P8202, Zener-Diodes (Voltage Regulating Diodes) We 39.10, Coincidence Techniques in Phase Comparators 759
 (eaud ee)
39.11, Spikes and Block Coincidence Technique in Phase Comparator (accion)
76G
39.12. Phase Comparator with Phase Splitting Technique
761 43.3. Protection of Static Relay Cirenit 806
39.13. Hybrid Comparator
39.14. Level Detector 761 48.4. Recommended Protection Practices for Static Relaying Equipment 807
39.15. 762 43.5. Testing of Static Relays with Regard to Over-voltage Transients 808
Level Detector by pnp Transistor
39.16. Npn Transister as Level Detector 762 43,6. Reliability, Dependability, Security 809
38.17. Schmitt Trigger with Operational Amplifier 763 43,7, Static Relay for Motor Protection 8il
39.18, Schmitt Trigger with Two NPN Transistor 763 43.8, Static Busbar Pratection Based on Directional Comparison 8i4
764 43.9, Disconnection of Mains Supply Frem Inplant Auxiliary Supply
During System Faults 816
40, STATIC OVERCURRENT RELAYS
40.1. Introduction to Static Overcurrent Relays
766-778, 48.10. Breaker Back-up Local Back-up 817
766 43,11, Use of Micra Processor for Local Back-up 818
40.2, Single Actuating Quantity Relays 43,12, Computer Based Centrally Coordinated Back-up 820
40.3. Double Actuating Quantity Relays 766
43.18. Programmable Equipment for Protective Relaying Me sure
40.4. Basie Principle of Static Overcurrent. Relays 767
Ments and Control (PPRMC) 820
40.5, Time Characteristic 768
769 43.14, Principle of Centralized Back-up Protection (CBP) 821
40.6. Timing Cirenit 43.15. Post-faulty Control (PFC) by Digital Computers 822
778
40.7. Directional Overcurrent. Relay 43.16. Communication Links for Protection Signalling 823
40.8, Static Instantaneous A.C. Measuring Relays 771
43.17. Fibre Optic Data Transmission 823
40.9, Static Time-lag Over-current Relays 773
43.18. Local Breaker Back-up Protection : Breaker Fail Protection ;
40.10. Static Directional Relay 774
776 Stuck-breaker Protection 824
43.19. Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) 825
41. STATIC DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION OF POWER 43.20, Directional Wave Relays for Fault Detection And Protection of Overhead Lines 826
TRANSFORMERS 779-784
41.1. Introduction
41.2. Differential Protection of Two-winding Transformer 779
43-B. DIGITAL RELAYS, MICROPROCESSORS BASED RELAYS,
41.3. Differential Protection of Three Winding Transformer 780 FAULT RECORDERS AND FAULT LOCATORS ‘ $28-854
41,4, 781
Inrush-proof Qualities, : 43.21. Enter Microprocessors in Protection Technology | 828
41.5, Requirements to be Fulfilled by the Main CT 782
43.22. Block Diagram and Components of a Digital Relay — 829 .
41.6. 783
Auxiliary C.T. 43.23. Basic Principles of Digital Relays 831
783
43.24. Microprecessor Based Relays 834
42. STATIC DISTANCE RELAYS AND DISTANCE 43.25. Description of a Microprocessor Based Protective Relay for Motor Protection 834
PROTECTION OF EHV LINES 785-802
42.1. Introduction ‘ 43.26. Advantages of and Special Features of Microprocessor Based Protective Relays 837
42.2, Voltage Comparator and Current Comparator F785 43.27, Block Diagram of a Microprocessor Based Distance Relay for
42.3. Three-input Amplitude Comparator 786 Protection of Transmission Line , 838
42.4. Hybrid Comparator 730 43.28, Architecture of a Microprocessor . BAL
42.5. Four Input Phase Comparator with Quadrangular 791 43,23, Programming of Microprocessors Based Relays 847
Characteristic 792
42.8. Errors in Distance Measurement 43.30. Selfchecking And/or Self Monitoring in Microprocessor based Relay 847
42.7. Influence of Power Swings on Distance Protectio 792 43.31, On Line Microprocessor Based Fault Monitoring 849
n 193
42.7.1. Power Swings 43,32. Microprocessor Based Fault Locators sag
42.7.2. Effect of Power Swing on the Starting Elements 793 43.33. Principle of Fault Detection in on Line Digital Relays, Fault
in Distance Schemes, 793
42.7.3. Effect of Power Swing on the Measuring Wlements Locators and Fault Recorders 851
in Distance Schemes. 794
: 42.7.4, Representation of Power Swing on R-X Diagram
42.8, Protection of Teed Lines by Distance Relays 794 43-C. MODERN PROTECTION SYSTEM 855-864
42.9. Back-up Protection with Intermediate Infeed 796
43.34, Introduction 856
42.10, Compensation or Compounding in Distance 796 43.35. Numerical Relays 856
Relays 797
42.11. Setting of Distance Relays 43.36. Traditionally Separate Networks 857
42.12, Sulved Examples on Distance Relay Setting 798 -
43.37. Ethernet just a Physical Layer Standard 858
798
43.38. The IEC’s Initiative 859
43-A. IMPORTANT ASSORTED TOPICS AND STATIC
PROTECTION SCHEMES 803-827
43.1. Combating Electrical Noise and Interferences 43-D, MICROPROCESSOR BASED SUBSTATION PROTECTION CONTROL
43.2. Transient Overvoltages in Static Relays 803 AND MONITORING 865-871
804
43.38. Introduction 865
43.40, Equipment to Automatic Control Substations 865
 (xxx) (xxeni}
43.41. Two Subsystems in Substations 866
43,42, Two Hierarchical Levels in a Substation 45-A. LOAD-FREQUENCY CONTROL, LOAD SHEDDING
866 |
43.43, Substation Level (Upper Level) 887
AND STATIC FREQUENCY RELAY 920-930
43.43.1. Unit Level 45.1. Introduction to System Frequency: Control 920
868
43,43.2. Inter-level Communication 45,2. Load-frequency Characteristics of Rotating Machines 921
868
43.44. Functions Performed by Protection and Control Equipment 45.3. Primary Load-frequency Control 92]
870
43.45. Protection and Control Configuration 45.4. Secondary Load Frequency Control — 991
871
45.5. Load-frequency Control of a Grid goo
45.6. Load Shedding 993
SECTIONV — POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS, INTERCONNECTION AND
45.7, Useof Frequency Relays for Load Shedding 923
POWER SYSTEM CONTROL SCADA SYSTEMS
. 45.8: Static Frequency Relay 924
. 45.8.1. Turbine Frequen¢y Capability and Under- frequency Limits 925
44, POWER SYSTEM STABILITY, AUTO-RECLOSING SCHEMES, METHODS
OF ANALYSIS AND IMPROVEMENT OF TRANSIENT STABILITY 45,9, Netwark Islanding é 927
875-919 -
45.10, Other Application of Frequency Relay G27
Part A: Concept of Power System : 45,11. Load Dispatebing and Network Controller
44.1. Power System Stability 927
, 875
44.2. Concept of Power System Stability 877 45-B. VOLTAGE CONTROL AND COMPENSATION OF REACTIV £ POWER 931-958
44.3. Single Machine Against Infinite Bus 880 45.12. Voltage Control in
j Network (Power System) , 931
Part B : Swing Curves and Swing Equation, Equal Area Criterion
45.13. Permissible Voltage Variation 9392
44.4, Dynamics of Synchronous Machines, Kinetic Energy, Inertia
45.14. Methods of Voltage Control 933
Constant and Stored Energy
884 45.15. Compensation of Reactive Power 937
44.4.1, Kinetic Energy of a Rotating Mass
R84 - 45.16. Effect of Reactive Power Flow on Voltage at Sending- end and
44.4.2. Inertia Constant 4 885: Receiving end of Transmission Line
44.4.3, Stored Energy in Rotor ofa Syn, Machine 9388
886 45,17. Series Capacitors gas
44.5. Swing Curve 888 45.18, Applications of Power Capacitors in Electric Power Systems
44.6. Derivation of Swing Equation From Fundamentals 940
889 45.19. Installation of Shunt Capacitors 947
44.7. Equal Area Criterion of Transient Stability 89l- 45.20. Reactive Power Requirements and Voltage Regulation Of
44.8. Critical Clearing Angle 894 _ Ehv/uhv A.C, Lines. Surge Impedance Loading
44,9, Method of Improving Transient Stability Limit 949
887 45.21, Reactive Power Management 952
Part C: High Speed Protection and Circuit Breakers
44.10. High Speed Circuit Breakers and Fast Protective Relaying for 45-C, VOLTAGE STABILITY OF ELECTRICAL NETWORK 959-966
improved Transient Stability 898 45.22. Introduction to Voltage Stability Studies
44.1], Auto-reciosure Improves Transient Stability 959
200 45.23. Explaining Voltage Instability
44,12. Single Pole Reclosing of Circuit-breakers 959
$01 45.24. Increasing Voltage Stability Limit by Supply of Reactive Power
44.13. Independent Pole Mechanism 960
502 45.25. Sequence of Switching-on and Switching- off Shunt Capacitor Banks
44.14. Single Pole Tripping 961
902 46.26, Q—V Characteristics
44.15. Selective Pole Tripping 962
902 45.27. Voltage Collapse Occurances, and Their Time-spang
44.16. Segregated Phase Comparison Relaying (SPCR) 963
802 | 45.28. Preventive Measures Against Voltage Collapse
44.17. influence of Power Swings on Transmission Line Protection 965
903 45.29. Definitions
965
Part D: Autoreclosing
. 44.18. Autoreciosing Schemes 904 45-D, AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATORS, VOLTAGE CONFRGL AND
44.19. Terms and Definitions Regarding Autoreclosing 904 STABILITY OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 967-891
44.20. Rapid Autoreclosing Scheme 905 45.30, Introduction
44.21, Delayed Autoreclosing Scheme
907 45.31, Operation of Synchronous Generator 967
44.22. Synchronism Check 971
907 45.32. EMF and No Load ‘Terminal Voltage, Saturation Curve and Air Line |
44.23, Control Schemes for Auto-reclosing 978
908 45.33. Terminal Voltage of an Isolated Generator with Constant
Part E : Modern Definitions of Power System Disturbance, Stability Fieid Current and Without AVR O74
44.24. Terms and Definitions in Power System Stability Studies (1980) 909 45.34, Types of Excitation Systems and AVRS
975
44.25, Operational Limits with Reference to Steady State Stability 45,35, Synchronous Generator in Parallel with the Grid (Infinite Bus) 976
Limit and Transient Stability Limit 45.36. Types of AVR and Excitation Systems
ov O77
44.26. Mcthods of Improving ‘Transient Stability Limit 45.37. Terms and Definitions on AVR and Excitation Systems
314 580,
 {xxati} (xxnitt)

45.38. Excitation Systems and AVR (Sync System

hronous Machine Regulators) 47.2.7, Economic Comparison of Bipolar HDVC Transmission
45.39. Steady State Performance Excitation 982 1037
i038
Systems and AVRS with Bhv-ac System
45.40. Transient Performance of AVRS 384 eae
47.2.8, FHV-AC Versus BVDC.
45.41. Excitation System Voltage Response 384 toto
47.2.9, HVDC Cable Transmission.
45.42. Generator Capability Curves 986 | Nea
47 2 10, HVDC System Interconnection
45.43, Electrical Load Diagram of a Synch 987 _ tote
ronous Generator Operating 47.211, HVDC Coupling System
in Parallel with the Grid (VT Constant) . et
, 472.12. EHV-AC Versus HVDC Transmission
45.44. Control and Protective Cireuits of an 988 teat
Excitation System 472.13. Limitations of HVBC Transmission
45.45. Voltage-reactive Power Characteristic 989 - hae
for Constant Power 47.2.14. Terms and Definitions Regarding Hvde
990 - coin
ate de Link
46-A. DIGITAL COMPUTER AIDED PROT Contre Stenly-state UDAD Characteristic of Converters. -Novmal
ECTION AND AUTOMATION 418:
992-1012. Norm oa6
46.1, Introduction to Power System Contro
l and Operation 1732. intersecting Characteristics of Rectifier and Inverter Under
46.2. Terms Related with Computers and Micro Soo - Operating Mode '
processors Condition 041
46.3. Supervisory Control and Data Acqui 394 ° Margin ControlUnder Steady
Current Characteristic
"withintersecting
47.3.3
sition System for Power- - :
System Operation and Control
oat
40.4. Data Collection Equipment, Data Logge 997. 3.4 Power ‘Transmission Characteristic with Constant Current Regulation
rs
46.5, Data Transmission Equipnient 999 S184 of Rectifier and Constant Extinction Angle Regulation of Inverter,
(Telemetry) ae
46.6. Applications of Power Line Carrier i001. 47.3.5. Reversal of Power Through an HVDC Link ; Necessity of
tong
46.7, Man-machine Interface 1003 - Reversal of Power.
L004 - Control Iona
46.8. Application of Computers in Network Autom 47.4.6. Alternatives of HVDC
ation
46.9. Microprocessors 1004 47.4, Circuit Arrangemenis Lond
1005 Convertor hone
46.10. Micro-processor Based Micro-computer 4T.5, Thyristor Valves for HVDC
1007 rose
46,11. Applications of Digital Computer and argal of Power
Micro-processors in tons
Power
System Protection. : wT irypieal Layout of HVDC Conversion of Sub-station
1067
46.12. Microprocessor Based Inverse
Time Overcurrent (OT) Relay
1008 - 478, Over-veltage Surge Protection
46.13. Digital Computers for Power Syste 1008 - toss
m Operation 47.9, D.C. Surge Arrestors
1009 tone
46.14. On Line Digital Computer for Protec
tion of Line 47.10, Line Protection System
1010 | hone
47,11. AC Harmonics
ano
46-B, ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER 47,12. Harmonic Filters .
SYSTEM AND AUTOMATIC eee
ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH : 47,13. HVDC Simulator :
1013-1628 voeg
46.15. Classical Method of Loading the 47.14. Protection Systems in HVDC Sub-station
Units in a Plant es
46.16. Economic Load Distribution Withi 10i4 47,14.1. Protection of HVDC Transmission System
n a Generating Station by Modern Metho toed
46.17. Modern Method of Economic Load d 1015 47,15, Line Insulation
Distribution Between 47.16. Maintenance of HVDC Links heey
Various Generating Stations in a Regio
n 47.17, D.C. Breakers and Load Switches ea
46.18. Distribution of Load Between
Generating Stations by Taking 1017
_ Into Accou nt the Transmission Losses : Penalty Factor 47.18, Control and Protective Equipment
46.19. Autamatic Load Dispatch Incor £920
porating Load Frequency 1067 or
Control and Economic Load Dispatch 48-A. EHV — AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS AND STATIC VAR SOURCES
2 G7-EO88

46.20. Transmission Loss as a Function 1021 48.1. General Background of EHV-AC Transmission ne
of Output Power of Generating Station
46,21. Network Controller in Load Contro 1024 48.2.
2. Tr; ission
Voltage Levels for > Transmission Lines ae hoes
l Centre
1024 48.3. Hierarchical Levels of Transmission and Distribution org
47, HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 8.4. Tasks of ‘Transmission Systems . ' ts m0
1029-1066 “8 5 functional Requirements of nn System an ee Pe on systum 1071
47,1, Intreduction Choice of HVDC Trans
mission VEstem and Biy tov
47.2. HVDC Transmission Systems 1029 48.6.
6. i
Configuration . issi
of EHV-AC Transmission
1o29 ora
47.2.1. Applications of HVDC 48.7. Pawer Transferability of AC Line
‘Transmission Systems i078
47.2.2. Choice of RVDC Transmission Syste 1029 48.8. Line Losses
m oT
47.2.3, Types of HVDC Systems and Brief 1030 48.9. Conductor Cost
Description O74
47.2.4. Long Distance, High Power Bipolar HVDC 1031 — 49.10. Transient Stability Limit of AC Line
Transmission Systems 1035 48.11. Control of Power Flow Through Line 1076
47.2.5, Power Rating of Long Bipole HVDC ‘tran
smission System 1035 - 8.12. Short Circuit Levels . oa"
47.2.6. Configuration and Description of
a Bipolar Scheme
1085. ia 13 Voltage Control of AC Lines and Compensation of Reactive Powe:
 (xexiv) (axxy)
48.14. Insulation Co-ordina
tion and Sur ge Arrester Pro
48,15. Line Insulation, tection 11
to
Clearance and Creepa 4.1. Division of Tasks Between Various Control Centres
48.16. Right-ofway (ROW) ge Distances 107%.
BOD. Functions of Scada Systems ; Lis
48.17. Corona 107%, is
Features of All Scada Systems
48.18, Towers (Suppo 107) 5043, Common
‘44. tions
rts) lov
48.19. Bundle Conductor of Measurement Control and Protection Functions hue ;
s (Multiple S046 . th aavation
Integ
48.20. Switching Phe Conductor)
nomena Associated wit
107.
08 hy SCADA Systems 1116
48.21. Audible Noise h EAV- AC Line Switehing 1078 ha
(AN}
1089: 50.5. Automatic Sub-station Control
48.22. Biological Effect ;
of Electric Field and
Limiting Value of 1089. 50.6 a ada Configurations
Management Systems (EMS)
Electric Field Strength, 2
48,23, Radio interfere 12
nce and Television Int 108]. 0.8. System Operating States
48.24, Rapid-aute Ree erference og
losing and Delayed Aut 108], wn 50 4.1. Normal State (Secure State)
Breakers o-reclosing af Circuit nd
50.8.2. Alert State (Insecure State)
48.25. Surge Impedance ies
Loading of AC Transm 1089: 50.8.3. Emergency State
48,26. Sub-synchron ission Lines on
ous Resonance in Series 1082: 50.8 4. Istanding (In Extermis} State
48.27. Static Var System Compensated Ac Lines uns
(SVS) 50.8.5. Restoration State
48.28. Applications 1083" :
1083 . System Security
i
49, INTERCONNECT 1084: 08 709.1 Security Control
ED POWER SYSTEMS
49.1. Introduction 1089-1104 : tL | Stems Using Artificial Intelligence
Baye rr t systome
me é For Power System Operati
‘ation fioe G3
49.2, System Configura aa sot 1. What is an Expert System? 1126
tion and Principle
49.2.1. Individual Sys of Interconnection 1089. 50.132. Components of Expert System i
tem (Region or Area). 1090 - ne
49,2.2. Total Generatio
n in fnterconnected 50.143. Example of an Expert System’s Working
49,3. Merits of Interconn Systems (national Gri £090 | ‘Lh. ications in Power Systems - an ron
ected Powor System d)
49.4. Limitations of 1090 ing
interconnected Power 12 Pertraticet
50.12, Centre Diagnostic Expert System Using Artificial Intelligence
49.5. Obligations of Systems 1091 . Syst
50.13. Scada Systems for Power System
Bach Interconnected Systems
49.6. Objectives of Automa 1092 .
tic Generation Con
49.7. Overall Objective and tro! and Tie-line 1092 | ae
1134-4437
Co-relation Bet Power Flow Control 61, POWER SYSTEM PLANNING
Reactive Power Contro ween Real Power and 1093 :
l and Tie-line Power 51.1. Scepe of Power System Planning and Desi en He
43.8. Tie-line Power Flow ne
Flow Contro} in 2-area 51.2. Significance of System Planning and Design
49.9. Tie-line Power Flo System 1094 |
w in 3-area System 1096 51.3. Computer Programmes for Planning
49.30. Alternative Pri |
nciples of Control and
49.11. Equations of the Tie-line Bias Con
trol 1096;
Tie-line Power Flow 62, IMPROVING DYNAMIC STABILITY BY FLEXIBLE i AC TRAN SMISSION sige.1149
49.12. Actions by the Control Reviewed 1097
Control Room Operat SYSTEM ACT)T AND FVDC SYSTEMS .
49.13. Actiong by Con ors to Change Tie-li 10698
trol Room Operators ne Power 0
49,14. Controlling Tie for Voltage Centro! 4106 62,1. inter-relationship Between Voltage, t Yates tenes of Ae lites
-line Power by Means - " ° Oscillations an es ne
Former (Regulating of Phase Shifting Tra 1i00
Transformers) ns- sees eclon af Concepts of Power System Stability and Basic equations nee
' 49.15. Phage Shifti
ng ‘Transformer (Regul cate xt rs for Dynamic Control _ 8
45.16. Types of Interc ating Transformer) 1100
han
ges in Interconnected 1101 52 Pondemontal Requirements of AC Transmission System ne
49.16.1. Controt of Power System
Flow Through Intercomn 52.4, Time Ranges of Abnormal Conditions and Disturbances ne
49.17, National Grid ector 1102
and Growth of Power Sys 1103 52.5. Enter Thyristor Contro. od
tem in India
1103 5 irst Swing : Period
m and: Oscillators Perio . . nat
1141
0, OPERATION AN
D CONTROL OF IN TERCONNECT 527 Reciow of Power System Problems and Methods for lmprovemen na
AGC AND SCADA ED id
POWER SYSTEMS, 8. Flexi } Transmission (FACT) oe Contra
50.1. Introduction Damping Co Nae
1105-1133 529way Domine,
A t Onillatione ini AC . Networks by Means of HVDC
90,2. Main Tasks in Pow
er System Operation 1105 abilisation of Adjacent AC Lines on,
50.2 . 1. Planning of Operat so 1 Dannie of AC Networks Oscillations with ee ent k 47
ions 105
50.2.2. Operational Tas _ Conditions of DC Control for Synchronous HVD
ks £106
60.2.3, Operating Acc
ounting and Financial i106
50.3. Automatic Genera Control! ne
tion Control (AGC) 1108 ‘ER AIDED POWER SYS’ TEM STUDIES 7 1150-1154
50.4 Supervisory Con Neo
trol and Da ta Acquisiti 1208 53.1. Cont
On Computer Aided
i i ing (CAE) for Pewer System Studies
Engineering
on (SCADA) System
1109 53.2. Purpose and Need of System Studies
 ene

(xxxviti)

58.5.5. Switchgear Installations 129" :

58,6, High-voltage Switchgear . 1234:
58.6.1. Definitions and Electrical Characteristics for HV Switchgear Apparatus 123¢°
58.6.2. Electrical Characteristics 123%.
58.7. Diseonnectors and Earth Switches 12a¢
58.7.t. Circuit Breakers Function. 124g.
58.7.2. Quenching Medium and Operating Principle for Different Insulating & :
Quenching Medium 1253
58.7.3. Different Types of Operating Mechanisms of HV, CB 128
58.7.4. Electrical Control of H.V. Circuit Breakers 1264
58.7.5, Instrument Transformers for Switchgear Installations 1254;
58.7.6. Current Transformers 1257,
58.7.7. Inductive Voltage Transformers 126
58.7.8. Capacitive Voltage Transformers 1264.
58.8. Surge Arresters 126%
58.8.1. Types of Surge Arresters 126):
58.8.2. Application and Selection 126:
58.8.3. Typical Values of Surge Arresters for the Major Voltage Ratings 126e
58.8.4, Circuit Configurations for High- and Medium-voltage Switchgear Installations 126.

59, ELECTRICAL SAFETY 1273-123

5Y.1. Introduction 127
59.2. Requirements for Electrical Safety 12%
59.3. Relevant Indian Standards 12%,
59.4. Special Precautions in Design, Installation Maintenance of *
Electrical Equipment in Hazardous Locations 12%
59.4.1. Elements for Ignition 12%
59.4.2. Classifications of Hazardous Areas & its Sub-groups 12%.
59.5. Hazardous Areas Classification-zones/divisions 187i
59.6, Gas/dust/fibre Groups 127.
59.7. Temperature Class 12%.
59.8. Weather Protection 12%
59.9. Material of Construction, Design Characteristics and .
Conformity Type Test Report 12%t
59.10. Marking on Ex-protected Design Electrical Equipment 128¢:
59.11. Maintenance of Ex-protected Equipment 328)
59.12. Duties and Obligationg 128%
59.13. Selection of Right Variety of Ex-protected Equipment 1283.
59.14. Expiosion Protection Techniques 128¢
09.15, Lightning Protection of Structures with Explosive or Highly Flammable Contents 1288:
59.16, General Principles of Protection 1281:
59.17. Types of Lightning Protection System 1287
59.18. Bonding 128%
59.19, Other Considerations 128
59.20. Group Classification of Inflammable Gas/vapor 128

Appendix:A ; Recent Trends and Advances Towards 21st Century 1291-1318

Appendix-B : Distribution Management System 1314-193?

Bibliography 1335

Index 1335-133
 7
ae ee
Se
SECTION I a

SWITCHGEAR AND |
SUB-STATION APPARATUS |
 Bie autres treed aor oe soir, MOE TR ARTESIA
it ov he hl teers
Introduction

eth
Protection and Network Automation—Power
Significance—Energy Management System—Switchgear

yori
Phenom ena—-N ormal and Abnorm al Cendit iens— Faults-Faull. clearing—Network
Systems—Netw ork
Breake rs—Pro tectiv e Relays —Substations—EHV AC
Configurations —Switchgear—Circuit

SR RY
s —Inter connected Systems—Load Flow
Transmission Systems—HVDC Transmission System and Surge Arresters—Static
of Neutra ls—Tra nsient Overvo ltages
Studies—Grounding r System Caleulations—Load

Fatt scinate SEO angela

ted protect ion and contro l—Powe
relays—Microprocessor based intezra
System Studies—Scope of Subject.
Flow Calcuiations—-Computer and Microprocessor in Energy
Systems
Significance of Switchgear, Protection and Power
to every consumer at all times
Electrical Energy Management system ensures supply of energy
form, at lowest cost and with minimum eao-
8 at rated voltage, rated frequency and specified wave
Network Automation are integral part
© vironmental degradation. The Switchgear, Protection and
Economy. The modern 3 phase, 50 Hz,
© of the Modern Energy Management System and National
al power plants, EHV
© AC interconnected power system has several conventional and non-convention
ssion Systems , Back-to -back HVDC Couplin g Stations , HV Transmission
» AG and HVDC Transmi
Electrical Loads. The ener-
© network, Substations, MV and LV Distribution Systems, and Connected
geographi cal area, instantly,
A gy in electrical form is supplied to various consumers located in a vast
» automatically and safely with required quality at adi times, The service continuity and high-quality
© of power supply have become very important.
Oneration Con-
t Generation Planning, Transmission Planning, System Expansion, Installation,
Fault Calculations, Network Calculation s, Load
¢ trol and Maintenance of Electrical Energy Systems,
functions of Modern Power Engineers. Switchgear and
: Flow Studies have become very essential
: Controlgear are also essential with every power consuming devices at Utilization Level.
Switchgear and Protection/Control-Pancls are installed at each voltage levels at cach switching
point for
(1) norma! routine switching, control and monitering and
(2) automatic switching during abnormal and faulty operating conditions such as short circuits,
undervoltage, overloads.
The Computer Controlled Network Automation by Loag Control Centre, Power Station Control
Rooms and Substation Control Rooms and communication channels together ensures the Contro}
of National and Regional Grids and control of Voltage, frequency, Power and waveform under
prevailing and ever changing lead conditions. This Text-Book covers the principles and practice in
Modern Power Systems, Switchgear. Protection, Fault Calculation. Load Flow Calculations and
Computer Aided Energy Management Systems. This Chapter gives an Overurew and the Scope.

1.1. SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION

Everyone is familiar with low voltage switches and rewirable fuses, A switch is used for opening
and elosing in electric circuit and a fuse is used for over-current protection. Every electric circuit
needs a switching device and a protective device. The switching and protective devices have been
developed in various forms. Switchgear is a general term covering a wide range of equipment con-
cerned with switching and protection, ,
 ne

3
2 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIG INTRODUCTION
nts of switchgear vary depending upon the location, ratings and switch-
A cireuit-breaker is a switching and current-interrupting device in a switchgear. The circu} applications, the requireme
‘ "ing duty. Besides the supply network, switchgear is necessary in industrial works, industrial
breaker serves two basic purposes:
projects, domestic and commercia l buildings. A conérolgear is used for switching and controlling
(1) Switching during normal operating conditions for the purpose of operation and maintenan &
.
(2) Switching during abnormal conditions such as short circuits and interrupting the fault cy power-consuming devices.
rents.
1.2, SUB-STATION EQUIPMENT
The first function mentioned above is relatively simple as it involves normal currents whi¢
they abould be interra ted nce function is complex as the fault currents are relatively high an In every electrical sub-station, there are generally various indoor and outdoor switchgear equip-
in BO Hz system takes 1/50 nocd phe y wi un a short time of the order of a few cycles, One cyd ment. Each equipment has a certain functional requirement (Ref. Table 1.1). The equipment are
fault currents can damage the ¢ ai re are fever al types of faults and abnormal conditions. Th either indoor or outdoor, depending upon the voltage rating and local conditions. Generally indoor
above, outdoor switchgear
an t e supply installation if allowed to flow for a longy equipment 1s preferred for voltages up to 33 ky¥. For voltage of 33 kV and
duration. In order to avoid such a ypmen iene part of the power system is provided with a prota jg generally preferred. However, in heavily polluted areas indoor equipment may be preferred even
tive relaying system and an asdocianed
eining device. The protective relays are automatic device for higher voltages. SFg Gas Insulated Substations (GIS) are preferred in large cities for voltages
which can sense the fault and send ee
breaker opens and clears the “oe a oc é eircul -breaker fo open, The circu: ghove 33 kV.
in
fault clear Ing process ar The outdoor equipment is installed under the open sky. The indoor switchgear is generally
converted by the term ‘Switeoceae Suit ee erent associated with phe switchgear.
of any electric circuit. In addition to cireuit-breaker and. rotect @rel . othe “ys on and also the form of metal enclosed factory assembled units called metal-clad
Circuit-breakers ave the switching and current interrupting bedevices. Basically a circuit-breaker
© astociated equipmes,
for controlling, regulating and measuring can also be considered as vanatchi Ooh contacts. The contacts can separated by means of an operat-
eviees. Switehgea comprises a set of fixed and movable
includes switches, fuses, cireuits-breakers, isolators, relays control are is extin-
praduces an arc. The
rent transformers and various associated equipments ™ panels, Hgntning arresters, cu ing mechanism. The separation of current carrying contacts
uished by a suitable medium such as dielectric oti, air, vacuum, SF, gas. The circuit-breakers are
;Switchgear
> are necessary
8 at ever y switching
itching point 1 ’in AC power system. Between the generati
point point in AC sub-station (Ref. Fig. 1.1)
station and final load point, there are several voltage levels and fault levels. Hence, in the varion necessary at every swifching
Isolators are disconnectin g switches which can be used for disconnecting a circnif under ne cur-
An isolator, can be
pdt oun MARY AR rent condition. They are generally installed along with the circuit breaker.
bx
circuit breaker. After opening the isolator, the earthing switch can be closed fo
rte on oe “ opened after the
discharge the trapped electrical charges to the ground. The current transform ers and potential
; “K- SWITCHGEAR nose o of
. to a lowerrape value for . thein purpose
.
transformers are used for transform :
ing the current and voltage
GENERATOR ° +” y OD arresters) divert the over-volt ages
© FRANSE ORME R TRANSFORMER | . measurement, protection and control. Lightning arresters (surge
about the
to earth and protect the sub-station equipment from over-voltages. The further details
MAIN =>) CH GENERATOR
TRANSFORMER 3 sub-station equipment are given in Section I of this book.
Table 1.1
* Naat SWITCHGEAR
. AC Sub-station equipment*
trol —y
x x x xX
S. No. Symbol Equipment Function

1. cj Circuit-breaker Switching during normal and abnormal

SUB-STATION conditions, interrupt the fauk. currents.
| | xo:
ive
TDisconnecting a part of the system from live
f l wenTDL
chine xDISTRI
BUTTON 2. ey Isolator .
bx (Disconnecting switch) | parts under no load condition.
TRANS— x-GD-* . —
—_
—x ~
3, Earthing-switch Discharge the voltage on the lines to earth after
MISSION A
disconnecting them.
eal
oo

Ad Surge arrester Diverting the high voltage surges to earth and |

1 (( 4,
maintaining continuity during normal voltage.
G x
: =e
5. q Current transformer Stepping down the current fer measurement
protection and control.
GENERATING
STATION
6. [-— Potential transformer | Stepping down the voltage for the purpose of
? (Voltage transformer) | protection, measurement and contrel.
é SUB -
7 STATION k | =
Shunt reactors are
y * For 400 kV, and above Series “ Capacitors are used for increasing power transfer ability.
OSTRIBUTION :
. .
Fig. 1.4. Location of Switchgear in Typical Power System (Single Hine, simplified diagram). used for compensation of reactive power

|
 4 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION 5
INTRODUCTION
1.3. FAULTS AND ABNORMAL CONDITIONS
A fault in an electrical equipment is defined as a defect in its electrical circuit
1.5. THE FAULT CLEARING PROCESS
due to whid The protective relays are connected in the secondary circuits or cuazent fransformers ae
the current is diverted from the intended path, Faults are generally caused by breaking of condy
12 ; ha relays sense the abnormal!. it
conditions an close 2 the tr ip circa
tors or failure of insulation. The other causes of faults include mechanical failure,
accidents, exces P otentijated pe circuit-breaker ivcui
cbecak . Phe circuit-breake its
r opens its contacts. 8. An arc is drawn between the con-
sive internal and externa] stresses, etc. The fault impedance being low,
the fault currents ay at a natural current zero of the AC wave by suitable
relatively high. During the faults, the voltages of the three phases become unbalance a
ote a8 they; separate. The arc is extinguished
d. The faul,
currents being excessive, they can damage the faulty equipment and the supply i| ne edjum and technique. The stresses occurring on the circuit breaker while interrupting the are,
installation, Darin,
the faults, the power flow is diverted towards the fault and the supply to can be analysed by studying the following transient phenomena:
the neighbouring zone;
affected. Voltage becomes unbalanced. — transient i jati
variation -circui curren
of the short-circuit ‘rents. . .
The faults can be minimised by improving the system, design, quality of the __ transient variation of the voltage after final arc interruption (transient recovery voltage)
equipment an, ome the a
maintenance. However the faults cannot be eliminated completely, _— the are extinguishing phenomenon
For the purpose of analysis, AC faults can be classified as After final are extinction and final current zero, a high voltage wave appears ares cor
— single line to ground fault wit-breaker contacts tending to re-establish the are, This transient voltage wave is called ransient
. — line to Hne fault
— double Hne to ground fault Recovery Voltage (TRV). The TRV comprises a high frequency transient component superimpose
— simultaneous fault - ncy recovery vo itage. | a
— three phase fault on a power-freque
— open eircuit., etc.
The other abnormal conditions in AC system include: These phenomena have a profound influence on the behaviour of the circuit-breakers and the
associated equipment (Ref. Ch. 3, 4).
— voltage and current unbalance — over-voltages
— under frequency RELAYING
— reversal of power 16. PROTECTIVE
— temperature rise — power swings AC power system is covered by several protective zones, Hach protective zone covers one or two
— instability, etc,
~ components of the system. The neighbouring protective zones overlap so that no part of the system
Some of the abnormal conditions arc not serious
enough to call for tripping of the circuit is left unprotected. Each component of the power system is protected by a protective system conv
breaker, In such cases the protective rela ying is arranged
for giving an alarm. In more serious rising protective transformers, protective relays, ali-or-nothing relays, auxiliaries, trip eheeas : up
cases, the continuation of the abnormal co ndition (such
asa fault) can be harmful, In such cases, coil etc. During the abnormal condition, the protective relaying senses the condition and c oses ; e
the faulty part should be disconnected th e system without
any delay. This function is performed trip circuit of the circuit-breaker. Thereby the circuit-breaker opens and the faulty part of the sys-
by protective relaying and switchgear. tem is disconnected from the remaining system.
As a fault occurs in a power system, the current increas The various power, system elements include generators, transformers, bus-bars, gransmission
es to several times the normal current
because of the low fault impedance. The value of the fault
current depends on the voltage at the lines, motors, etc, The protective relaying requirements of the various elements differ. arious types
faulty point and the total impedance upto the fauit. The voltage
at the fault location changes from of protective systems have been developed to satisfy these requirements, For example, the over:
its normal valuc. Fault MVA is reactive MVaAr.
current protection responds to increased currents. The differential protection responds to
During the fault, the current and volt. age undergo difference between two or more similar electrical quantities.
a continuous change and the phenomena
observed are called ‘transient Phenomena’, The protective
i schemes for large electrical
i i
equipment rise §severa ] types of protective systems.
comprise
The word ‘transient’ refers to a ‘temporary happening
which lasts for a short duration of time. YP he
fault current varies with time, During the first one For low voltage equipment of relatively small ratings, fuses and thermal relays are generally adequate,
to three cycles, the fault current js very h igh
but decreases very rapidly. This zone in which the The protective schemes of large power system-equipment are generaily designed with due regards to
eurrent is very high, but decreases very © power swings, power system stability and associated problems. (Ref. Sec. IN and IV).
apidly is called the Sub-transient State, After the firsl
few cycles, the decrease in current in less rapid. This
region of slow decrease s in the short-circuit
current is called the Transient State, The transient
state lasts for several cycles. After the transient 1.7, NEUTRAL GROUNDING (EARTHING) AND EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
state, Steady State is reached. During the Steady
State the rams vatue of the short-circuit current
remains almost constant. The term Groundingi or Earthing
i refers to the connecting
i o fa conductor to earth. The neutral
The circuit-breakers operate during the Transi points of generator and transformer are deliberately connected ta the earth. In 3 phase a.c. eyatems
ent State. the earthing is provided at each voltage level. Ifa neutral point is not available, a special Earthing
' Transformer is installed to obtain the neutral point for the purpese of earthing. Neutral points of
1.4, FAULT CALCULATIONS star connected VT's and CT's are earthed. The neutral earthing has several advantages such as :
The knowledge of the fault currents is neces
sary for selecting the circuit-breakers of adequate — Freedom from persistent arcing grounds. The capacitance between the line and came Bets
rating designing the sub-station equipment, deter
m ining the relay settings, etc. The fault calcula- charged from supply voltage. During the flash-over the capacitance get discharges o the
tions provide the information about the fault
curr ents and the voltages at various points of the earth, The supply voltage charges it again. Such alternate charging an ischarging
power system under different fault conditions.
produces repeated arcs called Arcing Grounds. The neutral grounding eliminates the pro
The per-unit system is normally used for fault calculations. em of ‘arcin ounds’.
The symmetrical faults such as three
phase faults are analyzed on per phase basis. For calculations on unsymm
etrical faults, the method _ The * eateal grounding stabilises the neutral point, The voltages of healthy phases with
of Symmetrical Components is adopted. The network analyze , om
r and digital computers are used for respect to neutral are stabilised by neutral earthing.
fault calculationsof larger systems. (Ref, See, II). due to lightning to the earth.
— The neutral earthing is useful in discharging over-voltages
 7
6 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIOn
equipment connected between 3 the condu etor and
— Simplified design of earth fault protection. " ae htinga: Arrester (Surge Arresters). The sult and
i Jtages to earth :
voltages . a
— The grounded systems require relatively lower insulation levels ie ischarge the excessive
discharet
as compared with U4, ground, ta _ ving Time. The time clapsed between the instant of the ores ly expressed
grounded systems. time is us
The fault clearing of
‘The modern power systems are 3 phase a.c systems with grounde Fant of final arc extinction in the cireuit-breaker.
the instan ee a sam
clearing time is the sum
d neutrals.
i ‘le s. : Hz : system is equal to 1/59 second. The fault
One One eycle of 50
The Equipment Grounding refers to the grounding of non-current .
carrying metal parts te time.
earth. It is used for safety of personnel. If a metal part is grounded, its voltage the relay time and the circuit breaker
with respect i
earth does not rise to a dangerously high value and the danger od teto
ofa severe shock to personnel] { i opens i fute se 20 peat is providided
avoided (Ref. Ch. 18). ae tonta tio o closing of the circuit breaker after its
vomati §
uity after a tar
i ng
inter terrupti fault,
n fault,
transient
-ansie H g
High h v oltage
voltage -
theservice
estore ‘ttoling
restore rvice contin
overh transmissiion lines are provided with such a fea '
eadinti tneaking electri
1.8. OVER-VOLTAGES AND INSULATION CO-ORDINAT
ION g carrymg and breaking
The over-voltage surges in power systems are caused “C ontac tor | Contactor is a switching ddevice capable of makin
t tor.
by various causes such as : lightning nOTM: d overload conditions. .
>
switching resonance etc. protection of low
cree > Fuse.e. Th ruptur ing capacity cartridge fuse Is used for over-current commonents
The power system elements should withst and the over-voltages without insulation failure. Th igh voltages circuit s.
insulation level ofa power system clement refers systems which protec t one cr two comp
to its values of power frequency and impulse volt ee ro a ive Scheme . A selected set of protective
age withstand. The insulation levels
of various power system elements are graded in such a wa 0 f the > Bp BOWerF 8 7 stem i
against abno Pm al it
conditio ns, ag + 4
er
generato rt pr ote ction
i 5sch eme
me, transform

that the damage caused by the over-voltages is minimum

and the design of insulation of the equip. protection scheme, etc,
ment is economical. The protective measures against over-vo
ltages due to lightning include. cations of high
— use of overhead ground wires SPECIFICATIONS |
1.10. STANDARD
rds Speciticalie plished
— low tower footing resistance The various standards institutions in the worid publish the standa
bee aie nent
~— use of hghtning arresters (surge arrest
ers) It o circuit breakers, isolators and other substation equipment. Stan lar Ss pave
various ae ee eee
Over-voltages are also caused during switching operati on vari types of protections and protective relaying schemes for
ons, The magnitude and wave shape a manufa ctures and users reparc ing
the switching over-voltages depend upon the values ese standa
Th see § rds £ protective the guide-line to the
of equivalent inductance, capacitance and resis
tance in the system, the magnitude of the current to — terms and definitions (vocabulary)
be interrupted and other local conditions, Over.
voltages are produced during opening of a circuit-breake — ratings
r, The amplitude of such over-voltages can
be reduced by incorporating opening resistors across
the circuit-breaker interrupters. Over-voltages — conditions of service
are also produced during the closing operation . alte.
of circuit-breaker especially while closing on un. — constructional details
loaded transmission lines. Such over-voltage can be minimized methods of evaluation of the test resu
by incorporating pre-closing resis. vests to be performed, standard test procedures,
tors across the interrupters of the circuit-brea
kers,
—. guidelines for selection, erection and maintenance. e t
The surge arresters offer low resistance to over-voltage : generally do nd oon
s and divert and over-voltages to earth, The standards are generally drafted for a wider application and they
i Dharean of
ecific cases. [EC (international Elector-Technical Commission) recommen o Hons
L.3. SOME TERMS IN THE TEST ations Pu
necepted all over the world and the IS (Indian standards) specific
Controlgear. Controlgear is a general term Standar ds (BIS) are generall y based on IEC recomme ndation s.
coverin § switching devices and their combination Indian |
with associated control, measuring and protec . 5
tive equip ment intended for control of power consum-
ing devices. (Ch, 15) e on ave’
ee he hollowing Standards Organisations are associated with the Stanc
Circuit-breaker. A device capable of Switzeriana.
abnormal conditions such as short circui
making, breaking an electric circuit under normal
and _ International Standards Organisation (ISO), Headquarters: Geneva,
ts, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi (BIS)
—
Isolator (Disconnecting Switch), A switching device
under no current condition, ft provide
which can be opened or closed only — Bureau Veritas Quality International (BVQI)
s isolation of a circuit for the purpose of mainte The ISO and IS Standards on Quality are:
nance.
Farthing Switch. It is a switch which connec
ts a conductor to the earth so as to discharge
the charges on the conductor to the earth. Earthing is Title
switches are generally installed on the frames iso
of the isolators. i Assurance Standard.
st Selection
i and Use:se: 2 20)
Iso: 9000 | 18: 14000 | Quality Management and Quality ;
Relay, An automatic device which closes its - System Elements
contacts when the actuating quantity/quantitie oe
reach a certain predetermined magnitude/phase s n an
, TSO: 9001 1S: 14001 Level 1: Design/Development Production, Testing in factory, installatio
Current Transformer (CT). The current ratio .
of current transformers is generally high (e.g. _ - Servicing
500 A/SA) and volt-ampere capacity is relatively low (e.g.
50 VA) as compared with that of the power stringen
transformers. | ISO: $002 IS: 14002 | Level 2: Production and installation all elements, some less
_
Potential Transformer (PT), Voltage Trans
former (VT). The volt-ampere capacity of a 180: 9008 ‘| qs: 14003 | Level 3: Final Inspection and Tests-haif the elements, low stringency
potential transformer is low (e.g. 100 VA) and the voltage |
The protective relays are connected in the secondary
ratio is relatively high (e.g. 182 kV/100V) | TSO: 9004 | 18: 14004 | Guidelines: Maximising benefits and minimising casts.
circuits of CTs and PTs.
 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIg: INTRODUCTION
The £SO 9000 Certificate
is Hiven to Manufacturer
s and Organisations
9
Quality, ISO Certificatio as a recognition
n is essential for Switch of the The equipments for automatic control of power system are either
marketing and customers Sati gear and Controllg ear
Manufacturer ither fixed wire ire or programma
. able
sfaction, s for effectiy, . These include ;
‘ :

Switchgear and Protection

-

are vital equipment in type Data collection and processing equipment

Perfeet Quality. the electrical installation
s. It should hay, -- Data transmission (telemetry)
— Data monitoring equipment
4.14, ELECTRO-MECH
ANICAY, RELAYS — Man-machine interface. —
AND STATIC RELAYS sllowine:
The electromechanical Ti 1e Data includes current, ’ power, voltage, status etc. Load Control Centre receives the following
relays, are bas ed on reat ; .
restraining torque/force, the comparison between — Data regarding generating stations
The VA burden of such rel operating torque/force ang.
Each relay unit can per ays is high, The characterist
form only one protect ics have limitations: — Data regarding majer sub-stations
costly protection purpos ive function. Such relays
es. For important an are used for simple and leg. — Data regarding receiving stations. . ecuined.
preferred. d costly equipment and
installation, static relays The variables are scanned periodically and conveyed to load control centres Tee
ay bed
In static relays the sen The data is collected at sources by transducers, it is processed in data leggers. It is
sing, comparison an
cuits having no moving ’ ta load control centres through one or mere of following channels:
parts. Static rel
all over the world for — Power line carrier communication channels
almost all protect
— Pilot wire communication
— Static relays havo
versatile characteristics —— Microwave communication
tive/control/monitori , offe t low burden, and
ng functions in one incorporate several prot
static relays incorpora co mpact unit. Recently es — Satellite communication
ting microprocessor (1980's) programmabk: | .
relays have several Sup have been introduced, Now fibre-optics is being used for short lengths of upto 50 km for data transmission. Data
erior features such Mic rop rocessor based:
— Indication or ope as: onverted into i ig
digital form ini A/D conve tors.
rating values on dem . ye
struments on panel. and a " Applications of Digital computers and microprocessors in power system protectio
- n are described
— Asingle relay can in Section V.
perform 10 or nore
ber of separate relays dif feren t protective functi
and increasing reliab ons thereby reducing
—— Internal monitorin ili ty, num.
g of own relays circ 1.18, INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM
— Memory funetion uit,
@.g. a relay which Modern electrical power systems are large interconnected oe Networks
display, the magnitude divided a few regional . a and pete s
of current an d instan i zones (Areas), Each Area con trols its own
— Better properties t of time at the time loud, :
frequen va .
and extended ran ge of tripping. Adjacone independently controlled areas are interconnected to from
fion and industria} app of application for genera a Regional/National Gi id
lication, tion, transmission, For example, the Power Map of India is covered by the following five regional
distriby. zones:
iy The range of static relays
in rapidly Spreading. Det — Central zone . — Western zone
ails about static relays
are covered in section’ — Southern zone —- Northern zone
— North eastern zone
re already interco
i nnected to form the Regionaspional Grids. Each zone has itsts load
trol see Zones are 2 load control centre is in Delhi. However lo: con-
the total National Grid is under
Complex tasks associate development.
automation are now
dwith data logging, mon In an Interconnected network, the National Load Control
being performed wit itorin §, Measurements Centre determines the exchange
including on-line dig h the aid of new , Drotection, contro] and between Regional Zones. Regional load contro! centres contro!
ital computers, type of on-line Progra generation in the spective zone ie
transmission and pro m i mmable devices tch the prevailing
il load so as to maintai
cessing devices ete d control devices, dat intainn ththe regional
i frequency within
tm target limi | “Od Hz.
Thes a During the low frequeney/high load; the region imports power
— Checking fault lev from adjacent surplus region. During
els periodically low leads/high frequency, the region exports power,
~— Loading of plants Advantages of Interconnections
for economical and r eli
— Protection analysis, able operation a _
setting of trip le vels — During the period of need, a Region (Area) imports power from adjacent
~— Back-up protection, to suit network config rezion and main
uration and loading tains stability and frequency.
status, . i
— The transient stability limit of each region is increased without mcreaBi
ng the installed
capacity as the rotating reserve of adjacent region is used by interconnec ion.
i on
— Optimum economic loading of hydro/thermal/nuclear generating stations
depending up
energy reserves, Economic loading of power plants.
— Bulk transfer of energy as per agreed schedulele, .
Peak loads of each region may occur at different hours during the day,
During this period, the
region imports the power.
 10
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION 1
J NTRODUCTION
HVDC Back-to-Back HVDC Interconnections
: o-Back HVDC Coupli:ng stations . . ag, The networkrk i is quici kly segreg in frequency and rate of drop if/ dé)
re ated inj smaller . zones. Drop in
After 1975, the 3 Back-t have become extremely successful fe ie * sed in frequency relay for segregation action.
interconnections between adjacent AC Grids. The rating of
HVDC Coupling Stations are in th
range of 500 MW, 1000 MW. By means of an HVDC Coupling
Station, power exchange hetwee;
two AC systems can be controlled rapidly, preciscly and 1.15, VOLTAGE LEVELS IN NETWORK AND SUB-STATIONS
with minimum transmission losses. Th
Transient Stability of both the AC Regional Grids is improve
d. The Regional-Grids in India ay The network has various voltage levels for generation, transmission distribution, utilization,
getting interconnected by Back-to-Back HVDC
Stations. control and protection.
Multiterminal HVDC Interconnections has been _- Generation is at voltages up to 30 kV AC ram.s. (phase to phase). This Is due te design limita-:
introduced in Canada-USA during 198¢ .
By means of an Multi-Terminal UVDC Interconnections tions of AC generators,
, power, exchange between three or nor 220 kV, 400 kV, 760 kV
AC systems, can be controlled rapidly, precisely and with _- Long distance high power transmission is by EHV AC lines rated
minimum transmission losses. The tran, and essential,
sient Stability of entire National Grid is improved. AC. For longer distance and higher powers, higher voltages are economical
The MTDC Interconnection is not yet planng
in India (1995). It may be introduced during 2000-2010. In special cases, HVDC transmission is preferred. The rated voltages of long distance HVDC
. transmission are + 400 kV, +500 kV, + 600 kV.
Economic Load Despatch. The economic operation of
large AC grid can be controlled fron
a centralized ‘load control centro’ or Toad despatch centre’, — Backbone transmission network is by EHV AC transmission lines (400 kV AC),
The load control centre determines the allocation
| _- Distribution is at lower AC voltages between 182 kV AC and 3.3 kV AC,
of generation by various plants on the bask
of economic load distribution considering incremental __. Utilisation is at low voltage (up to 1 kV) and medium voltages upto 33 kV.
operating costs A and penalty factors fay
transmission losses (Ln) for each plant. The load
control centre sends command to pewer stations —- The factory sub-stations receive power at distribution voltage upto 33 kV and step it down
control rooms periodically by telemetric data transm
ission, The automatic lead-frequency contry to 440 volts AC. Larger factories receive power at 132 kV and have internal distribution at +
in the control system of Generator-Turbine-Governo 3.8 kV, to 440 volts AC.
r basically aims at maintaining constant fre
quency/speed as a primary control. But the setting TABLE 1
of governor to turbines (secondary load frequenc
control) is changed according to the instructions Reference Values of Nominal Voltages in A.C, and HVDC Sub-stations
of the load control centre. Thus the input to tur
bines of generators gets automatically adjusted by primar
y load-frequency control and the frequen. A.C. Sub-stations
cy is maintamed. And the govern or setting is determined by economy load dispat
ch instructions, 400 kV 220 kV 132 kV 110 kV
The total lead frequency control is achieved
jointly by: , 66 kV 33 kV 22 kV LL KV 6.8 kV
{a) Load Control Centre
3.3 kV 400 V a.c. rms. phase to phase.
(o) Telemetry and Telecontrol Equipment
and HV.D.C. Sub-stations
(c) Power Station Control Room.
+ 260 kV,
Automatic Economic Load Despatch is illustrated
in Chapter 46-B. £400 kV, +500
kV, +600 kV
1.14, LOAD-FREQUENCY CONTROL, LOAD SHEDDING Station Auxiliaries
Load-frequency Control of AC gridgrid is| achiev Auxiliary A.C, supply : VKV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV
i ed by contii nuous match j i
tion) of electrical power with prevailin . 400 V, 3 ph, phase to phase
. voF conical coena heed 230 ¥ a.c. single phase
Auxiliary L.V.D.C. : 220 V, 110 V, 48 V.D.C.
The
7 regulations of power supply insist that
the supply fr iati
within 2% about the declared frequency
of 50 Hz. 1,16 VOLTAGE CONTROL OF AC NETWORK
SBD INES Sould roma
The frequency ofa generator and generating
ing station n isi controlled partly by the action
statio Voltages of various sub-stations buses should be held within specified limits, the variation al-
mechanical governors controlling the turbine speed and partly by chang i of the lowed + 10% (Refer Table 2).
es in load conditions. The
_ Whereas the active power flow (P} determines directly the frequency (f), it does not affect the
voltages significantly.
Load
‘ Shed
1 ding. When
y the load increases Voltages are affected significantly by the flow of reactive power @.
starts dropping. Drop in frequency below 49 Hzbe eyond limits
imi of generation
i , the system frequenc
is not permitted. To control the further drop at QxX :
memuency, oad is shed (disconnected) at distr
ibution level. Lead shedding may cause voltage
ap changing should be arranged to prevent voltage rise beyon
d safe limits.
rise. pav'l= | Vx |
Reduced frequency causes vibrations and failur where | Vz } = Receiving end voltage of the line, magnitude
es of stream turbine blades, overfluxing of trans-
former
rm cores, ; drop in synchronaus s peed, error in @ = Reactive power flow through the line
i clock time
i etc. Excellent power t
within targetted frequency continuously. X = Series reactance of line
° eve operas
Network Segreregi
gation (Islanding). : In case of major | AV | = Voltage drop in line, [Vg] - [Vgi, magnitude
dency of cascade tripping and large blacko m a j fault er outage , the netwo rk has a ten-
ut. It is difficult to resynchronise. To avoid such
happen- Voltages are controlled by supplying reactive power (Q). This is called compensation.
 12
.
Basic Methods of Voltages Control SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIOy INTRODUCTION
: 17, STATIC VAr SOURCES 13 ;
— Voltages Regulators and Excitati (Svs)
1.1%,
— Tap-changing transfor hers
atation
,

Control of Synchronous
t

various sub-st Generators. :

:
Static VAr sources are installed in receiving
o

Seasonal
. .

P changers are used fo. control of reactive power compensation for voltage sub-stations, load sub-stations for fast, stepless
+

voltage variation
4

s. On lead tap ch
7
ations
7

, Off-load ta
angi . . angers are usa
control. In conventional switched schemes the
changing the turns ratio of the transformer Ny/N, ; ae : i reactors are switched in/out by circuit-breakers, In SVS, the capacitor
— Series compensation (series capacitors) used the voltages ra, oad oho By Coa A controlling the delay angle of thyristor triggering. The duration s/reactors are con-
f J : wo: . 1/218 changed, : flowing through and magnitude of current
the line (TX;) is conipensated by the dro ; reactor/eapacitor is controlled. Thereby amount
or *OB8 lines, The inductive reactance drop jy’ static compensation schemes are used for controlling of compensation is controlled. Fast
fenerally used for long extra high pin Series Capacitors Xo). Series capacitors ar voltage of AC buses in EHV AC sub-stations,
Formerly synchronous compensators were used for similar purpose.
‘89 voltage transmission lines, : Voltage control techniques are described in Chapter 45 B.
Srminals, factory sub-stations, distribution subs
tations. 1.18, POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
, they are switched in during’ Synchronous generators connected to AC
network have a tendency in synchronism
TABLE 2 Renn in during low voltage and switchod off during with the
high voltage :: Netwo rk. The tende ncy
called unstable condition.to remai n in synch ron called Stability. The tendency to fall out-of step is
{ ence Values of Voltage Limits in AC Network
Class e Steady state stability limit denotes the maximum power transfer possib
s oT TO __ le with very small dis-
ystem Voltage Nomin al Highest Voltage _ : turbing forces. This occurs at load angte of 90° electrical. The load angie
Permissible Lowest Sys tem | is the angie between the emf vector (corresponding ofa synchronous machine
— a he h RM to axis of rotating magnetic field) and the voltag
Voltage e
_
a t. fo ph. RMS. eo [: vector (V). The power transfer is given by equation,
Viole
Dh. to ph. RMS.
EV(T ph) 240 V — :
Ph Oph RMS. | _IV{-} | os
415 V 4V ee
pox sind
216 V ae where |V| = Terminal voltage, magnitude; ]#|
_—.
r = Induced emf, magnitude
MHV. 33k S7¥
ee

a47V
7

§ = angle between V and E vectors; X = Synchronous reactance.

MEY a 3.6 kV “8kV Steady state stability limit occur at § = 90° and is equal to
— 72k V0
MB.
—
kV 6GkV | Poge (Viet
VI-bE]. sin Vi.
i2kv ee x
90° = (Vi-lel
MEL. _ 24kV x
However, ifa sudden disturbance occurs, the angle delta avershovts beyon
MHL, d 90° and the stability
20 kV may be lost. Hence the limit of loading permitted (P,,) for given amount of distu
| RY rbance AP is defined.
HY 30kV It is called Transient Stability Limit (P,,) A synchronous gener
Sn aa ator can be loaded safely upto its
60 kV transient stability limit. The transient stability limit
= a (P,,} is much lesser than steady state stability
145 kV Boa limit. Assuming safe load angle of 30° electrical,
>
ALY,
wv
.

__ BV,
245 KV K
p IVE IE gy IVE IEL 2
400 kV 0 ky —__ 200kV _
tL UAL. FeO ky is Xx ~ x g
—_— —
a 380 kV , be P.=1/2P,.. ........ for critical 8 = 30°
80
Note. LV. = Low Vol OV
ye 3 .
. MEV
w¥,. dy Modi
ne High Volta 750 kV 7 : .
Transient state stability sags . Le
limit is half of steady state mit,
M.V. = Medium Voliage . ———
: A similar analysis is applied to power
.
transfer through .
an AC inter
+
connecting
' Yat
E.H.Y. = Extra High Volta ee HY. = High Voltage x line
transmissi on
.
_ Fonte
Shen Ssible
reactovariat
rs areion used
is pprox
withimate
EHVly AC+ 10%
linesNomin
for alcompe
valk nsati
“ghon Voltage
of reactive 2
: P= IMil- | ¥el sin §
st x
bower during low & Where {V|, [V>| 2 =Sending B and receiving voltage magnitudes
ao Compensation of Long Lines &
Dering Low Loads and : X= Series reactance of line; $= Angle between vectors V,, Vy
High Receiving £ Y. Vol
It. tage g
Switch-off shunt cap
acitors. Transient stability lmit can be improved by several method
Shunt-reactors-uns protection. These include the following : s associated with switchgear and
During High Loads and witched
Low Receiving Voltage — Use of faster and superior protection system,
Sw itch-in shunt capacitors at load end
Varying ; Lo
Load Shunt-reactors-unswitched — Use of faster circuit-breakers.
Static Var Source (SVS) ~— Use of rapid auto-reclosing of circuit-breakers.
The voltage contro
l of each sub-stat By improving transient stability limit, the installed generating stations can be
ion bus 1s achiev loaded to higher
ed by ap levels resulting in major economy.
Details about transient stability limit are covered in Chapte
r.44.
 “ SWITCLIGEAR AND PROTECTIg NTRODUCTION 15
|
1.19. HVDC OBTION : 1.21, POWER SYSTEM NETWORK CALCULATIONS AND LOAD FLOW
400 kV a.c. transmission links and sub-stations were establis
hed in India during 1970's. Thi i é i ith the power system variables V, I,
HVDC projects have been executed, (1992), By the year 2000, about i
five HVDC projects are like: Z, PRA mee cee several and bu ses and interconnecting
to be commiss
ioned in India. HVDC transmission systems are selected as an alternative “75, Hoa ee ork constants
and UHY a.c. transmission system for any one of the following reasons to EH} ' P,branches.
Q,
on Bas) ic Kirchoff's laws, network theorems, fundamentals clectrical equations and mathe-
only for specific projects ~
— Long distance high power transmission Hnes (say above 1000 MW and | tools are applied to solve numerical problems in power systems ane Network Caleu a
800 km) for econony matica :
fied by writing the Kirchoffs Current Law in terms of Nodal Voltage Eq .
advantage. HVDC links are economical for long distance high
power transmission Ling are simp I=Y¥ bus V .
when the saving in line cost is more than the additional cost of conversion sub-stat
ion. Fy for the given
backbone AC network, generation transmission and distribution
AC is definitely superi, Land V are current and Voltage matrices. Y bus is the Bus-Admittance Matrix
and continues.
— Asynchronous interconnection (Tie) between two
: ai pothods of Network Calculations have been explained clearly Ch. 19 to 24 and in Ch. 57
ac. s ystems having their own load-fy
quency control systems. with the help of several solved numerical problems.
— Back-to-back Load Flow Calculations
asynchronous tie sub-stations between two a.c. systems without tie-line.
— Underground/submarine cables at voltages above 66 kV and length Load Fiow Studies deal with calculation of the following variables for the various busses and
more than 25 km fy: ‘ branches of the given network (power system) under given steady state operating conditions of
technical reasons.
— Multi-Terminal HVDC Systems, generation and load.
Variables associated with a Load flow study are: .
The HVDC obtion introduced in electrical network during early 1970's provides
. Vk Bus voltage magnitude P, Real Power entering/le aving bus-k
— faster and accurate control of real power (e.g, 30 MW/rnin
ute),
— higher power system stability-limit for transmissio n 5k Phase angle of voliage Q;, Reactive Power entermg Leaving bus
of power without limit of sin 8, ar
improved stability of the connected AC N etworks, Complex power = P+j @ Pn» Real power flow in branch mn
— HVDC line has no reactive power flow and therefore Qmn Emaginary power flow in branch
no need of intermedia te compensatin, Branch Current
substations. The line losses are reduced. HVDC Line [ Ti
losses are about 5% of power transfe terms of the poad
as against 25% line losses for equivalent AC power Transm These variables influence each other and their co-relation is expressed in
ission. per ormanee and
Three Phase, 50 Hz AC Systems will continued universally Flow Equations. Load Flow Studies are the used for evaluating the steady state
for power system generation, tran; provide valuable data to power system engineers for operation, control and sys em P apning and
mission and distribution networks as it has natural
tendency for load-frequency stability ani design. The Gauss Siedel Interactive Method and Newton Raphson Interactive “ G _
several economical AC Voltages Levels through
Transformers. Studies have been clearly explained in Ch. 58 with the help of solved numerical problems.
Modern Power System is a combination of Interconnected AC Systems
pling Stations ; a few Long Distance 2 Terminal Bipolar
with a few HVDC Cos
Multi Terminal 2-Pole HVDC Interconnecting System.
HVDC Links and possibly a high powe 1.22. OBJECTIVE AND TASKS
Switchgear; Protection and Control of HVDC Transmission System Every electricity supply company aims at the following: .
s and their interaction wit!
AC system have been illustrated in Ch, 47. — Supply of required electrical power to all the consumers continuously at all times.
— Maximum possible coverage of the supply network.
1.20. POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS — Energy conservation and use of Renewable energy sources.
Power System Analysis deals with: various network phenom — Maximum security of supply.
work and the machines, stresses on equipment. The
ena, interaction between the net — Shortest possible fault-duration.
System Studies evaluate the present and futur
power system operating performance/reliability/availabilit — Optimum efficiency of plants and the network.
y and to provide data and guidelines fu
- satisfactory operation and control, The Scope include s the following topics which have been coverei — Supply of electrical power at specified frequency and waveform.
* in separate chapters of this book:
— Supply of electrical power within specified voltage limits.
— Load flow calculations
— Supply of electrical energy to the consumers at the lowest cost.
— Load Frequency Control
The work ofa power engineer is to cover a wide range of activities such as: oduct
— Short circuit calculations
-- design and development of the products, systems stations for systems stations, products
Transient overvoitage studies,
research and development
Insulation-coordination, Neutral grounding,
manufacturing, testing, quality control.
Stability studies
project planning, monitoring, execution
Reliability Studies
purchase sale of equipment, specifications
— Voltage Control and Reactive Power Plow Contral
Erection, testing and commissioning, safety.
— HVDC and EHV-AC Transmission Systems,
Interaction with Network, — Operation and maintenance, energy conservation.
— Economic Operation of the Power System
— Power system control, operation, automation. 7
— Computer Aided Power System Studies
This book covers the basis aspects. For gaining expertise in the activities further study and
experience is necessary.
 i?
[1Gu-VOLPAGE A.C, CIRCUIT-BREAKERE ' . ' 4 7 ve br " ker
FI Bake by
are 35 extinguished in the arent
een the beaker contacts. Phe
— Are is dr BWTi betw tal
t ]
" as the are 15 &X Mews 1 +
techniques . The c urre SYR £ re a. ches final 2670
suitable

CUIT
9 3. THE TRIP-CIR tion.
ing operalio
ircui breaker contro! for the opening
circuit-
Fig. 2.12.41 illustratess the basic connections of the

High- voltage A. C. Circuit-Breakers

|
:
ee
___———}-«
? 1. Cirenit-breaker
. Rela
The fault clearing precess—Types of circuit breakers—Circuit-breaker . re : 3 Trip coil of eb. (Bhunt Release)
assembly—Operating -
mechanism—Materials—Summary 4. Trip circuit
§ 5. Battery
2.1, INTRODUCTION . 6. Relay Contacts
1 | Ee 4 4 7. Potential transformer
In this chapter, the constructional aspects of circuit-breakers have been briefly 8. Current transformer
discussed. Ty a Auxiliary switch contacts
theoretical aspects regarding transient variation of current and voltage,
are extinction process ay ae
the various of circuit-breakers have been degeribed in detail in subsequent chapters x Protected element.
. s{il
The circuit-breakers are automatic switches which can interrupt
fault currents. In some ay xy
plications like single phase traction system, Single pole circuit
-breakers are used. The part of th operation.
circuit-breakers connected in one phase is called ¢ he pole.
A circuit-breaker suitable for three phas Fig. 2.1. Simplified diagram of circuit-breaker control for the opening
system is called a ‘triple-pole circuit-breakers’. . it occurs in the protected circuit,
The Protected circuit x is shown by dashed line. When a fau
contacts 6 { fl ur rent
is flows rom }
t 18 j 1 & nd i { ac tu ates and os8cs
c1oses 1 ts = (
inte} ‘ upier ‘S$ OF Qi C-extinid Ain ch e
amnthe r 1a ¥ { }
2 COTE rect ed tO c
bers. The interrupters are mounted t
on support
or More ae
insulators. The interrupter enclosesSs a Ss. set of fixathe battery (5) in ireui breaker (3) 1si energizea,
ti tripi coil i] o of the circuit
circui (4). As As the
i the tripio circuit ized, the
: . oe . i
and moving contact, The moving contacts can be drawn apart by means of the operating links ccircuit-breaker operating mechanism : ism isi actuate ed and it operates for the opening opera tion.
the operating mechanism. The operating mechanism of the P
circui t-breaker gives the necessary ene, Auxiliary switch is an important item in the circuit,
gy for opening and closing of contacts of the circuit-breakers.
The arc produced by the separation of current carrying contact
medium and by adopting suitable techniques for are extinction. The
s is interrupted by a suitable 4, RECENT ADVANCES
circuit-breaker can be classifie~" . . and
es
on the basis of the arc extinction medium. Before 1970s in medium voltage range an high g
voltage range, air-break, bulk-oil; minimum
oil, air blast circuit breakers ruled the worid market. During 1970s He an ce SF breakers
kV, Single pressure p
introduced for applications up to rated voltages of 36
THE FAULT
22. During CLEARING PROCESS . 3.3 kV te 760 kV, SF, Gas Insulated Substations (GIS)
the normal operating condition the circuit-breaker can be opened or closed by a statio Yee introduced
for rated eon Pn tlavele * and rated voltages in the system have increased,
operator for the purpose of switching and maintenance. During the abnormal or fauity condition Were
introduced for 12kV ee ‘| breakers, air-blast breakers have become obsolete. Tlowever
the relays sense the fault and close the trip circuit of the
circuit-breaker. Thereafter the circuil ** The bulk-oil breakers,
breaker opens. The cireuit-breaker has two working positions, existing installations during 1990s.
open and closed, These correspon YOU will find them in the existing
to open circuit-breaker contacts and closed circuit-breaker contacts respectively. reak ‘e maintenance-[ree and of superior switching per-
automatic opening and closing the contacts is achieved by means of the operatingThemechanism
operations | The vacuum breakers and SF, brea ore ae hing duties in
¢ formance. They are now preferred for various wite ne new instailations. In low voltage
oe ret
the circuit-breaker, As the relay contacts close,
the trip circuit is closed and the operating range
mechanism of the circuit-breaker starts the opening operation. The contacts of the Air-break circuit-breakers and contactors rule e
open and an are is drawn between
circuit-breake During 1970s and 1980s, the research and development was 4 oo ssedVetoan
on in various switching
SP and HVDC
them. The arc is extinguished at some natural current zero « phenomena, switching overvoltages, short-circuit
a.c. wave, The process of current interruption is completed when testing, developmen 6
the arc is extinguished and th CBs. SF. GIS
current reaches final zero value. The fault when the are is extinguished and the current reache .
“78° © . Lo, 2 totally revised with the introduction of TRV concept
final zero value. The fault is said to be cleared. The process of fault-clearing has the following se The Standards on cireult
breakers wel ies with synthetic testing facilities were built
quence: ,
— Fault occurs, As the fault occurs the fault impedance being low, the currents increase _ and rigorous testing. Short circuit testing veo free. simpler civeuit breakers and compact indoor
ani @ VaTious countries. setae: aS) ase now manufactured and installed in India for
the relay gets actuated. The moving part of the relay move because various raied
of the increase in the 5!'6 Gas Insulated Substations ( ves
operating torque. The relay takes some time to close its contacts.
— Relay contacts close, the trip circuit of the circuit-breaker
voltages from 3.6 kV to 420 kV.
close s and trip coil is energized ahs null oanent in amperes
— The operating mechanism starts operatin : 4 an
g for the opening operations. The cireuit-breaker + Fault MVA = NB x* vx i where V is‘ the service
'
voltage
.
in: volts and J is2 the fau
‘a cul TA
contacts separate.
 i8
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIgE KERS i9
In low voltage range air-break cir cuit breakers/c HIGH-VOLTAGE A.C, CIRCUIT-BREA
case circuit breakers and solid state switching deviceontactors : miniature circuit breakers, : mouldy: Table 2.1 Comparison of Cireuit-breakers
requirements of control gear. s, HRC fuses have been developed to meet _
i Voltage-Breaking Design
The Circuit Breaker technology has matu Type Medium Capacity 8 Features as Remarks
—
level*, rated voltage** and switchin red and circui t-breakers are available
& duty in power for every fay : ” JOFALES | sed for medium
system,
Pi 1 “Air-break-
Ar aimee
atmospheric MVP wy: 3.6-12
recently
MVA rece 3 Areerrantsars are volkages 4A.C. DC.
voltages
2.5. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON cireuit-beaker rt kV, 500 MVA splitters ndus
ARC QUENCHING MEDIUM pressure ‘ magnetic coils circuit-hreakers,
The a.c circuit-breakers can be Have current
classified on the basis of rated volta
rated voltage of L000 V are calle ges. Cireuit-breakers bel limiting features.
d low voltage cireuit-breakers and
voltage a.c, cirewit-breakers, above 1000 V are called hj : i - | Small size, Used for Low and
:
‘The type of the circuit-breaker is P ~~ Miniature C8. ata os heric
atmesp! 0-600 current limiting Medium Voltages.
The classification of the circuit brea usually identified accordi ng to the medium of arc extinction: pressure feature
kers based on the medium of are extin
(1) Air break circuit-breaker/
Miniature circuit-breaker,
ction is as follows:
2. Bulk-Gil Dielectric vil 12 kV, 3.6 kV One tank upte 36 Getting obsolete used
circuit-breaker KY, 3 tanks upto 12 kV, 500 MVA,
(2) Ol cireuit-breaker (tank
type of bulk oif) above 36 kV,
(3) Minimum oil circuit-breaker. fitted with are
control devices
(4) Air blast circuit-breaker.
Minimum
3. oil Thielectric oil Preferred for 3.6 kV The circuit Used for metal
(5) Sulphur hexafluoride cireuit-brea
ker, (Single pressure or Double Pres eircuit-breaker to 145 kV breaking enclosed switchgear
(6) Vacuum sure), chamber is upto 86 kV, Ouldeors
circuit-breaker.
separate from type between 36 and
Each circuit-breaker will be stud 246 kV. Now
ied thoroughly in supporting
breakers employ various tech-chniques to extinguish the ar the subsequent chapters. These cireuit: chamber. Small superseded by SF,
carrying contacts. The mo de ¢ resulting from separation of the
of arc extinction is either ‘high cur ent: size, Arc contro] CB.
interruption’, ; resistance interruption’ or ‘zero-poin{: device used.
High Resistance Interruption i 5,000 MVA ] Uniti type itable for ali EHV
Suitable
lengthening and cooling it to such . In this process the resistanc
e of the arc is increased by: cireuit-breaker
eae b k ompressed a rte 1100
. k¥ ; construction applications, fast
the arc and the are gets extinguished and extent that the system voltage ‘ (20-30) kg /em?
is no longer able to maintain? 50,000 MVA several units per opening closing. Also
d.c. circuit-breakers. , The technique is employed in for Arc Furnace
airbreak circuit-breakers and: pole, anxiliary
Low Resistance or Zero Point cornpressed air Duty. Now
natural current zero of the alte Interruption. In this proc system required. Superseded by SF,
rnating current wave and is prevess , the are gets extinguished al: CB for 145 kV, and
rapid build up of dielectric stre
ngth
e nted from restriking again Bye
cireuit-breakers, HVDC circuit-brea of the contact space. This process is employed in almost all at above
kers employ ‘artificial current zero Suitable for SF,
Rach leading manufacturer of method’. ‘ 5. SI, circuit- SF, gas 145 kV, 7500 MVA One interrupter
circuit-breaker deve
lops two or more types of circ 245 kV, 10,000 MVA pole upto 245 kV switchgear and
for every voltage class. (Ref. Tabl uit-breakers: breaker Single (5 kg/ern?)
e 2.1). The construction of the 12 kV, 1000 MVA Medium voltage
type (are-quenching medium), circuit-breakers depends upon pressure
voltage rating and structural ifs: puffer type 36 kV, 2006 MVA swer. EHV circuit
Air-break Circuit- form.
breakers, Utilize air at atmospheric : SF, GIS 420 kV, 40 kA breaker,
Air-blast Circuit-breakers, Utili pressure for are-extinction (Ref. Ch.
ze high p: Fessure compressed air for 5). - Maintenance free.
They need compressed air plant. arc extinction (Ref. Ch, 8). 6 Vacuum Vacuum Preferred for indoor Variety of Suitable for a variety
Bulk-oil and Minimum. oil circuit-breaker switchgeur rated designs, long life, of application from
Circuit-breakers, Utilize Diel upto 36 kY, 750 modest 3.6 KV to 36 kV
extinetion. In Bull-oil eirc ectric oil ¢ Transformer oil) for
uit breakers, the contacts are MVA mnaintenance.
dielectric ofl. In minimum: are sepa rated inside a steel tank filled with
oil circuit-breakers the cor itact 7 FVD. Oil or Air-Biast 33 kV, 2kA Artificial current Used for Metailic
(interrupter) filled with diel s are separated in an insulating
ectric oil. housing | Circuit-breaker zero by switching Return Transfer
SF, Cireuit-breakers, Sulphu a in capacitors. Breaker.
r-hexa-fluoride gas is used for arc ; : n superseded by single
extinction, There are two types: : i pressure pu ffer type. decide ee 3
— Single Pressure pulfer
type SF ¢ Circuit-breakers
, in which the entire circuit-breaker fey ae arent breakers the fixed and moving contacts are Sat ated in tek manently
is filled with SF gas at singl | sealed Vacuum interrupter, The arc is quenched as the contacts are separate
e pressure (4 to 6 kef/em
for are extinction is obtained *). ‘The pressure and gas flow required ;
by piston action, (Ref. Ch, 9)
~- Dou ble pressure type SF, Cir
cuit-breaker, in which the gas
is released into low pressu from high-pressure system . 2.6. TECHNICAL PARTICULARS OF A CIRCUIT-BREAKER
re system over the re durin
g the are quenching process,
A circuit-breaker is identified by the following particulars :
* Fault MVA = S38.fey.X¥
ie XE where V is the service voltage in volts (1) Type of medin for arc-extinction. |
and / is the fault enirent m ar
aperes. :
** Rated Voltages of cireuit-b (2) Rated voltage. This corresponds to highes t power-frequency voltage between phase to
veakers refer to hi
245 RV, 420 RY, 800 RV, r ms gher system voltage e.g. 3.6 AV, £2 RV, 36 RV, 145 RY, phase, e.g. 3.6 kV, 7.2 kV, 12 kV, 36 KV, 72.5 kV, 145 kV, 245 icv,
ph. to ph,
 20 SWITCLIGRAR AND PROTECTION : aiGH-VOLTAGE A.C. CIRCUIT: BREAKERS 21 | | a ;
(3) Rated breaking current :
: sg
(4) Other rated characteristics, (Ref. Ch. 3) itching SF, or VCB with RC Suppressors
. rame.
| Motor of a cireuit breaker assembled on a common frame The
(5) Type of construction : : ig. 2.3 we ‘sev three identical ; poles
woe
. iv conducting parts. The current
—- Indoor metal-clad type, draw-out type : i en between the poles is determined by the yo ene4 eeatis interrupted fa closed chamber
Oe ying parts are supported by dielectric
. .
materials.
3 4
‘The c s -
— outdoor type
— Metal-clad SF, gas insulated type. known
nown asas are extinction chamber (Fig. 2.3, item 3) or interrupter.
;| ‘
The contacts (10) are generally in i
pairs of Bee
.
aia
: ine contact. The moving contact
(6) Type of operating mechanism, aad opening an Operating Mechanism
ig moved mechanically. To acevo ara ia to open and close the contact when desired.
(7) Total break-time e.g. 2 cycle, 3 cycle, 5 cycle.
é ig necessary. The function ° P for the three poles or may be separate one for each
(8) Structural form oF The operating mechanism may be cornmon -e is Control Cabinet or what is known as Switch
“adie: . are : le. In addition to the operating mechanism, t erel
(9) Additional featare for overvoltage limiting, ‘ Pbicle The various control interlocking, indicating connectstions are through this control cabinet
—— Surge suppressor ~~ Switching resistor. zk .
placed near ‘the
t breaker.
nit-phase circuit breaker consists of . the following
: . wnhae.
2.7. ASSEMBLY OF OUTDOOR CIRCUIT-BREAKERS snb-as
~ae lete three-phase cire
. Thus a compere Saree!
The design features of . an individua
sae i, . #
l circuit-breaker . . semblies.
depends upon its voltage, other ratings .
and the type. The circuit-breakers manufactured by different companie * Three poles — operating mechanisism m support
supp
structure
s may have quite different c 7 ‘ol cabinet
design patterns. However, a general description of an EHV circuit breaker can be given to cover ; — auxiliaries
— contro
the various types. The low voltage circuit-breakers, have differen
capacity and frequency of
t design features as the voltage, 6
operation is different from that of the HEV circuit-breake
rs, The part of | 6 1 EF sx.
o
the circuit-breaker connected in one phase is called ‘Pole
of the circuit-breaker’, A circuit-breaker /
a

for power systems is called ‘Triple pole circuit breaker’. In single

pole circuit breakers are employed.
phase traction systems, single ;
i

fer,
Le pyrene a
' Fig. 2.2, Structural form of a triple outdoor circuit-breake
r with one iterrupter per pole.
TABLE 2.2, Present Trends in Choice
of Circuit-Breakers
! Rated Voltage Preferred type _ [ Remarks :
Below 1 kV — Air break Circuit-breaker
(low voltage) — Mctal-enclosed switchgear
i
~~ Metal-enclosed contral gear
: ‘
3.6 kV to — Vacuum Circuit-breakers — Metai-enclosed Switchgear, Indoor use with - : i
i2kv — SF, .B. — Vacuum Switchgear preferred k
— Single Pressure SF, preferred :
36 kV — Minimum Oil Circuit-Breaker Outdoor Type or in Kiosk MOCB becoming _ :
— Vacuum C.B, SP, Circuit Breaker obsolete. Front View
L. —-_ E
t End View
145 kV and — Minimum Oii Circuit-Breaker out door | — SP, Circuit ati ani 3, Interrupter
Breaker Preferred 1 : 1, Cirewit-breaker pole 3, Interrupts !
245 kV" — SF, Outdoor Puffer type ~- MOCB becoming obsolete. 2. Operating mechaniam 6, Terminals
r z 4. Support porcelain 5. Conductor . .
3 9. Frame '
if
| 420 kV#
107, Operati
— SF, Outdoor Puffer type — SF, Circuit-Breaker Preferred. ng rod 8.il. Ingulat
"|
| Contacts Transfeing operatisng
r contact ro n moving
betwee : Wo
- : 1
* Putter type out-duar SF, C.B. installed in India 1980-19 12. . Linkage contact. s anc } terminal.
81. + Capacitor Switching VCH or SF, :
CP att

** Vacuun Switchgear introduced in India 1980-81. Motor Switching SF, or VCB with RC mee
ig. 2.4,2.3. Diagram illustrating the assembly of an outdoor circuit-
breaker.
POE PETES

Fig.
* Vacuum contacto rs introduced in India 1980. Suppressors Are Furnace Duty, VCB/SF./ABCB
Repeated operations VCB/SF,,