6.

1 Introduction to the atmosphere

Atmosphere:​ dynamic system with inputs, outputs, storages and flows
- 78% nitrogen (triple-bonded N2), 21% oxygen, rest (Co2, argon, ozone etc)
Stratosphere (space) and Troposphere (earth) are where most reactions affecting life occur
Factors influencing climate:
- Abiotic factors - temperature and precipitation
- Biotic - plants and animals
Greenhouse effect:​ natural and essential phenomenon for maintaining suitable temperatures
for living systems - good thing for life on Earth (no life without it)
- Caused by trapping gases in the atmosphere reducing heat losses by radiation back into
space.
- Solar radiation -​ nearly 50% is absorbed, scattered or reflected by the atmosphere
before it reaches Earth’s surface.
- Main gases involved: ​water vapor, methane, Co2

6.2 Stratospheric ozone

Ozone:​ found in two layers of the atmosphere (​Stratosphere​ = good,​ Troposphere​ = bad)
- Ozone is a molecule made of three oxygen atoms
- Stratospheric ozone blocks incoming UV radiation from the sun
- Ozone is also a GHG which is reactive + found in lower stratosphere
- Ozone layer: example of dynamic equilibrium as it is continuously made of oxygen atoms
and converted back to oxygen
- UV radiation is absorbed in formation and destruction of ozone
Three types of UV radiation:
UV-B , UV-C = most harmful type, UV-A = least harmful
Damaging:
- Genetic mutation
- Skin cancer: high in Australia & NZ
- Damage to photosynthetic organism (phytoplankton) and their consumers (zooplankton)
Beneficial:
- Vitamin D production is stimulated (in animals)
- Used as a sterilizer: water/air purifier
- Lasers, forensic analysis
ODS - Ozone Depleting Substances
1. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
- Extremely stable, persist in the atmosphere for up to 100 years
- Refrigerants, spray cans
- Release chlorine atoms: Leads to ozone destruction
2. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
- Replacement for CFCs (stronger GHGs)
3. Halons
- Fire extinguishers
- Releases bromine atoms
1 chlorine atom can destroy many molecules of ozone in a chain reaction with positive feedback
Reducing ODS:
1. Before - Alter human activity
- Replace CFCs with CO2 or replace gas-blown plastics
2. During - regulate and reduce pollutants
- Recover and recycle CFCs from refrigerators/AC units or capture CFCs from scrap car
AC units ​OZONE CYCLE
3. After - Clean up and restore
- Add ozone to or remove chlorine from
stratosphere (not practical)
Montreal Protocol
- Agreement to phase out the production of
ozone-depleting substances (ODS)
- Best example of international cooperation on
an environmental issue
- Many experts came together to research
and solve problems
- First time regulations were carefully
monitored

6.3 Photochemical smog

Urban air pollution
- 1 billion people are exposed to outdoor air pollution p/year
- 1 million people die prematurely due to air pollution.
Primary pollutants: ​emitted directly from a process and produced:
- Carbon monoxide/dioxide
- Nitrogen oxides
- Sulphur oxides
Other sources:​ Building sites and forest fires
Secondary pollutants: ​when primary pollutants undergo reactions with other chemicals
- Tropospheric ozone
- Particles produced from gaseous primary pollutants
Tropospheric ozone: ​10% of atmosphere ozone is in troposphere
- Ozone = GHG with GW potential of 2000x more than CO2
Formation of tropospheric ozone
Nitric Oxide + oxygen→nitrogen oxide (brown gas = urban haze)
Nitrogen oxide absorbs sunlight and breaks up into nitric oxide & oxygen atoms
These oxygen atoms react with oxygen molecules to form ozone
Possible effects of ozone
- Toxic gas
- Breathing issues (humans), photosynthesis problems (plants)
- Attacks rubber, plastic, cellulose
Formation of particulates
- Burning fossil fuels releases small particles of carbon and other substances
Dangers of particulates
- Our respiratory filters (nose) cannot filter them out, thus resulting in asthma,
lung cancer, and other respiratory problems
- Many are cancerous
Formation of photochemical smog
- Sunny days with a lot of traffic can
lead to photochemical smog
- Burning of forests can contribute
- Mainly composed of nitrogen dioxide
and ozone
- However has a mixture of 100 different
primary and secondary air pollutants
- Formed when ozone, nitrogen oxide
and gaseous hydrocarbons from
vehicle exhausts interact with strong
sunlight.
Occurrence of photochemical smog is influenced by factors such as​ local topography, climate,
pop. density, fossil fuel use
Pollution Management Model for reducing urban air pollution
Before:
- Consume less, burn less fossil fuel.
- Lobby governments to increase renewable energy use.
During:
- Government regulation/taxation
After:
- Re-greening of cities (more trees + parks to absorb Co2)
- Afforestation to filter air

6.4 Acid Deposition

Acid coming down from the air
- Wet: ​rain or snow form
- Dry:​ ash/dry particles
Acidity:​ No acid rain until pH is below 5.6
Acid Deposition Pollutants
- Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX). They react with water to
form sulphuric and nitric acids.
- CO2 also makes acid, but its weak (carbonic)
▪ Nitrogen dioxide + water —> nitric acid
▪ Sulphur dioxide + water —> sulphuric acid
Acid Deposition Sources
- Sulphur dioxide: produced by volcanic eruptions
- Sulfur is common in oil and coal, but usually absent in natural gas
- Nitrogen oxides (formed by reaction of oxygen and nitrogen in the air)
- Emitted by human activities such as combustion of fossil fuels
If primary air pollutants remain in the atmosphere for long enough, a variety of secondary air
pollutants can be formed
Effects of acid deposition on soil, plants, water:
- Direct: weakening coniferous (pine trees) forests growth, reducing pH of water in lakes
- Indirect: toxic effects and leaching of nutrients
Effects of acid deposition on coniferous forests:
- Leaves and buds become yellow
- Reduced growth
- Releases toxic aluminum ions from soil particles which damages root hairs
Toxic effects of acid deposition:
1. Aluminum ions: effects on aquatic organisms
- Fish are sensitive to aluminum in water
- Low concentrations: aluminum disturbs ability to regulate the amount of salt in the body
- High concentrations: solid is formed on the gills, leading to death
2. Lichens
- Sensitive to gaseous pollutants (like sulphur dioxide)
- Indicator species of high levels of air pollution (indirect measure of pollution)
3. Buildings
- Limestone buildings react with acid and dissolve
4. Peat bogs affected by acid rain
- Produce 40% less methane than before (reduces methane in atmosphere
5. Human health: ​dry deposition (lung diseases)
Regional effect of acid deposition
- Dry: closer to source of acidic substances, consists of sulphur dioxide, sulphur trioxide,
and nitrogen oxides.
- Wet: slightly longer distances than source, consists of sulphurous acid, nitric acid, and
sulphuric acid.
Geology effects
Acid rain does little harm to limestones and chalks (they are derived from calcium
carbonate rocks). They are alkaline soils; neutralizing the acids
Role of international agreements in reducing acid deposition
Clean Air Act (1995) - to reduce SO2
- 50% reductions on average achieved in 2000 (Europe)
- Due to clean technology and changes in lifestyle
Reducing effect of acid depositions
Before
- Reducing emissions (renewable energy sources)
- Reduce demand for electricity through education campaigns (evaluate India+China)
- Reducing SO2 emissions by removing sulphur from fuel before combustion
During
- End of pipe measures (removes SO2 and NOx from waste gases)
- Catalytic converters (converts NOx to nitrogen gas): expensive to buy
After
- Liming lakes to neutralize acidity
- Expensive, and only treats symptoms, not the cause
- International agreements (difficult to establish+monitor)