Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878

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Ore Geology Reviews

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Evidence of gold related to Neoarchean alkaline magmatism in the Abitibi

greenstone belt (Canada) from mineral parageneses and microscale trace
element geochemistry on pyrite
Christophe Azevedo a, b, *, Michel Jébrak a, Dominique Genna c, d, Daniele L. Pinti a, e, f
a
Département des sciences de la Terre et de l’atmosphère, Université du Québec à Montréal, CP 8888 succ. Centre-ville, Montréal, QC H3C 3P8, Canada
b
GEOTOP, Research center for the dynamics of the Earth system, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, QC H3C 3P8, Canada
c
Centre d’études sur les ressources minérales (CERM), Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, 555, boul. de l’Université, Saguenay, QC G7H 2B1, Canada
d
CONSOREM, 555, boul. de l’Université, Saguenay, QC G7H 2B1, Canada
e
Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources, Gansu Province, Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
f
Gansu Talent and Intelligence Center for Remediation of Closed and Old Deposits, Lanzhou 730000, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Most of Archean gold deposits are classified as orogenic gold systems (OGS), precipitated by metamorphic fluids
Gold deposit during compressional deformation at convergent plate margins. However, Neoarchean gold deposits are also
Alkaline magmatism found spatially related to post-collisional alkaline intrusions such as syenites, suggesting a genetic link between
LA-ICP-MS
gold and magmas. To bring novel evidence on this relation, ore parageneses related to Bachelor/O’Brien, Beattie,
Pyrite
Douay and Golden Arrow gold deposits were studied together with trace elements distribution at micron-scale in
Abitibi greenstone belt
Au-bearing pyrites. Further, the δ34Spyrite signature in the Beattie deposit were compared to epithermal Phan­
erozoic analogues in post-collisional tectonic settings. Except for Golden Arrow, results show a paragenetic
assemblage of K-feldspar-albite-anhydrite-barite-celestite-apatite-rutile-calcite-dolomite which is also common
in Phanerozoic magmatic-hydrothermal systems. Gold-bearing pyrites are characterized by a higher abundance
of most trace elements compared to OGS. Positive Au-Ag-Bi-Te-Tl-W-anomalies – which are not observed in OGS
– suggest deposition from highly oxidized fluids, while Au precipitation in OGS is mainly controlled by reduced
fluids. The presence of highly oxidized environments is also confirmed by very low δ34Spyrite values ranging from
− 17.3‰ to − 13.9‰ VCDT found at Beattie, in the range of those found in Phanerozoic deposits of Tuvatu and
Emperor in Fiji. It is proposed that Archean gold related with late alkaline continental magmatism is deposited
both at the top of porphyritic system and in epithermal environment, before the acme of deformation and
metamorphism.

1. Introduction settings, possibly accounting for as much as 20% of the extracted

Most of the Archean gold deposits are usually described as epigenetic
orogenic gold systems (OGS) (Goldfarb and Groves, 2015; Dubé and
Mercier-Langevin, 2020). Formerly called “mesothermal” due to their
depth of emplacement (at moderate pressures and temperatures) and to
the association with metamorphic terranes of all ages, OGS deposits
formed during compressional to transpressional deformation processes
at convergent plate margins in accretionary and collisional orogens (e.
g., Groves et al., 1998). However, a significant number of these deposits
are associated with alkaline rocks emplaced in post-collisional tectonic
Archean gold (Rowins et al., 1993; Robert, 2001; Ispolatov et al., 2008).
Many Phanerozoic gold deposits are also related to alkaline rocks (e.
g., Sillitoe, 1997; Richards, 2009). Typical examples are Ladolam (Papua
New Guinea (PNG); Sykora et al., 2018) and Cripple Creek (Colorado,
USA; Kelley and Ludington, 2002). Among the different types of
alkaline-related gold deposits, epithermal and syenite-associated sys­
tems are particularly prevalent. The latter belong to the intrusion-
related gold system (IRGS) subtype (Jensen and Barton, 2000; Müller
and Groves, 2018), which encompasses a group of deposits with broad
mineralogical and metalliferous characteristics produced by local-scale

* Corresponding author at: Département des sciences de la Terre et de l’atmosphère, Université du Québec à Montréal, CP 8888 succ. Centre-ville, Montréal, QC
H3C 3P8, Canada.
E-mail address: azevedo.christophe@courrier.uqam.ca (C. Azevedo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2022.104878
Received 29 October 2021; Received in revised form 27 March 2022; Accepted 6 April 2022
Available online 12 April 2022
0169-1368/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
C. Azevedo et al.
fluids derived from magmatism.
A small group of gold occurrences and ores in the Archean Abitibi
greenstone belt (AGB) in the Province of Quebec (Canada) have long
been known to occur in association with post-collisional syenites
(Cameron and Hattori, 1987; Rowins et al., 1993; Robert, 2001; Ispo­
latov et al., 2008; Fayol et al., 2016). These deposits were first inter­
preted as proximal to distal expressions of large magmatic-hydrothermal
systems centered on, or related to, composite syenitic stocks (Robert,
2001). Nevertheless, the genetic link between Neoarchean alkaline
magma and gold continues to be a subject of debate (Müller and Groves,
2018; Dubé and Mercier-Langevin, 2020). The magmatic intrusions are
interpreted as having been active during the onset of these hydrothermal
systems or having served only as favorable structural traps for gold due
to competency contrast with the surrounding terranes (Colvine et al.,
1988; Groves et al., 1998; Dubé and Mercier-Langevin, 2020).
Although IRGS and OGS deposits were both emplaced in collisional
to post-collisional settings, they show several distinctive differences
(Groves et al., 1998; Pitcairn et al., 2021). Orogenic gold systems are
hydrothermal epigenetic gold deposits driven by crustal-scale faults and
metamorphic fluids that formed synchronously with the later stages of
Neoarchean orogenies (Goldfarb et al., 2013). The OGS-related meta­
morphic fluids responsible for gold transfer through the crust are typi­
cally reduced, low-salinity, and CO2-rich (Goldfarb et al., 2013;
Mathieu, 2021). In contrast, IRGS-related hydrothermal fluids are
typically oxidized, high-temperature, and high-salinity, with a more
complex trace element chemistry (Cameron and Hattori, 1987; Rowins
et al., 1993; Robert, 2001; Mathieu, 2021). The potassic alteration and
hematization usually observed in IRGS deposits are of magmatic origin
while sericite and ankerite are predominant in OGS. Pyrite is a common
mineral in both IRGS and OGS deposits (Goldfarb et al., 2013) and is
used as a tool to record the evolution of fluids characterizing each type
of systems. Tungsten, bismuth and tellurium mineral phases are also
found in both OGS and IRGS deposits but are more abundant in IRGS
(Goldfarb et al., 2013).
This study aims to explore the genetic link between IRGS and the
shallower epithermal gold deposits spatially-related to alkaline mag­
matism, and if they have existed since the Neoarchean. Two microbeam
mapping techniques are proposed to test this hypothesis. SEM-EDX
major and trace element analysis of thin sections was used to deter­
mine ore parageneses, and LA-ICP-MS analysis (transects and semi-
quantitative trace elements mapping) on gold-bearing pyrites was
used to determine the metallogenic environment and geochemical
signature of mineralizing fluids. The analyses were carried out on
samples from the Beattie, Douay, Bachelor/O’Brien and Golden Arrow
gold deposits, all spatially associated to Neoarchean alkaline magma­
tism and thus considered to be representative of Neoarchean alkaline-
related gold deposits in the AGB (Fayol and Jébrak, 2017). The study
mainly focused on the Bachelor/O’Brien and Beattie gold deposits
because they are better constrained in terms of metallogenic processes
than Douay and Gold Arrow (Lauzière, 1989; Bigot and Jébrak, 2015;
Fayol and Jébrak, 2017). To further test the hypothesis of the existence
of IRGS-like Neoarchean alkaline magmatic gold using independent
evidence, the sulfur isotope ratios (δ34S = [34S/32S]sample/[34S/32S]std
− 1 × 1000) of gold-bearing pyrite from the Beattie deposit were
compared to Neoarchean and Phanerozoic δ34Spyrite values compiled
from the literature. The results show that the hydrothermal fluids of
Archean IRGS and syenite-related epithermal gold deposits share strong
similarities, suggesting a common origin and similar transport
mechanism.
2. Geological setting
2.1. Abitibi greenstone belt (AGB) Subprovince
The AGB is located in the southern part of the Archean Superior
Craton. Its magmatic evolution is well constrained (Thurston et al.,
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Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878
2008; Mole et al., 2021; Fig. 1a) and summarized as follows:
1) Construction of a mafic crust during six main volcanic episodes be­
tween ~2670 and ~2750 Ma (Figs. 1, 2 and 3; Thurston et al., 2008;
Beakhouse, 2011).
2) Emplacement of sodium-rich synvolcanic TTG plutons during the
same period (Fig. 3; Beakhouse, 2011). This produced porphyry-style
Cu-Au mineralizations (Galley, 2003), such as those found at the Don
Rouyn porphyry copper mine near Rouyn-Noranda in Quebec
(Goldie et al., 1979) and the Coté Gold Project in the Swayze
greenstone belt of Ontario (Katz et al., 2021).
3) Compressional deformation (D1) between ~2695 and ~2685 Ma.
OGS and calc-alkaline IRGS gold deposits were emplaced during this
period (Fig. 3). The Kiena Mine gold deposit (pre-2686 Ma) in Val-
d’Or is the best-known example of a D1-related IRGS deposit
(Morasse et al., 1995).
4) Alkaline magmatism during the post-collisional history of the belt
(Cameron and Hattori, 1987; Rowins et al., 1993; Robert, 2001),
forming pull-apart basins enclosed by large-scale crustal faults and
intruded by syenitic magmas (e.g., Duparquet, Granada; Daigneault
et al., 2002). Several depositional events in the region were sub-
contemporaneous with the alkaline magmatism (Beakhouse, 2011;
Thurston et al., 2008), notably the volcaniclastic and turbiditic rocks
of the Porcupine Assemblage dated between ~2690 and ~2685 Ma
(Fig. 3; Ayer et al., 2005; Thurston et al., 2008), the clastic sedi­
mentary rocks of the Pontiac Group dated at 2685 Ma (Frieman et al.,
2017; Rehm et al., 2021), and the conglomeratic rocks of the sedi­
mentary Timiskaming Assemblage dated between ~2678 and
~2669 Ma (Davis, 2002; Ispolatov et al., 2008; Thurston et al.,
2008).
5) Two compressional periods (D2 and D3) between 2673 and 2665 Ma.
Typical OGS deposits, such as the Sigma-Lamaque orebodies (Robert,
1994), formed during this period (Dubé and Mercier-Langevin,
2020).
6) A long trail of late thermal reactivation (Dubé and Mercier-Langevin,
2020).
2.2. Alkaline magmatism in the AGB
Alkaline magmatism between ~2685 and ~2671 Ma is ubiquitous in
the ABG (Figs. 1, 2 and 3 and Table 1). Alkaline-related gold minerali­
zation is spatially associated with oxidized quartz-monzonites classified
as sanukitoid intrusions (Shirey and Hanson, 1984) and syenite stocks
and dikes (Robert, 2001). Sanukitoid intrusions, such as the Bachelor/
O’Brien stocks in Quebec (Fayol and Jébrak, 2017) and Golden Arrow in
Ontario (Fig. 1 and Table 1), also include the Kirkland Lake granitic suite
(Levesque, 1996) and the “alkalic” series in Ontario (Beakhouse, 2011).
Such intrusions display high-K, silica-saturated, calc-alkaline to silica-
undersaturated alkaline compositions. Beattie (Figs. 1a and 2) and
Douay in Quebec, and Young-Davidson in Ontario belong to the alkalic
syenite series (Table 1). Bachelor/O’Brien and Beattie represent two end
members of several gold deposits.
2.2.1. Geology of the Bachelor/O’Brien gold deposit
The Bachelor/O’Brien Au ± Cu-(Zn, Pb, F, REE) deposit is spatially
associated with the Wedding-Lamarck fault zone in the northeastern
part of the ABG (Fig. 1b; Table 1). It is located on the edge of an intrusion
(quartz-syenite to quartz-monzonite to granodiorite facies) surrounded
by a magnetic halo (Lauzière, 1989; Fayol et al., 2016). The main
mineralized porphyritic facies of the O’Brien stock was dated between
2692 ± 2 Ma (Dubé and Mercier-Langevin, 2020) and 2685 ± 5 Ma (U-
Pb isotopic data on zircons; Azevedo, 2022) (Figs. 1b and 3; Table 1).
The 2685 ± 5 Ma age is contemporaneous with the Kiena (Au) and
Camflo (Au-F) magmatic-hydrothermal systems in the southern part of
the AGB (Fig. 3). Gold at Bachelor/O’Brien is associated with pyrite and
related to alkaline Na-K metasomatism, together with fluorite- and
C. Azevedo et al. Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878

Fig. 1. a) Simplified geological map of the Abitibi Greenstone Belt (AGB) Subprovince (modified from Thurston et al., 2008); b) Geological map of the Bachelor/
O’Brien gold deposit (Fayol and Jébrak, 2017).

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C. Azevedo et al.
Fig. 2. a) Regional geological map of the Duparquet sedimentary basin (modified from Legault, 2004); b) Geological map of the Beattie gold deposit (Bigot and
Jébrak, 2015).
hematite-rich metasomatized zones in magnetite-rich volcanic host
rocks (Fig. 4e; Fayol and Jébrak, 2017). Dubé and Mercier-Langevin
(2020) suggested that gold mineralization is associated with late ENE
to E-W and locally ESE deformation zones related to the main folding
and shortening phase in the belt. Mathieu (2021) proposed that Bach­
elor/O’Brien is an IRGS deposit overprinted by an OGS.
2.2.2. Geology of the Beattie gold deposit
The syenite-associated Beattie gold deposit is located along the north
side of the Destor-Porcupine fault zone in the south part of the ABG
(Figs. 2 and 5; Bigot and Jébrak, 2015). The deposit is intimately asso­
ciated with a syenitic complex dated at 2681 ± 1 Ma (Mueller et al.,
1995; Figs. 2 and 3). The syenitic complex displays five lithological
facies (Bigot and Jébrak, 2015): 1) equigranular; 2) porphyritic; 3)
porphyritic with large K-feldspar phenocrysts; 4) mega-porphyritic; and
5) trachytic with 85% to 95% K-feldspar and albite laths. Gold ore
bodies are found within the Beattie syenitic intrusions and along their
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Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878
northern and southern margins where they are mainly hosted within the
Beattie and Donchester faults (Bigot and Jébrak, 2015). Two different
styles of gold mineralization – lithology-controlled and structure-
controlled – have been recognized at Beattie, each having a different
fluid source. Lithology-controlled disseminated mineralization corre­
sponds to a magmatic-hydrothermal process interpreted to be geneti­
cally linked to the syenite pluton (Fig. 5). It shows disseminated sulfides
and fine mineralized gold stockworks displaying epithermal textures.
Gold, characterized as ‘invisible gold’, is mainly related to finely
disseminated, porous arsenian pyrite (Bigot and Jébrak, 2015). The ore
is concentrated along the northern and southern shear zones related to
the Beattie and Donchester faults. Structure-controlled gold minerali­
zation are interpreted as a remobilization of lithology-controlled ones
(Bigot and Jébrak, 2015). Remobilization of ‘invisible gold’ to form ores
in the crystal lattice structure of the early porous gold-rich arsenian
pyrite has been proposed by Bigot and Jébrak (2015). Like the Bachelor/
O’Brien deposit, Beattie is also classified as an IRGS overprinted by an
C. Azevedo et al. Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878

Fig. 3. Radiometric dating compilation summarizing the magmatic evolution of the AGB (modified from Workman, 1986; Corfu et al., 1989; Othman et al., 1990;
Corfu et al., 1991; Corfu and Noble, 1992; Corfu, 1993; Mortensen, 1993a,b; Tilton and Bell, 1994; Couture et al., 1996; Wilkinson et al., 1999; Ayer et al., 2002;
Davis, 2002; McDonald et al., 2005; David et al., 2006, 2011; David et al., 2007; Goutier and Melançon, 2007; Beakhouse, 2011; Zhang et al., 2014; De Souza et al.,
2015; Müller and Groves, 2016).

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Table 1
Main geological characteristics of the gold deposits discussed in this study (Cameron and Hattori, 1987; Davis et al., 1994, 2000; Mueller et al., 1995; Robert, 2001;
Bigot and Jébrak, 2015; Fayol and Jébrak, 2017; Dubé and Mercier-Langevin, 2020; Azevedo, 2022).
Deposit Grade and Intrusion-Related Setting of Nature of ore Metal Alteration Age Selected
tonnage composition mineralization association mineral References

Beattie 60.9 Mt @ 1.59 Porphyritic In composite stock Diss. apy-py-mt and As, Te, Cu, K-feldspar, ca. 2681.6 Mueller et al.,
g/t Au (29.7 Mt syenite and along its qz-ab-cb stockwork Zn, Pb, Mo albite, ankerite, ± 1 Ma (U- 1995; Bigot and
@ 1.51 g/t Au) margins to breccia zone, sericite, Pb) Jébrak, 2015
veins, shear zones magnetite,
hematite

Douay 45 t Au Porphyritic In composite stock, Micro-stockwork/ Au, REE, Cu, K-feldspar, ca. 2679 + Davis et al., 2000;
syenite along dikes and breccia and diss. py F albite, ankerite, 10/− 7 Ma; Robert et al., 1997;
lithologic contacts sericite, 2676 + 6–5 Robert 2001
magnetite, Ma
hematite

Bachelor 843 722 t @ 7.38 Alkaline complex; Stockwork and Diss. py ± cpy, po Au with K-feldspar, ca. 2692 ± Fayol and Jébrak,
g/t Quartz-syenite to replacement zone within stockwork, minor Ag, Au: hematite, 2 Ma; 2686 2017; Dubé and
alkali-granite veins and shears Ag = 9:1 sericite, calcite- ± 5 Ma Mercier-Langevin,
dolomite 2020; Azevedo,
2022

Golden 1981–1982: 303 Trondhjemite Disseminated and Diss. py (2–3%), Au K-feldspar, _ Cameron and
Arrow 449 t @ 2.15 g/t along faults stockwork of quartz ankerite, calcite, Hattori, 1987
veinlets magnetite,
hematite

OGS (Mathieu, 2021).
Field relations at Beattie demonstrate that alkaline-related gold de­
posits in the AGB are usually overprinted by shear-hosted quartz and
iron carbonate (i.e., ankerite) mineralization (Robert, 2001; Mathieu,
2021). However, near Beattie, at Central Duparquet, the Timiskaming
sedimentary rocks (deposited between 2678 and 2672 Ma; Hewitt,
1963) lie in angular unconformity above the Beattie syenite (Robert,
2001; Fig. 2). Moreover, sericitized and mineralized syenite clasts are
observed at the base of the Timiskaming conglomerates (Robert, 2001)
but also clasts of epithermal quartz veins with palisadic texture
(Lafrance, 2015) indicating that carbonatation, sericitization and
epithermal-style mineralization predates sedimentation (Robert, 2001).
This relationship shows that Timiskaming conglomerates slightly post­
date the emplacement of the Beattie syenite dated at 2681.6 ± 1 Ma
(Figs. 2 and 14; Mueller et al., 1995), implying a possible gold endow­
ment phase directly linked to the syenite and predating the classic D2
and D3 orogenic phases of the AGB (Fig. 3).
2.2.3. Geology of Douay and Golden Arrow deposits
Two other IRGS have been considered: Douay (Quebec) and Golden
Arrow (Ontario) in order to compare them with the Bachelor/O’Brien
and Beattie deposits.
The syenite-associated Douay gold deposit (Quebec) (2676 +6/− 5
Ma; Davis et al., 2000) is located in a flexure of the crustal-scale, E-W,
Casa Berardi–Douay–Cameron fault, in the Northern Volcanic Zone of
the AGB (Fig. 1; Table 1; Robert, 2001). Timiskaming sediments
observed at Douay are composed of polygenic conglomerates with jasper
fragments, sandstones and turbidites reflecting a flysch-type deposi­
tional environment (Appendix 1Ag). Syenite dikes – displaying equi­
granular, porphyritic, pegmatitic, and aplitic textures – intrude the
Timiskaming–Kidd-Munro contact. Syenitic dikes intersect all the pre­
viously mentioned lithologies. Mineralization composed of gold, copper,
fluorite and rare earth elements (REE) is intimately linked to lithological
contacts in stockworks and hydrothermal alteration zones related to
composite stocks composed of syenitic dykes (Robert et al., 1997).
Related alterations are composed of albite, ankerite, sericite and
magnetite (Appendix 1A). Gold is associated with finely-disseminated
pyrite and areas of intense alteration (albitization, silicification, carbo­
natization, sericitization and hematization). Gold mineralization
displays two habits: high-grade gold in metasomatized zones in volcanic
rocks intimately associated with satellite syenitic dikes, and lower-grade
disseminated gold in the syenitic stock itself (Appendix 1Ag).
The Golden Arrow gold deposit (Ontario) is located on the NE-
trending Golden Arrow fault, less than 10 km south of the Destor-
Porcupine fault zone (Fig. 1; Table 1; Appendix 1B). The complex in­
trudes mafic volcanic rocks, and a magnetic halo surrounds the intrusion
(McNeil and Kerrich 1986; Fayol et al., 2016). Gold is present in strongly
metasomatized red zones along intrusive contacts, controlled by a pre-
existing NE-trending fault (Cherry, 1983).
3. Methods
3.1. SEM-EDX major and trace element mapping on thin sections
The SEM-EDX analyses were performed on ten (10) thin sections of
representative samples collected from the Bachelor/O’Brien (samples
#13241, #17142, #23838, and #23805), Douay (#13232, #13233,
#13235, and #13236) and Beattie deposits (#A1 and #A2). At Bach­
elor, samples #23838 (mine level 6 at 270 m depth; Fig. 4g) and #17142
were collected from the porphyritic facies of the Bachelor/O’Brien
intrusion, sample #13241 (mine level 13; Fig. 4e) is from the main
mineralized zone, and sample #23805 represents the late aplitic facies
in the mine (mine level 6 at 270 m depth). At Douay, sample #13232
(see appendices 1A and 2A) was collected from the main central
porphyritic syenite intrusion and is considered representative of
porphyry-style mineralization in the deposit. Samples #13233, #13235,
and #13236 (see appendices 2A and 2B) were also taken from
porphyritic syenitic intrusions. At Beattie, sample #A1 was collected
from a lithology-controlled mineralized zone, whereas #A2 is from a
structure-controlled zone (Fig. 5e).
Backscattered electron images of carbon-coated (8.0 ± 3 nm layer)
thin sections were acquired at IOS Services Géoscientifiques Inc.
(Chicoutimi, Quebec) using a Zeiss Sigma 300 VP Field Effect Scanning
Electron Microscope (FE-SEM) equipped with an Oxford Instruments®
Ultim-Max 170 mm2 energy dispersion spectrometer (EDS-SDD). The
acquisition parameters of the SEM were as follows: field of sight of 1.79
mm for the Bachelor sections and 2687 mm for the Douay sections; beam
current of 80 μA; acceleration voltage of 20 Kv; collimator aperture of

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C. Azevedo et al.
60 μm; target current of 3.16 nA; and working distance of approximately
10 mm. Oxford Instruments® AZtec 4.1 software was used for data
acquisition and processing. The integration time was set to optimize the
balance between the spectral resolution and the acquisition rate. Other
parameters were: chemical resolution of 256 pixels (7-μm pixels) per
field of view; analysis time of 300 microsec/pixel; treatment of energies
of 2048 channels; and acquisition speed of 200,000 effective counts per
second. Mineral phases were identified from X-ray maps using Aztec’s
AutoPhaseMap clustering algorithm.
3.2. LA-ICP-MS quantitative and semi-quantitative analyses of pyrite
The metal concentrations of pyrite were determined at LabMaTer
Laboratories (Université du Québec à Chicoutimi) using an Agilent®
7900X qICP-MS coupled with an ArF Resolution M-50 Excimer (193 nm)
laser. A total of 76 pyrites (including transects and/or grain mapping)
were analyzed for 25Mg, 29Si, 31P, 33S, 34S, 39K, 44Ca, 51V, 52Cr, 53Cr,
55
Mn, 57Fe, 59Co, 60Ni, 95Mo, 109Ag, 111Cd, 115In, 118Sn, 121Sb, 125Te,
128
Te, 130Te, 137Ba, 138Ba, 182W, 185Re, 197Au, 201Hg, 205Tl, 208Pb, and
209
Bi. A first set of results was obtained from quantitative analyses along
transects through pyrites from the Bachelor (samples #23838; #13241;
#13219; #13228; #13220; #23845; #23846), Golden Arrow (#17113),
Douay (#13232; and #13233) and Beattie deposits (#A1 and #A2).
Following a 30 s background acquisition of the gas blank, pyrite grains
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Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878
Fig. 4. Selected photos from the Bachelor/O’Brien
gold deposit. a) Complex stockwork observable on
level 6 (270 m depth) of the Bachelor/O’Brien gold
mine; b) Mineralized stockwork crosscut by late
aplitic dike; c) and d) Quartz-fluorite-pyrite vein; e)
Sample #13241 of the main ore zone of the Bachelor/
O’Brien gold mine. Gold is associated with pyrite and
related to alkaline Na-K metasomatism, together with
fluorite- and hematite-rich metasomatized zones in
magnetite-rich volcanic host rocks; f) Stockwork of
quartz veins crosscut by late aplitic dikes; g) Sample
#23838 of the porphyritic facies of the Bachelor/
O’Brien gold deposit. Photo courtesy of Michel Jébrak
and Noémie Fayol.
were analyzed using a 15 Hz laser beam with a beam spot size of 33–55
µm moving at a speed of 5–10 µm/s across the entire grain (Genna and
Gaboury, 2015). A second set of results were obtained from semi-
quantitative elemental mapping on pyrites from the Bachelor, Douay
and Beattie deposits: three grains from the ore zone of the Bachelor
deposit (thin section #13241; Figs. 6 and 10); one grain from the central
porphyry zone at Douay (thin section #13232; see Appendix 4C); two
clusters from a lithology-controlled mineralized zone of the Beattie de­
posit (thin section #A1; Fig. 11), and two grains from a structure-
controlled zone, also at Beattie (thin section #A2; see Appendices 4D
and 4E). A series of lines was ablated over each pyrite grain using a 15
Hz laser beam with a beam spot size of 15–19 µm and a stage speed of 10
µm/s. Both types of analyses were calibrated using the MASS-1 and GSE
standards. Iron was the internal standard, using a stoichiometric value.
UQAC-FeS1, Laflamme, and CCU-1e were also analyzed to maintain
precision and accuracy within 15% (digital Appendix A).
4. Results
4.1. Ore zone mineral parageneses
Thin section maps obtained from SEM-EDX analyses, such as those
illustrated in Figs. 6 and 7, were used to determine the mineral para­
geneses of the mineralized samples from the studied deposits. The same
C. Azevedo et al. Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878

Fig. 5. Selected photos from the Beattie gold deposit: a) Mineralized stockwork; b) High-grade vein; c) Mineralized porphyritic mafic syenite; d) Semi-massive
polymetallic breccia from the Beattie gold deposit (sample #A2; 120 g/t Au); e) Mineralized porphyritic facies of the Beattie deposit (sample #A1); f) Local kao­
linization; g) and h) Interpreted epithermal veins (scale in centimeters, DIVEX card). Photo courtesy, Ludovic Bigot and Michel Jébrak.

assemblage of K-feldspar-albite-anhydrite-barite-celestite-apatite-rutile-
calcite-dolomite was observed in all the Bachelor, Beattie and Douay
samples (Figs. 6 and 7, Appendices 2A and 2B).
The mineralized zone at Bachelor displays Na-K alteration phases,
and is characterized by abundant anorthoclase (up to 43.8%; Fig. 6).
Perthites, identified by their chessboard texture (sample #17142;
Fig. 6), have been recorded in the main phase of the porphyritic intru­
sion. At Beattie, the porphyritic syenite facies displays a K-feldspar-
albite-calcite-dolomite-apatite-titanite-rutile-monazite assemblage and
traces of arsenopyrite (Fig. 7). Alteration assemblages are overprinted
by chlorite, calcite and dolomite veinlets filling fractures (Fig. 6).
At Bachelor, iron oxides such as hematite have been found in all the
porphyritic phases (Fig. 6). Sulfide assemblages are polymetallic,
composed of chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite, and galena (Fig. 6). Free
visible gold is observed only in the mineralized zone (Fig. 6). At Beattie,
the high-grade Au-Te rich epithermal quartz vein is mainly composed of
coloradoite (HgTe), and lesser amounts of hessite (Ag2Te; >1%). Ten­
nantite (Cu6[Cu4(Fe, Zn)2]As4S13) has also been identified by SEM-EDX
(Fig. 7).
Fluorite has been observed in all analyzed thin sections from the
Bachelor and the Douay deposits (Fig. 6; Appendices 2A and 2B). It is
mainly found in quartz veins but also as fine disseminations in the
intrusive rock. The REE-bearing minerals like synchysite (Ca(REE)
(CO3)2F), monazite ((Ce, La, Nd, Th)PO4), bastnaesite ((REE)CO3F) are
also present, usually as inclusions in fluorite and carbonates (Fig. 6;
Appendices 2A and 2B).
4.2. LA-ICP-MS quantitative analyses on gold-bearing pyrite
Time-resolved signals of representative trace element profiles
through gold-rich pyrite grains are shown in Fig. 8. The distribution
patterns show whether the trace elements occur as lattice substitutions

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C. Azevedo et al.
Fig. 6. SEM false color maps of thin sections (samples #13241, #23838, #17142) from the intrusion-related Bachelor/O’Brien gold deposit.
or nano-inclusions in pyrite (i.e., homogenously distribution), or if they
occur in sporadic visible or invisible inclusions.
The LA-ICP-MS results for gold-bearing pyrites from each deposit are
reported in Table 2. This study uses the median value for each element
per thin section because all elements display a log-normal distribution.
At the Bachelor/O’Brien deposit, the median gold content for pyrite in
the porphyritic host rock is 0.32 ppm Au (n = 4; sample #23838),
whereas the median for pyrite in the country rocks of the porphyritic
facies is 0.63 ppm Au (n = 9; #13241; Fig. 9). The median contents of As
are 678 ppm for pyrite in the porphyritic phase (sample #23838) and
3.25 ppm in the mineralized zone (sample #13241; Fig. 9). The median
Bi contents are 461 ppm for pyrite in the porphyritic phase (sample
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Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878
#23838) and 4.28 ppm in the mineralized zone (sample #13241; Fig. 9).
Finally, pyrite from the mineralized zone yielded median contents of
6.19 ppm Te and 0.96 ppm Ag (sample #13241; Fig. 9).
At the Beattie deposit, the median Au content for pyrite in the
porphyritic syenite intrusion is 18.0 ppm (n = 9; #A1; Table 2), whereas
the median for pyrite in the epithermal phase is almost triple that
amount at 50.3 ppm (n = 7; #A2; Fig. 9; Table 2). The median As
contents are 7466 ppm for pyrite in the porphyritic syenite and 6331
ppm in the epithermal phase (Fig. 9). The median Bi contents are 31.19
ppm or pyrite in the lithology-controlled porphyritic phase and 1.26
ppm in the structure-controlled epithermal phase (Fig. 9). Pyrite from
the epithermal phase also yielded median values of 7.68 ppm Tl and
C. Azevedo et al.
Fig. 7. SEM false color maps of thin sections (samples #1A1, #A2) from the Beattie syenite-related gold deposit.
1955 ppm Te (Fig. 9). In addition, the Beattie pyrite is unusually Hg- and
Ag-rich, with median contents of 400.33 ppm Hg and 1768 ppm Ag in
the epithermal phase (Fig. 9).
At the Douay deposit, the median Au contents of pyrite in two
samples from the porphyritic syenite intrusion are 0.43 ppm (n = 9;
sample #13232; Table 2) and 0.20 ppm (n = 10; #13233; Table 2). The
median As contents for the same samples are 512.05 ppm (#13232) and
22.86 ppm (#13233). The median Bi contents are 3.03 ppm (#13232)
and 7.96 ppm (#13233). The median Te content for pyrite in sample
#13233 is 12.92 ppm. Douay pyrite is also Ag-rich, with median con­
tents of 7.36 ppm (#13232) and 3.79 ppm (#13233).
At the Golden Arrow deposit, pyrite from the porphyritic host rock
(n = 10; sample #17113) yielded a median Au content of 0.35 ppm, a
median As content of 0.54 ppm, and a median Bi content of 0.16 ppm.
Pyrite from the mineralized zone (sample #17113) has a median Te
content of 3.21 ppm and a median Ag content of 0.99 ppm.
4.3. LA-ICP-MS semi-quantitative trace element mapping in gold-bearing
pyrite
The results of 2-D trace element mapping of auriferous pyrites are
presented in Figs. 10 and 11. For the mineralized zone at Bachelor
(sample #13241), the clearest evidence of zonation is observed in pyrite
#13241-BACH1 (Fig. 10), which shows the following features: (1) a rich
Bi-Te-Au-Ag nucleus; (2) a zoned Co-Ni rim overgrowth; and (3) brec­
ciation/fracturing at the right corner where traces of Pb occur as fracture
fillings (see appendix 4A). Pyrite samples #13241-BACH2 (see appendix
4B) and #13241-BACH3 (Fig. 10) display two main growing stages
characterized by a rich Au-Ag-Te-Bi-Sn-W nucleus and an outer zone
consisting of a Co-Ni-rich overgrowth.
In the Beattie deposit, all the analyzed elements are uniformly
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Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878
distributed in gold-bearing pyrite (Figs. 8 and 9). The mapping results
show that pyrites from the lithology-controlled facies are strongly
enriched in Au-As-Ag-Bi-Co-Cu-Hg-Mo-Pb-Sb-Te (Fig. 11) and they do
not show any evidence of zonation (pyrites #A1-BEA1 and #A1-BEA2;
Fig. 11). The results for the structure-controlled/epithermal facies
reveal similar results with much higher concentrations (see Appendices
4d and 4E).
5. Discussion
5.1. Bachelor gold deposit: OGS or IRGS?
Alteration assemblages in the mineralized zones of the Bachelor gold
deposit are mainly composed of albite, K-feldspar, Fe-dolomite, sericite,
anhydrite, and fluorite, overprinted by dolomite veinlets (Fig. 6) which
is similar for the Douay deposit. The presence of anorthoclase and K-
feldsar in the mineralized zones of the Bachelor/O’Brien deposit (Fig. 6)
is interpreted to be crystallized from high-temperature and saline
magmatic fluids exsolved from the alkalic porphyritic phase, which is
characteristic of porphyry-type deposits (Sillitoe, 2010). Pyrite, sericite,
potassic alteration, high-temperature alkalic alteration, and carbonate
alteration are all related to the porphyritic phase of the O’Brien intru­
sion. Intense albite alteration (#13241 and #17142; Fig. 6) prevails over
sericite alteration in the mineralized zones (Fig. 6). A late intrusion-
related mineralized event is evidenced by the precipitation of quartz,
fluorite, synchysite, carbonates, chlorite, and gold under brittle condi­
tions (Figs. 4 and 6). This late fluorine-rich phase is crosscut by late
aplitic dykes which is also observed at the Douay deposit (Fig. 4b;
Appendices 2A and 2B).
In porphyry gold deposits related to Phanerozoic alkaline magma­
tism, quartz-sericite-pyrite phyllic alteration is usually accompanied by
C. Azevedo et al. Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878

Fig. 8. LA-ICP-MS time-resolved signals of a selection of trace elements in pyrites: a) Porphyritic phase of the Bachelor/O’Brien gold deposit (thin section #23838);
b) Bachelor/O’Brien gold deposit (thin section #13241); c) and d) Mineralized zone of the Beattie gold deposit (thin sections #A1 and #A2).

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 C. Azevedo et al.
Table 2
LA-ICP-MS trace element results for gold-rich pyrites from the Bachelor/O’Brien, Beattie, Douay and Golden Arrow gold deposits.
Deposits Co Ni Cu Zn As Sb Se Mo Ag Cd Sn Te W Au Hg Tl Pb Bi

Beattie #A1 (n = 9) Min 38.64 40.50 205.75 4.19 3770.55 23.79 5.91 4.05 10.80 0.08 0.09 3.73 0.15 8.94 11.13 0.34 437.57 9.78
Max 201.10 138.25 1349.95 101.48 13546.05 160.13 19.74 372.40 30.12 0.37 75.41 30.35 5.26 35.01 22.39 2.15 2513.70 119.17
Median 148.49 64.15 684.29 19.32 7466.62 59.12 16.29 27.46 15.45 0.15 8.84 15.92 0.88 18.01 17.08 0.74 949.62 31.19
Avg 129.62 72.75 625.32 28.85 8049.01 81.46 14.40 122.02 18.13 0.19 20.01 16.22 1.43 21.29 16.40 0.95 1264.50 43.92

Beattie #A2 (n = 7) Min 8.98 8.05 65.17 17.18 4655.00 8.47 16.48 1.14 293.27 0.07 0.29 279.30 0.43 18.85 89.38 0.33 29.79 0.22
Max 119.17 85.65 6470.45 2653.35 18713.10 1233.58 33.38 870.49 9123.80 6.33 22.34 8704.85 168.05 102.88 6935.95 18.90 814.63 31.19
Median 42.55 50.74 1135.82 153.62 6330.80 405.92 26.77 26.53 1768.90 1.91 2.65 1955.10 0.84 50.27 400.33 7.68 134.06 1.26
Avg 48.61 45.61 2066.16 590.65 9111.17 472.70 25.60 250.38 3086.93 2.79 5.49 3191.34 24.78 55.96 1376.35 9.22 212.67 5.23

Bachelor #23838 Min 6.61 0.80 375.19 148.96 377.06 0.07 4.93 0.10 61.73 0.99 0.03 0.62 0.04 0.30 0.26 0.07 1415.12 363.09
(n = 4) Max 39.57 11.54 592.12 10241.00 1159.10 4.79 14.01 1.72 165.25 87.51 0.23 6.19 0.28 0.34 0.94 0.24 2965.24 549.29
Median 28.23 1.50 480.40 684.29 678.23 0.13 10.75 0.25 87.75 7.49 0.15 3.12 0.18 0.32 0.47 0.07 1992.34 461.31
Avg 25.66 3.83 482.03 2939.63 723.15 1.28 10.11 0.58 100.62 25.87 0.14 3.27 0.17 0.32 0.54 0.11 2091.26 458.75
12

Bachelor #13241 Min 0.99 1.42 4.98 1.03 1.95 0.01 3.67 0.00 0.35 0.00 0.02 3.10 0.00 0.16 0.38 0.00 1.96 1.49
(n = 9) Max 37.24 144.77 47.02 3.86 5.28 0.13 8.57 0.20 3.86 0.08 1.18 18.15 6.05 3.44 0.57 0.04 14.10 8.75
Median 23.97 49.34 8.47 1.31 3.25 0.05 5.95 0.03 0.96 0.04 0.43 6.19 2.09 0.63 0.49 0.01 8.10 4.28
Avg 20.67 57.26 14.97 1.54 3.40 0.05 5.92 0.05 1.39 0.03 0.48 8.41 2.37 1.17 0.47 0.01 7.37 4.51

Douay #13232 (n = Min 29.80 141.98 61.45 13.03 136.39 0.63 1.82 0.06 0.90 0.02 0.11 0.00 0.01 0.13 0.10 0.09 28.40 0.55
9) Max 1722.35 619.12 530.67 107.07 5492.90 28.86 5.73 4.00 74.02 0.36 1.28 0.00 34.91 14.34 0.53 0.45 488.78 9.64
Median 137.32 200.63 123.82 19.74 512.05 1.19 3.12 0.70 7.36 0.07 0.24 0.00 0.23 0.43 0.36 0.17 172.24 3.03
Avg 305.16 291.87 205.60 31.50 991.41 4.70 3.39 1.10 15.68 0.12 0.40 0.00 4.12 2.54 0.33 0.20 222.77 3.51

Douay #13233 (n = Min 18.43 47.48 43.76 3.77 8.24 0.25 7.12 0.02 1.34 0.01 0.02 6.24 0.12 0.05 0.00 0.01 9.59 1.96
10) Max 609.81 427.79 325.85 20.02 64.70 1.04 52.26 0.29 18.62 0.30 1.02 44.69 1.35 1.30 2.10 0.07 57.72 14.52
Median 63.77 140.12 94.03 10.45 22.96 0.66 15.38 0.06 3.79 0.11 0.09 12.92 0.22 0.20 0.00 0.02 39.57 7.96
Avg 155.80 180.57 136.25 11.76 28.02 0.65 18.97 0.09 5.80 0.12 0.20 18.23 0.44 0.33 0.00 0.03 36.94 8.30

Golden Arrow Min 8.43 5.17 2.60 0.89 0.15 0.00 6.24 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.02 0.93 0.01 0.07 0.82 0.00 0.17 0.01

Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878

#17113 (n = 10) Max 96.36 261.15 167.80 26.07 42.83 0.10 19.60 4.38 64.24 0.05 0.04 49.34 7.40 13.97 1.65 0.01 12.10 1.29
Median 35.38 26.88 4.49 1.12 0.54 0.02 9.42 0.00 0.99 0.00 0.03 3.21 0.35 0.35 1.17 0.00 1.64 0.16
Avg 39.93 70.89 30.76 3.66 6.39 0.03 10.43 0.55 9.21 0.01 0.03 11.30 1.44 2.92 1.25 0.00 4.51 0.41
C. Azevedo et al. Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878

Fig. 9. In situ LA-ICP-MS analyses of pyrite from the Douay, Beattie, Bachelor and Golden Arrow gold deposits: a) As versus Au diagram. The black dashed line
represents the solubility limit for Au solid solution in pyrite as a function of As (after Reich et al., 2005); b) Au versus Cu; c) As versus Tl; d) Mo versus Hg; e) As versus
Tl; f) Au versus Te.

accessory minerals such as K-feldspar, anhydrite, rutile, and apatite
(Pirajno, 2009). Alkaline-related gold porphyry deposits from the
Phanerozoic also contain abundant fluorite, usually associated with
barite-celestine and late REE mineral phases (e.g., Cadia, NSW; Cooke
et al., 2007). Ultrapotassic melts are usually enriched in halogens,
especially fluorine (Edgar et al., 1996). During crystallization, F is par­
titioned into the hydrous phenocrysts rather than remaining in the melt
(Müller et al., 2001) making volatile-rich alkaline magmas produce F-
rich mineralized fluids able to percolate in the surrounding host rocks.
Halogens allow K and Na to transfer into wall rocks (Pirajno, 2009),
forming Na-K-rich alteration phases in the country rocks at the apex of
alkaline intrusive stocks (Cooke et al., 2007) which is observed both at
the Bachelor/O’Brien and in a lesser extent at the Douay deposit.
The event linked to F enrichment at Bachelor/O’Brien is the latest
event observed to affect the ore system, which makes it unlikely to be
linked to subsequent overprint or remobilization process induced by late
metamorphic fluids. The ENE-oriented brittle-ductile Waconichi struc­
tures (WAC) that locally crosscut the O’Brien intrusion are thus inter­
preted as contemporaneous with the emplacement of the O’Brien
magmatic complex. The late-mineralized fluorine-rich hydrothermal

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C. Azevedo et al. Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878

Fig. 10. Semi-quantitative maps (in ppm) of in situ pyrite trace element distribution, mineralized zone at the Bachelor gold deposit (sample #13241-BACH 3).

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C. Azevedo et al. Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878

Fig. 11. Semi-quantitative maps (in ppm) of in-situ pyrite trace elements distribution, lithology-controlled mineralized zone at the Beattie gold deposit (sample #A1-
Pyrite 1).

fluids of the Bachelor deposit are therefore considered to be derived characterized by disseminated sulfides and stockwork veins and veinlets
from a sub-alkaline to alkaline intrusion, as observed in sub-alkaline to with variable orientations but lack the through-going quartz-carbonate
alkaline porphyry gold deposits from the Phanerozoic (Müller and veins usually observed in classic OGS deposits (Gaboury, 2019).
Groves, 2018). Furthermore, mineralized zones at Bachelor/O’Brien are The oxidation state of magmatic and hydrothermal ore fluids is an

Fig. 12. In situ La-ICP-MS quantitative results in pyrites from the Douay, Beattie, Bachelor and Golden Arrow gold deposits compared to Phanerozoic porphyry-
epithermal and Carlin-type gold deposits. The data for the Phanerozoic deposits (compiled from Pals and Spry, 2003; Large et al., 2009; Bigot, 2012; Sykora
et al., 2018: a) As vs. Au diagram. Black dashed line represents the solubility limit for Au solid solution in pyrite as a function of As (after Reich et al., 2005); b) As vs.
Te diagram. The black dashed line from a) is plotted for comparison.

15
C. Azevedo et al.
important parameter for distinguishing IRGS ore fluids from OGS ore
fluids (Mathieu, 2021). The mineral paragenesis at Bachelor (Fig. 6; K-
feldspar-albite-hematite-magnetite-anhydrite-barite-fluorite-apatite-
rutile) indicates an oxygen fugacity above the magnetite-hematite buffer
(Cameron and Hattori, 1987; Mikucki and Ridley, 1993) which shows
the oxidizing character of these ore-forming fluids. This specificity is
found in all alkaline-associated gold deposits studied here. However, the
ore-forming fluids related to OGS deposits are usually below the
magnetite-hematite buffer, suggesting a reduced state (Mathieu, 2021).
The magmatic-hydrothermal model proposed for the Bachelor de­
posit is also supported by the chemistry of gold-bearing pyrites in the
porphyritic and mineralized zones (Figs. 8 and 9), which are Te and Bi-
rich (Table 2), both elements being considered of magmatic origin
(Mathieu, 2019). Similar results are observed in the porphyritic phase of
the Beattie and Douay deposits and in the mineralized phase of the
Golden Arrow deposit (Figs. 7, 8 and 12; Appendices 2b, 3 and 4c).
Silicate alteration may also participate to Bi-Te enrichments. However,
if the leaching of silicate was the main enrichment process, all the pyrite
Ni-Co overgrowths should be even more enriched in these same ele­
ments (Fig. 10), which is not the case. Further, given the volatility of Bi
and Te, the leaching of silicate by hot fluids that are not themselves
enriched in those elements would probably have caused their devolati­
lization rather than their precipitation. Finally, ore-forming fluids (and
thus pyrite precipitation) are timely associated with all the other
magmatic indexes (potassic alteration, F-rich minerals, etc…).
Gold is spatially correlated with Bi and Te in the LA-ICP-MS maps of
the Bachelor pyrites but is not correlated with the Ni-Co rim overgrowth
observed in the mineralized zone (Fig. 10). The relative enrichment in
Ni, Co and Au of the rim compared to the core (Fig. 8b) could be
interpreted to be metamorphic in origin (Genna and Gaboury, 2015),
even though recrystallized rim without new gold input could also be
possible. On another hand, the decrease in Bi concentration from the
porphyritic intrusion to the main ore zone is interpreted as the pro­
gressive decrease of the magmatic signal through the host rock during
the percolation of ore fluids (Fig. 14). This metallic partitioning over
distance is typical of IRGS and Phanerozoic porphyry gold deposits
related to alkaline magmatism and could potentially be used in mineral
exploration as a vectoring tool towards the mineralized intrusions.
The mineralized system at Bachelor evolved from ductile to brittle
strain, allowing the exsolution of high-temperature alkaline magmatic-
derived fluids enriched in volatiles (Lauzière, 1989; Fayol and Jébrak,
2017). Perthites are observed in the porphyritic phase of the Bachelor/
O’Brien intrusion (Fig. 6) and are interpreted as the result of slow
cooling of the sub-alkaline to alkaline epizonal porphyritic phase of the
O’Brien stock. This was followed by late precipitation of quartz and
fluorite under brittle strain and low-temperature oxidized conditions.
Mutual crosscutting relationships between various sub-alkaline to
alkaline intrusive phases and the main ore zones at Bachelor (Lauzière,
1989; Fayol and Jébrak, 2017) were coeval to the main magmatic phase
of the O’Brien magmatic complex (Fig. 14).
The presence of Au-Bi-Te correlation in Au-rich pyrite and auriferous
quartz-fluorite veins argue for the dominance of a magmatic-derived
mineralized fluid at Bachelor (Figs. 4 and 6; Fayol and Jébrak, 2017).
Late overprinting has been suggested (Mathieu, 2021) as a process
leading to Au remobilization. However, based on the high amount of F
found in the quartz veins, interpreted as derived from magmatic fluids,
and the continuum of the deformation state, we interpret this hydro­
thermal system to be fed by a single important magmatic event carrying
gold in magmatic-derived fluids at the apex of the O’Brien alkalic
porphyritic phase.
Based on all these evidences, we conclude that the main ore contri­
bution to the O’Brien/Bachelor gold system was made during the pre-
Timiskaming period of the AGB during the magmatic-hydrothermal
episode leading to the multi-phased O’Brien sub-alkaline to alkaline
intrusion dated between 2692 ± 2 Ma (Dubé and Mercier-Langevin,
2020) and 2686 ± 5 Ma (porphyritic phase; U-Pb isotopic data on
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Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878
zircons; Azevedo, 2022). This age is coeval with the Re-Os age of 2685
± 8 Ma (Kontak et al., 2013) obtained from the Upper Beaver intrusion-
related iron oxide copper–gold mineralization and the 2686 ± 2 Ma
minimum magmatic age observed at Kiena, consistent with the
magmatic-hydrothermal evolutionary model proposed by Morasse et al.
(1995; Fig. 3). All these arguments argue for a pre-Timiskaming por­
phyry-gold or IRGS event in the AGB related to sub-alkaline and alkaline
intrusions.
5.2. Beattie gold deposit: Epizonal or telescoped porphyry-epithermal gold
system?
Several studies suggest that gold mineralization hosted by alkaline
intrusions in the AGB reflects a late OGS event (Goldfarb et al., 2001;
Dubé and Mercier-Langevin, 2020) or an IRGS event overprinted by a
OGS one (Mathieu, 2021). Here, we evaluate this hypothesis based on
our petrographic and mineral chemistry results.
The mineral assemblage at Beattie is characteristic of an
intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposition. Tennantite
(Cu6[Cu4(Fe, Zn)2]As4S13) and coloradoite (HgTe) are present in the
epithermal-style ore phase (Fig. 7). Coloradoite has been found in
several types of deposits, ranging from alkalic porphyry-epithermal to
lode gold (Keith et al., 2020). Enargite (Cu3AsS4; Fig. 7), which is also
observed at Beattie (Bigot and Jébrak, 2015), is usually associated with
locally advanced, acidic and oxidized epithermal ore-fluid alteration (i.
e., high- and intermediate-sulfidation argillic alteration; Hedenquist
et al., 1996). These minerals are typical of supra-porphyritic acid envi­
ronments in epithermal deposits, indicating vigorous boiling processes
(Hedenquist et al., 1996). Such boiling, typically limited in scope, is
commonly associated with low-sulfidation alkalic epithermal deposits at
the apex of alkaline intrusions and could allow these minerals to pre­
cipitate in the upper part of a low-sulfidation epithermal environment.
Traces of hessite (Ag2Te) are also observed in the high-grade Au-Te vein
at Beattie (sample #A2), highlighting the presence of more reduced
meteoric fluids (Keith et al., 2020) related to an intermediate-
sulfidation-epithermal gold deposit (Wang et al., 2019). Such results
suggest that ore fluids from the porphyritic and epithermal facies at
Beattie evolved locally from less oxidized to more oxidized conditions.
At the deposit scale, ore bodies and gold-rich pyrites related to
alkaline magmatism in the AGB are usually enriched in Au, Ag, As, Cu,
Bi, Te, and Tl, with minor amounts of Pb, Mo, Sb, W, and Zn (Figs. 8 and
9; Table 2). Beattie pyrites display strong Au-As and Te-As correlations
(Figs. 8 and 9). Arsenian pyrites at Beattie incorporated larger amounts
of Au, Te and Tl than the pyrites from Bachelor (Figs. 8 and 9).
Furthermore, gold is usually trapped in the lattice of gold-bearing py­
rites of the Bachelor/O’Brien system (i.e., substitution; Figs. 8 and 9),
which is common in alkalic porphyry and epithermal As-rich minerali­
zation (Sykora et al., 2018). In contrast, gold is usually trapped in po­
rosities and fractures as inclusions in OGS deposits (Chinnasamy et al.,
2021).
Gold-rich pyrites from the epithermal facies at Beattie (#A2; n = 7)
display median concentrations of 50.27 ppm Au. They also display
median contents of 7.68 ppm Tl, 6331 ppm As, 26.53 ppm Mo, 153.62
ppm Zn, and 1955 ppm Te. For comparison, the average Mo, Zn, and Te
concentrations in gold-rich pyrites from OGS deposits are 5 ppm, 59.2
ppm and 306 ppm, respectively, according to the compilation of Keith
et al. (2018). Thallium is a highly semi-volatile element found in high
concentrations in polymetallic VMS deposits (Genna and Gaboury,
2019), Carlin-type deposits (Ikramuddin et al., 1986), and high- and
low-sulfidation epithermal systems (Halley et al., 2015). It is not
abundant in OGS deposits, often present in quantities below detection
limits. Gold, Te and Tl are considered useful pathfinders for fluid boiling
and vapor condensation as they act as volatiles under magmatic-
hydrothermal conditions at shallow depths (Holwell et al., 2019; Keith
et al., 2020) which are characteristic of epithermal environments.
Therefore, the Neoarchean Beattie alkalic ore deposit has a metal
C. Azevedo et al.
assemblage (Au, As, Bi, Te, Tl, and Hg) that is similar to Phanerozoic
alkalic intermediate to low-sulfidation epithermal gold deposits related
to post-collisional geological settings (Halley et al., 2015; Holwell et al.,
2019; Keith et al., 2020; Sykora et al., 2018; Fig. 13). At the mineral
scale, processes involved in the incorporation and speciation of trace
elements within auriferous pyrites differ between syenite-associated
gold deposits and OGS deposits in the Neoarchean. The elements Bi,
Te and Tl are considered of magmatic origin (Genna and Gaboury, 2019;
Mathieu, 2019) and correlate with gold in pyrite both at Beattie and
Bachelor (Fig. 8).
The magmatic contribution in alkaline-related gold deposits is sup­
ported by the uncommon abundance of magmatic-derived and semi-
volatile elements, such as Bi-Te-Tl, in the Bachelor/O’Brien and Beat­
tie gold deposits. Gold, Te and Tl are typically enriched in arsenian
pyrites, locally reaching economic concentrations (Keith et al., 2020).
Alkaline melts are thought to have attained volatile (Te and Tl) satu­
ration early during their magmatic evolution (Keith et al., 2020).
Alkaline-related intermediate- to low-sulfidation epithermal gold sys­
tems are characterized by neutral to alkaline pH (7–8). At these condi­
tions, Te, Tl, Hg, and As show a strong affinity with vapor phases
(Holwell et al., 2019; Keith et al., 2020). In the case of immiscible sulfide
liquid segregation, chalcophile elements with a volatile affinity, such as
Au, Te, Tl, Sb, and Bi, strongly partition into the exsolved volatile phase
(Holwell et al., 2019; Keith et al., 2020). The association of Au, Te and Tl
in gold-bearing pyrites is thus a key parameter to understand the source
of gold and the processes leading to its precipitation in alkalic porphyry-
epithermal versus OGS deposits. Tellurium is soluble in high-
temperature oxidized ore fluids with variable pH and low salinity
Fig. 13. Compilation of δ34Spyrite ranges for pyrites from Neoarchean alkaline-related gold deposits and orogenic gold deposits compared to Phanerozoic alkalic
porphyry-epithermal gold deposits (data are from Ahmad, 1979; Richards and Kerrich, 1993; Jensen, 2003; Gemmell et al., 2004; Beaudoin and Pitre, 2005;
Scherbarth and Spry, 2006; Wilson et al., 2007; Micko, 2010; Xue et al., 2013; Gregory et al., 2016; Sykora, 2017; Godefroy-Rodríguez et al., 2020; Deng et al., 2020).
17
Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878
(Mathieu, 2019). Its solubility decreases dramatically under reduced
conditions (Grundler et al., 2013). Thus, oxidized magmatic fluids
involved in most alkalic porphyry-epithermal systems have the capacity
to concentrate Te more easily than reduced systems like OGS (Cameron
and Hattori, 1987; Mathieu, 2019).
Deciphering the timing of gold deposition related to alkaline mag­
matism is a critical observation to constrain the mineralization event. As
previously noted, all the field observations at Beattie (angular uncon­
formity, mineralized clasts in conglomerates; Robert, 2001; Lafrance,
2015), along with the geochemical results from this study demonstrates
that the gold endowment phase is directly linked to the syenite and
predates the classic D2 and D3 orogenic phases of the AGB (Figs. 3 and
14).
5.2.1. δ34Spyrite signatures of Neoarchean and Phanerozoic gold-bearing
pyrites
To obtain independent evidence on the role of magmatic-derived
fluids in syenite-related IRGS-like ores of the Abitibi, we compiled 529
δ34Spyrite values from the literature for Neoarchean OGS deposits and
Phanerozoic alkalic porphyry-epithermal gold deposits.
The δ34Spyrite signature of gold-rich pyrites allow to discriminate
alkaline magma-related deposits from OGS. The results of the compila­
tion are presented in appendix Table 3 and Fig. 13. Indeed, the frac­
tionation of S isotopes between sulfate and sulfide minerals increases
with decreasing temperature and is also dependent to the oxidation state
of the ore fluids (Ohmoto, 1979; Rye, 1993). The δ34S values of sulfides
(i.e., δ34Spyrite) become more negative when precipitated from a sulfate-
dominated (i.e., oxidizing) fluid probably derived from a magma. On the
C. Azevedo et al.
Fig. 14. Representative schematic model of alkali-related gold deposits in the AGB.
contrary, the δ34S values of sulfates (i.e., δ34Sbarite) will be more positive
(Rye, 1993).
Fig. 13 indicates that the δ34S values of pyrite that precipitated under
oxidizing conditions in alkalic porphyry-epithermal systems is usually
much lower compared to OGS deposits, with examples such as Porgera
(PNG), Ladolam (PNG), Emperor (Fiji) and Tuvatu (Fiji), where the
lowest δ34Spyrite values range from approximately − 15 to − 7‰ VCDT.
The δ34Spyrite values at Beattie range between − 17.3‰ and − 13.9‰
VCDT (Xue et al., 2013; Fig. 13), similar to alkalic low-sulfidation epi­
thermal stages of Phanerozoic deposits such as Emperor (PNG; δ34Spyrite
values are from − 15.3‰ to − 4.2‰ VCDT; Ahmad, 1979; Fig. 13),
Tuvatu (Fiji; δ34Spyrite values ranging from − 5.8‰ to − 3.2‰ VCDT;
Scherbarth and Spry, 2006; Fig. 13) and the Fimiston phase of the
Golden Mile deposit (Australia, δ34Spyrite values ranging from − 12.6‰
to +15.6‰ to VCDT; Godefroy-Rodríguez et al., 2020). These values
result from strongly oxidized hydrothermal ore fluids forming gold-rich
pyrite.
Oxidation is caused by shallow-depth overpressures, which induced
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Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878
hydraulic fracturing and hydrothermal phase separation. The ore fluids
are then channeled by crustal faults to shallow epithermal levels. The
rapid fluid overpressures and consequent hydraulic fracturing then form
Au-Ag-Bi-Te-rich epithermal extension veins, stockworks and breccias.
The sudden fluctuations in fluid pressure leads to phase separation and
massive oxidation of the ore fluids, inducing strong enrichment in semi-
volatile elements (e.g., Au-Ag-Te-Tl-Hg) in the shallower hydrothermal
fluids, which triggers rapid high-grade precipitation of gold accompa­
nied by Ag- and Hg-tellurides (i.e., Coloradoites; Fig. 7). This hypothesis
is supported by the sharp increase in Ag concentrations and the high Ag/
Au ratios observed in the epithermal phase (#A2) compared to the
porphyritic phase (#A1; Fig. 8; Table 2), arguing for an epithermal
process driving gold and silver deposition. The δ34Spyrite values suggest
that low-temperature (<200–300 ◦ C) and highly oxidized ore fluids (i.e.,
stability field of hematite and pyrite) – typical of epithermal systems –
were responsible for the metal concentrations at Beattie. In contrast, the
δ34Spyrite values from typical gold-bearing orogenic quartz veins in the
Val-d’Or region (AGB) range from +0.6‰ to +6‰ VCDT (Beaudoin and
C. Azevedo et al.
Pitre, 2005; Fig. 13) and the δ34Spyrite values of gold-related pyrite from
the OGS Sanshandao deposit (Jiadong peninsula, China) and other large
deposits in the province range from +10.9 to +11.5‰ (Deng et al.,
2020). The results from Beattie are thus distinctly different from OGS
deposits where hydrothermal ore fluids are less oxidized (Cameron and
Hattori, 1987; Robert, 2001).
6. Conclusions
This study underscores the metal endowment role of alkaline mag­
matism during post-collisional tectonics in the Neoarchean AGB. It
shows that gold related to alkaline magmatism was introduced before
the episodes that generated orogenic gold systems. In Bachelor/O’Brien,
Beattie, Douay and Golden-Arrow gold deposits, the ore mineral para­
geneses, the trace element signatures of gold-bearing pyrite and the
δ34Spyrite values show that ore-forming processes are mainly related to
the magmatic events rather than to compressional metamorphic events
typical of OGS. Alteration assemblages in the mineralized zones of the
Bachelor and Douay gold deposits are mainly composed of albite, K-
feldspar, Fe-dolomite, sericite, anhydrite, and fluorite, overprinted by
dolomite veinlets, which are characteristic of magmatic-hydrothermal
deposits. The mineral assemblage at Beattie with the presence of ten­
nantite (Cu6[Cu4(Fe, Zn)2]As4S13) and coloradoite (HgTe) in the
epithermal-style phase is characteristic of low to intermediate-
sulfidation epithermal deposition. Furthermore, the δ34Spyrite values at
Beattie range between − 17.3‰ and − 13.9‰ VCDT (Xue et al., 2013;
Fig. 13), close to those usually measured in alkalic low-sulfidation epi­
thermal stages of Phanerozoic deposits.
Magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposits related to alkaline magmatism,
such as the Bachelor/O’Brien and Beattie deposits, and the Phanerozoic
alkalic porphyry-epithermal systems are linked to extensional tectonic
regimes generally associated with tectonic collapse following conti­
nental collision (Richards, 2015). This study underlines the important
role of alkaline intrusions in the metal endowment of post-collisional
metallogenic settings in Neoarchean greenstone belts. It assumes that
gold linked to alkaline magmatism was introduced during the early
stages of the Neoarchean crustal construction, well before orogenic
episodes associated with deformation phases. Thus, the presence of a
Neoarchean alkalic porphyry at Bachelor and a gold-rich epithermal
system at Beattie has direct consequences for mineral exploration in the
AGB, especially during the ~2686 to ~2675 Ma period, related to the
emplacement of such magmatic-hydrothermal deposits.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
Support for this study was provided through an Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) grant to Professor
Michel Jébrak (RGPIN-2016-04866). We are truly grateful to Professor
Lucie Mathieu (UQAC), Professor Stéphane De Souza (UQÀM) for their
constructive comments on previous drafts of this manuscript. Also, we
would like to greatly thank the editor of Ore Geology Review and the
three anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments. Analytical
support from the LA-ICP-MS technician, Audrey Lavoie (LabMaTer –
UQAC), was also greatly appreciated. The assistance of Venetia Body­
comb for English editing was also appreciated.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2022.104878.
19
Ore Geology Reviews 145 (2022) 104878
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