Fuel system

The system by means of which fuel is supplied to the engine according to its requirement.
The fuel is carried in tank located at suitable Place in the vehicle. From the tank, it is fed to the carburetor or injection pump by different ways.
Fuel feed systems
1. Gravity feed system
- the fuel tank is placed at a higher level than the engine
- fuel from the tank flows through the fuel line towards the carburetor or injection pump by its own weight (gravity)
2. Vacuum feed system
- the system uses in engine manifold, vacuum to draw fuel from tank to autovac tank.
- from vacuum tank the fuel is fed to carburetor by gravity.
- it works under atmospheric pressure.
3. Pressure feed system
- fuel is fed to the carburetor under pressure.
- fuel is fed to the carburetor by means of a mechanically or electrically operated fuel pump.
Pump system
-A fuel pump which pumps the petrol to the carburettor through a flexible pipe
- Pump is mechanical or electrically operated.
Fuel injection system
- Fuel is atomised by means of an injector nozzle and then delivered into an air stream.
-Separate injectors are used for each cylinders.
Fuel system of petrol engine

Main components of this system.

1. Fuel tank,
2. Fuel filter,
3. Fuel pump,
4. Carburetor,
5. Air cleaner,
6. Fuel gauge.
Fuel tank
- made of steel metal
- usually of rectangular or barrel shaped.
- reinforced by means of baffle plates to avoid splashing and surging of fuel
- a neck for pouring fuel, a drain hole to remove fuel, an out let connection for the fuel line.
Fuel filter
- It filters fuel before it goes to the carburetor
- it consist of filtering element which removes dirt and contaminations in fuel
Fuel pump
It is used to draw the fuel from the tank and feed to the carburetor
Two types:
1. Mechanical fuel pump
2. Electrical fuel pump
Carburetor
Its function is to supply combustible mixtureof air and fuel in correct proportions during all conditions of engine working
Air cleaner
- It screens and filters air entering the carburettor to form air fuel mixture.
- It helps in decreases wear rate in the engine
- Act as silencer to decrease noise of air entering the carburetor.
- Oil bath type air cleaner helps in upper cylinder lubrication.
Mixture strength requirements
- it depends on different speed, temperature, load conditions on engine.
- at start condition rich mixture is required, because the engine is cold so the fuel does not vapourize properly. (air fuel ratio is 9:1)
- at idling condition rich mixture (air fuel ratio is 12:1) is required but not as rich as starting. It is due to over come the frictional power and reaching
the normal temperature.
- normal temperature (air fuel ratio is15:1)
- 14.6 : 1 air fuel ratio which would give chemically complete combustion of petrol under ideal condition the mixture is known as stoichiometric
mixture.
-For intermediate speeds, between 35 to 105km/hr the mixture further leans out 15:1.
-At higher speeds 120 to 150km/hr, with a wide open throttle, the mixture is again enriched to about 13:1
- For normal part throttle operation at cruising speed a comparatively lean mixture is required (15:1 air fuel ratio)
- For full throttle, rich mixture is required (air fuel ratio is 12:1 )

A.C. MECHANICAL PUMP (FUEL PUMP)

- a diaphragm type of pump

- diaphragm is made up of high-grade cotton impregnated with synthetic rubber.
- valves are made of bakelite, to reduce weight and inertia stresses.
- pump is driven by cam shaft by means of an eccentric or cam.
- eccentric operates rocker arm which pushes the diaphragm up and down.
- downward movement of diaphragm opens the inlet valve and allow the fuel to go in chamber through strainer.
- upward movement of diaphragm closes the inlet valve and opens the out let valve allow the fuel goes to carburettor.
Carburetion
Carburetion is the process of mixing the air and fuel in correct ratio for different temperature, speed and load on the engine.
Functions of carburetor
1. To keep a small reserve of fuel at a constant head.
2. To vaporise the fuel to prepare a homogeneous air fuel mixture.
3. To supply correct amount of the air fuel mixture at the correct strength under all conditions of load and speed of the engine.
Simple carburetor
Main parts – float chamber, fuel jet, venturi, nozzle and a throttle valve.
- Float in the float chamber keeps the fuel level in desired level.
- The level of fuel is slightly below the out let of nozzle to prevents the fuel from spilling out when the engine
is not working.
- A small vent in the float chamber keeps pressure inside atmospheric.

Working
- flow of fuel is metered by fuel jet and fuel flows to the venturi through the discharge nozzle.
- venturi is simply a restriction in air passage.
- at less area of venturi the air velocity increases and pressure decreases where the nozzle is located.
- this depression being applied at the nozzle, the fuel comes out and vaporized by the coming air stream.
- The mixture then goes through inlet manifold to the engine cylinder.
Solex carburetor
A down drought type of carburetor. A provision for a progressive starter to supply richer mixture for starting and gradually weakens it till the
engine has reached its normal operating temperature.
Various circuits of the carburetor
1.Starting

The holes on flat disc connects the petrol jet and air jet which opens to the air horn just below the throttle valve. At start position, bigger holes
are the connecting holes and throttle valve in closed position. The engine suction draws the fuel from float chamber to starter petrol jet. Fuel
from the petrol jet mixed with air from the air jet is supplied to the carburettor is rich enough for starting.
2.Idling or low speed operation

Idle port is controlled by idle adjusting screw. The screw is provided in the engine side of throttle valve. At closed position of throttle the engine
suction is applied at the pilot petrol jet which supplies petrol. Petrol from pilot jet ( draws from main jet) and the air from pilot air jet were mixed
at idle passage and the mixture is comes out of the idle port.
3.Normal running
Throttle is held partly open so the engine suction applied at main jet to draw the fuel. Air enters directly to the venturi and quantity of mixture
being governed by throttle valve.
4.Acceleration

A membrane pump is used to avoid flat spot and delivers extra needed fuel for acceleration. Pump lever connected to accelerator pedal. Pressing
accelerator pedal, lever of membrane pump move towards left and forcing petrol into main jet circuit. When pedal left free, membrane backs and
create vacuum on left which opens the ball valve which admits the petrol from chamber into the pump itself.
FUEL SYSTEM OF DIESEL ENGINE
Main components of diesel engine fuel supply system
1. Fuel tank 2. Filters 3. Feed pump 4. Fuel injection pump 5. Fuel injector
Fuel tank
Made of steel metal. Usually of rectangular or barrel shaped. It is reinforced by means of baffle plates to avoid splashing and surging of fuel. It
consist of a neck for pouring fuel, a drain hole to remove fuel, an out let connection for the fuel line.
Fuel filter
It filters fuel before it goes to the injector. it consist of filtering element which removes dirt and contaminations in fuel .
Feed pump
It is used to draw the fuel from the tank and feed to the injector
Two types: 1. Mechanical fuel pump 2. Electrical fuel pump
Fuel injection pump
The fuel injection pump serves the supply of metered quantity of fuel into engine cylinder
Fuel injector
The function of fuel injector is to spray the high pressure fuel into the engine cylinder
Fuel injection system
The fuel supply system used in diesel engine is the Fuel Injection System. Its function is to inject proper quantity of fuel into the engine cylinders at
the correct time and at a predetermined rate.
Types of fuel injection system
1.Solid injection system:
Liquid fuel is directly injected to the engine cylinder.
2. Air injection system:
Liquid fuel is injected along with compressed air. Solid injection system is reliable than air injection system.
Types of Solid injection system
1.Common rail fuel Injection (CRDI) system:

In this system a single injection pump with injector (unit injector) is employed on each cylinder. The fuel is pumped by a multi cylinder pump into a
common rail, the pressure in this rail is controlled by relief valve. A metered quantity fuel is supplied to each cylinder from the common rail. Any
excess fuel from the relief valve is returned to fuel tank.
2. Individual pump fuel injection system

This system using in in-line injection pump. Fuel draws from fuel tank by means of fuel feed pump which is operated by the injection pump
camshaft. Fuel feed pump is plunger or diaphragm type. The fuel is then passed through a filter then to fuel injection pump. Fuel injection pump
injects definite quantity of fuel into individual cylinders in turn according firing order. Injection pump is driven by engine cam shaft. Excess fuel
after lubrication of injector nozzle is return to the fuel tank.
Fuel filters
1.Primary filter

Fuel from the fuel tank enters the filter and flows around the conical diffuser and accelerated to sediments chamber. Impurities settled down at
bottom of the chamber. Impurities settled down can be drained off periodically. Clean oil passes to the outlet of the filter.
2. Secondary Filter

Resin-impregnated paper is used as filtering element. It filter out 95% abrasive particles. Filter is installed after the feed pump. Filter element retain
the abrasive and solid particle. Water droplets forms larger drops by electrostatic attraction produced by resin-impregnated element. Heavier
droplets settle down in sediments chamber.
FUEL INJECTION PUMP
The function of a fuel injection pump is to deliver accurately, metered quantity of fuel under high pressure, at the correct instant and in the correct
sequence, to the injector fitted on each engine cylinder. Injection pressure ranges from 7 to 30 MPa. Injection pump is driven from the engine’s
timing gears.Injection pump are in two types
1. Jerk pump type
2. Distributor type
Jerk pump type fuel injection pump (Bosch type)
Main parts : delivery valve, plunger, control sleeve, control rack.
Construction: Delivery valve is consist of longitudinal and annular groove on the body, plunger contains a helix at its upper end which serves to
control the quantity of fuel to be injected.
Working: Plunger at the bottom of the stroke both the intake and the spill port are uncovered. Upward movement of plunger exerts pressure on
the fuel at the top and thence to the delivery valve which opens and delivering fuel under pressure. At the extreme position the helix uncovers
the spill port, and the fuel escapes through the vertical slot in the plunger.
Fuel Injector(Bosch type)

Nozzle and nozzle holder are the main parts. A spring loaded spindle press the nozzle valve against its seat. This provides sufficient pressure for
fuel injection and spray of atomised fuel is fed into combustion chamber. The fuel from injector pump enters through fuel inlet, and is directed
down to a space below the nozzle valve. Due to high pressure of fuel, the valve is lifted against the spring pressure which can be adjusted by means
of adjusting screw. The fuel is then sprayed through nozzle to the combustion chamber. Any leakage of excess fuel is taken off through the leak of
pipe.
Injection nozzles

The function of the nozzle is to inject the fuel in the cylinder in properly atomized form and in proper quantity. The nozzles may be classified
broadly into two types
1. Hole type – used in engines with open type combustion chamber.
2. Pintle type – used in engines with pre- combustion chambers and in special swirl chambers. The pintle type nozzles carry an extension, which
produces a hollow cone type spray
Ignition system
1.Battery ignition system ( Coil Ignition system)

Generally 12 volts battery is employed. Basic circuits are ; the primary and the secondary circuits. In primary circuit; battery, primary winding of
ignition coil, condenser and contact breaker. In secondary circuit; ignition coil, distributor and spark plugs.
Working
Ignition switch in on position the current in the primary circuit grows exponentially. This build up current in the primary circuit is stored in the
laminated iron core of ignition coil. As the contact breaker point opens the energy stored in the make period is projected in the secondary circuit.
The energy passed into the secondary, induced an e.m.f. The induced e.m.f. is very large, as a result a sudden voltage surge of very high
amplitude produced in the secondary causing a spark to occur at the spark plug electrodes.
2.Magneto ignition system
1. Rotating armature type magneto

A permanent magnet fitted with two pole shoes. An armature rotated between the poles. Armature carries the primary and the secondary
windings.- The primary winding consists of a few hundred turns of thick wire and secondary comprises some thousands turns of thin wire. The
contact breaker and condenser are also in primary circuit which rotated with the armature. The rotation of armature causes the rate of change of
flux in the armature core this produces high voltage in the secondary winding which is sufficient to establish a spark at the spark plug point.
2. Rotating Magnet type
Principle is same as rotating armature type. In this a rotating magnet is placed instead of armature winding. In this windings, contact breaker, and
condenser stationary, hence no centrifugal stresses.
COOLING SYSTEM
Functions of cooling system:
- To keep the temperature of cylinder below certain limit.
- To dissipate the excess heat from the cylinder wall.
- To resist the burning of lubricant, thereby avoid piston seizing and cylinder damage.
Methods of cooling
1. Air cooling
2. Water cooling
In air cooling method current of air flowing continuously over the heated metal surface, in this way the heat is removed and it is by conduction
convection heat transfer method.
Rate of heat dissipation is depends on following factors :
a) Surface area of metal into contact with air.
b) Mass flow rate of air.
c) Temperature difference between the heated surface and air.
d) Conductivity of metal.
For effective cooling, air contact area on metal surface should be increased by using fins on the cylinder barrels. Sometimes baffles are used
Advantages:
1.Lighter in weight – absents of radiator, cooling jackets and the coolant.
2. Can operated in extreme climates – where the water may freeze.
3. The system is advantage – where the scarcity of cooling water.
4. Maintenance is easy – because there is no leakage problem.
5. Engine warming up is easier than water cooled engines.
Disadvantages ;
1.Even cooling all around the cylinder is not easy
2.Efficiency of cooling is lesser, because of lower coefficient of heat transfer of air.
3. Use of fan may cause power lose in engine.
4. Air cooled engines are more noisy
5 Under certain conditions fins around the cylinder may vibrate that may cause of increased noise level.
Water cooling:
A cooling medium is used – engine cylinders are surrounded by water jacket – heat flows from the cylinder wall to water - hot water goes to
radiator from it loses its heat to the air. Antifreeze element added water is known as coolant.
Types of water cooling system :
1.Thermosyphon (Gravity circulation) system.

In this system circulation of water is due to difference between the density of hot water and cold water. Cold water flows into the jackets at the
bottom. While it is circulating in the jacket, it absorbs heat from the engine and the hot water comes out at the top. Hot water flows down the
radiator where it is cooled by the atmospheric air.
2.Forced circulation system

In this system water circulation is maintained by a pump operated by the engine itself. Cooling water enters at lower position of the engine and
absorb heat while it is passing through jacket. The hot water come out from the top and passes into the radiator where it is cooled and then return
to the jacket.
Advantages:
1.Circulation of coolant is proportional to both load and speed.
2. Circulation of coolant is positive and hence more efficient.
3. Not necessary to place the radiator header tank to above the engine level.
4. According to design conditions the radiator need not be placed in the front.
Radiators
Function : to ensure close contact of the hot coolant with outside air
– to ensure high rate of heat transfer
Parts : upper tank (header), core, lower tank (collector), over flow pipe in the header tank, drain pipe in the lower tank.
Working: Hot coolant from engine enters the radiator at the top – flowing down through the radiator
coolant cooled down by cross-flow of air – coolant collects at collector tank – then pumped to the engine for cooling.
Types :
1.Tubular type : coolant flows through tubes and air passes around them.
2.Celluar type : air passes through the tubes and coolant flows in the space between them.
Thermostat
It automatically keeps the cooling water temperature at a predetermined value.
Types of thermostats
1. Bellows type or aneroid type
2. Wax thermostat
Bellows type thermostat

It consist of metallic bellows particularly filled with some volatile liquid like acetone, alcohol or either which boils between 70-85 oC. A valve is
attached to one end of the bellows, other end is attached to a frame. The thermostat is fitted in the coolant hose pipe at the engine outlet. When
the temperature of water is low, pressure of the acetone is less, keeping the valve on its seat. In this case the thermostat is in closed position. So
the water flows through the bye-pass to the pump. When the engine is started and the temperature reaches the design temperature the acetone
liquid is vaporised and exerts pressure on the valve. The valve then opens for water circulation.
Wax Thermostat

Heat of the coolant transmitted to the copper – loaded wax having high coefficient of thermal expansion which expands so that the rubber plug
exerts a force on plunger which moves upwards. This movement of the plunger opens the thermostat valve to allow coolant to flow through the
radiator.
Temperature Indicators
Temperature indicator is used to know the temperature of water in the cooling system in the engine jackets which shown on panel instrument.
Types of temperature indicators:
1. Mechanically operated temperature indicators
2. Electrically operated temperature indicators
1.Mechanically operated temperature indicator

It is bourdon tube type – a sealed bulb fitted in the cylinder head water jacket – it is connected to a capillary tube containing volatile liquid – the
arrangement is shown in fig. Resulting from the heat of the water in the cylinder head vaporize the liquid in the capillary tube, increases the gas
pressure in it – this moves a panel gauge needle over a calibrated dial.
2. Electrically operated temperature indicator
The principle used here is the increase in temperature decreases the electrical resistance – an element connected to the coil is inserted into the
cooling water jacket shown in fig. With the increase of temperature of cooling water, the resistance of the element decrease resulting in more flow
of current in the coil and increase of built up e.m.f. The pull of the coil in the armature carrying the indicator gets increased. Therefore the
movement of the pointer will indicate the increase in temperature on the gauge directly.

Comparison Water cooling and Air cooling

1.Direct cooling system 1.Indirect cooling system
2.Not dependent on coolant supply 2.Dependent on water
3.No leakage problem 3.Leakage of water leads to serious defect
4.Minimum maintenance 4.More maintenance
5.Uniform cooling 5.Non uniform cooling
6.Failure of system not affecting much 6.Failure of system leads to damage
7.Easy installation 7.Comparatively difficult installation
8.Used for small capacity engines 8.Used for medium and large capacity engines
IC Engine lubrication
Functions
 To decrease the power required to overcome the friction, there by increasing the power output.
 To reduce the wear between rubbing and bearing surfaces so that the engine service life is increased.
 To clean the surface by washing away carbon and metal particles caused by wear.
 To prevent the flow of gases through a space between piston rings and cylinder walls.
 To reduce the noise.
Methods of lubrication
 Splash lubrication
 Pressure lubrication
 Petroil lubrication
Splash lubrication
Splash lubrication is employed for small engines. In this case parts are lubricated by oil thrown by a small projection (dipper) at the big end of the
connecting rod. The oil is kept in the crank case and a certain level is maintained. The dipper provided at the end of a connecting rod drops in the
oil, and oil is splashed into the piston and other parts of engine which needs lubrication. Oil pockets are provided to catch the splashing oil, and
from the pockets the oil will flow to the bearing surfaces through drilled holes
Pressure lubrication
Pressure lubrication system is employed for large size engines. In pressure lubrication system, the oil is forced to all bearings through drilled holes.
Drilled holes in connecting rod permit oil to flow from the connecting rod bearings to piston pins. The cylinder walls, piston and piston rings are
lubricated by oil spray from around the piston pins and bearings.
Properties of lubricating oils
 Viscosity
 It is a measure of the resistance to flow or the internal friction of an oil. It decreases as the temperature rises and increases as it falls.
That is why the lighter oil is recommended for automobile engines in winter than in summer.
 Flash point
 The lowest temperature at which the lubricating oil will flash when a small flame is passed across its surface
 Fire point
 If the oil is heated further after the flash point has been reached, the lowest temperature at which the oil will burn continuosly is called
fire point.
 Cloud point
 In some cases the oil starts solidifying which makes it to appear cloudy. The temperature at which this takes place is called the cloud
point.
 Pour point
 It is the lowest temperature at which the lubricating oil will pour.
 Oiliness
 It is the characteristic property of an oil. An oil is said to be oil when it has oiliness. This property is highly desirable in helping the
lubricant to adhere to the cylinder walls.
 Corrosion
 A lubricant should not corrode the working parts and it must retain its properties even in the presence of foreign matter and additives.

 Emulsification
 A lubricating oil, when mixed with water is emulsified and loses its lubricating property. The emulsification number is an index of the
tendency of an oil to emulsify with water.
 Physical stability
 A lubricating oil must be stable physically at the lower and the highest temperatures between which the oil is to be used.
 Chemical stability
 A lubricating oil should also be stable chemically. There should not be any tendency for oxide formation.
 Adhesiveness
 It is the property of the lubricating oil due to which the oil particles stick with the metal surfaces.
Specification of lubricating oils
 The lubricating oils are specified by SAE number
 Ex. SAE40, SAE 30
Governing of I C Engines
If the engine runs at a constant flow rate of fuel, engine will speed up when the load decreases and will slow down when the load increases. To run
the engine at a steady speed, the flow of fuel must vary in such a way that the power developed is just equal to that needed at the desired speed.
The process of controlling the speed of the engine by adjusting the fuel supply is called governing
Methods of Governing
 Hit and miss governing
 Quality governing
 Quantity governing
 Combined method of governing
Hit and miss governing
 In this method, the supply of fuel is stopped for one or more cycles when the speed of the engine increases. Once the supply is cut off,
engine performs idle cycles which will reduce the engine speed
Quality governing
 In this method the quality of fuel supplied is varied by altering the air fuel ratio. For quality governing the amount of air drawn into
cylinder is constant, but the supply of fuel varies. This method is employed for high speed diesel engines
Quantity governing
 In this method the quantity of mixture supplied to the engine varied by regulating the throttle valve. It is simple, but combustion of fuel is
not effective thereby the thermal efficiency is reduced. This method is employed in spark ignition engines
Combined method of governing
 It is the combination of the quality and quantity governing methods. The disadvantages in each of the governing method can be
eliminated in the combined method
 MODULE-ll
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
 Enable the engine to be disconnected from the road wheels
 Enable the engine, when running, to be connected smoothly and without shock to the driving wheels
 Enable the leverage between the engine and the driving wheels to be varied
 Reduced the speed of the engine
 Turn the drive round through 900
Enable the driving wheels to be driven at different speeds

Provide for the relative movement between the engine and the driving wheels due to flexing of the road springs

Elements of transmission system

CLUTCH
PRINCIPLE OF CLUTCH

With the help of the above figure we can easily explain the principle of clutch. Let us assume that shafts A and disc C are revolving
at N rpm. Initially at this state shaft B and disc D should be held stationary. Thus the clutch is not engaged. When some force F is
applied to D and when it is made to have contact with C, the friction between C and D will have its effect. Consequently, D will also
start rotating. The speed of D depends upon C and frictional force. Gradually the speed of D and C will become equal. Then the
clutch is said to be completely engaged.
Types
 Friction clutch
 1) wet clutch 2) dry clutch 3) Cone clutch
 Centrifugal clutch
 Semi-centrifugal clutch
 Diaphragm clutch
 Hydraulic clutch
 Electromagnetic clutch
 Vacuum clutch
 Over running clutch
Requirements of clutch
 1. Torque transmission- The clutch should be able to transmit maximum torque of the engine.
  2. Gradual engagement- The clutch should engage gradually to avoid sudden jerks.
 3. Heat dissipation- The clutch should be able to dissipate large amount of heat which is generated during the clutch
operation due to friction.
 4. Dynamic balancing- The clutch should be dynamically balanced. This is particularly required in the case of high speed
engine clutches.
 5. Vibration damping- The clutch should have suitable mechanism to damp vibrations and to eliminate noise produced
during the power transmission.
 6. The clutch should be as small as possible in size so that it will occupy minimum space.
 7. Easy of operation- The clutch should be easy to operate requiring as little exertion as possible on the part of the driver.
 8. Lightness- The driven member of the clutch should be made as light as possible so that it will not continue to rotate for
any length of time after the clutch has been disengaged.
Functions of a clutch
 1. To engage or disengage the rest of the transmission as required.
 2. To transmit the engine power to the rear wheels without shock.
 3. To enable the gear to get engaged when the vehicle is in motion.
Single Plate Clutch

- Friction plate is held between the fly wheel and the pressure plate.
- Springs are arranged circumferentially that provide axial force to keep the clutch in engaged position.
 The plate is mounted on a hub which splined from inside and thus free to slide on gear box shaft. - Friction lining is attached
to annulus of friction plate for power transmission.
 A pedal is used to pull the pressure plate against the spring force.
Working
- When the clutch pedal is pressed the pressure plate is moved to the right against the force of spring. This movement
releases the friction plate and the clutch is disengaged.
- Ordinarily the pressure plate is presses the clutch plate against the flywheel by spring force, that is the clutch is in engaged
position.
Advantages
 1. The construction is very simple.
 2. Only a little effort of the driver is needed for operation.
 3. Clutch plate is durable.
 4. Friction lining can be replaced as and when required.
Multi-plate clutch
It consists of more numbers of frictional and metal plates.This increases capacity of the clutch to transmit torque Overall diameter
of the clutch is reduced. Used in heavy transport vehicles and in racing cars where high torque is to be transmitted. Construction is
similar to single plate type except the friction plates ie. one sets of plates slides in grooves on the flywheel and the other one slides
on splines on the pressure plate hub.
Centrifugal clutch

Springs are eliminated in this type. The centrifugal force is used to apply pressure on clutch to keep in engaged position. Advantage
is that have no separate clutch pedal is required and the clutch is operated automatically depending upon the engine speed.
Working
As the speed increases, the weight A flies.This operating the bell crank lever B which presses the plate C. This force is
transmitted to the plate D by means of springs E. The plate D thus pressed against the flywheel F there by engaging the clutch.
There is one more set of springs G on the back side of the pressure plate to keep the clutch in disengaged position at low speed. A
strip called stop H is also provided to limit the movement of the fly weights and the amount of the centrifugal force.
Diaphram clutch
It is similar to that of the single plate type. Here diaphragm springs ( Belleville springs ) are used instead of the ordinary coil springs .
In free condition, it is of conical form, but when assembled it is in flat condition because of which it exerts load upon the pressure
plate
When the clutch pedal is pressed, the throw out bearing moves towards the flywheel, pressing the centre portion of the spring,
which causes the rim to move backward. This removes the pressure on the pressure plate and the clutch is disengaged.
FLUID FLY WHEEL

It consists of a driving and a driven member and they do not have any direct contact. The driving member is attached to the engine
flywheel and the driven to the transmission shaft. They are always filled with fluid and are provided with radial ribs to guide the
fluid.
When the engine is started, the oil from the driving member is forced outward radially because of the centrifugal force and then it is
directed across, to the runner and returned to the impeller.
Advantages
 1. Requires less maintenance and attention.
 2. No wear of moving parts.
 3. Simple, compact in design.
 4. Specific operating skill is not needed.
 5. The fluid in the coupling acts as a cushioning agent between the engine and the gear box to absorb shock.
Disadvantages
1. Drag on the gear box.
2.Gear changing is slightly difficult.

Gear box
Functions of the gear box
1. To exchange engine power for greater torque and provide mechanical advantage to drive the vehicle under different operating
conditions.
2. To provide reverse motion.
3. To provide neutral position and disallow power flow to the rest of the transmission
Necessity of a gear box
1. To regulate torque by selecting the appropriate speed range.
2. To regulate the vehicle speed at which maximum torque is available.
3.To balance the tractive effort with the sum of the various forces tending to oppose the motion.
Types of gear boxes
1. Selective type
 a) Sliding mesh
 b) Synchro mesh
 c) Constant mesh
2. Progressive type
3. Epicyclic or Planetary type
4. Over drive
5. Semi-automatic
6. Automatic
 a) Hydromatic drive
 b) Torque converter gear box
Sliding mesh gear box.

Simplest type.The Power flow is from the engine through the clutch to the clutch shaft and then to the clutch gear which is always in
mesh with a gear on the layshaft. The gears on layshaft are fixed and they rotate in all time when the engine is running. Three
direct and a reverse speeds are attained by moving the gear on the main shaft. Gear movement is by means of selector
mechanism.The power flow diagram for various gear positions are shown in fig.
Constant mesh gear box :
 All the gears are in constant mesh with the corresponding gears on layshaft. Gears on main shaft are splined are free. Dog clutches
provided are slides on main shaft. Gears on layshaft are fixed. The left dog clutch when it slide to left its teeth are engaged with
clutch gear and give direct gear. When it slide to right makes contact with the second gear and second gear is obtained. Movement
of the right dog clutch to the left results in low gear. Towards right gives reverse gear .
Synchromech Gear box

It is similar to constant mesh type.All the gears on the mainshaft are in constant mesh with the corresponding gears on the layshaft.
The gears on mainshaft are free to rotate and those on layshaft are fixed.The synchromesh device which avoids the double clutching
and free to slide on splines on the mainshaft.
AUTOMATIC TRANSMITION
1. Epicyclic gear box

It consists of two, three or four epicyclic or planetary gears. It has a sun gear about which planets turns. The planet gears are carried
by a carrier and a shaft and are also in mesh internally with a ring gear or annulus. The operating characteristics are as follows
 1. Over drive:- The ring gear is locked, the planet carrier is the driving unit and sun gear is the driven unit.
 2. Over drive :- Sun gear is locked, planet carrier is the driving unit and ring gear is the driven unit.
 3. Speed reduction :- sun gear is locked, ring gear is the driving member and planet carrier is the driven member.
 4. Speed reduction :- Ring gear is locked, sun gear is the driving member, planet carrier is the driven member
 5. Reverse :- Planet carrier is locked, sun gear is the driving member and ring gear is the driven member. In this case planet
gears are free to rotate about their own axes.
Torque convertor
Similar to that of the fluid fly wheel. Difference is it has an additional stationary member called the stator or the reaction member
and have blades or vanes. Fluid fly wheel transmits the same torque as given to it by the engine shaft.Torque converter increases
the torque in a ratio of about 2:1 to 3:1.It serves same purpose as that of a gear box.The torque variation in gear box is in finite
number.The torque variation in torque converter is continuous, but the efficiency is high only in narrow limits of speed.
A single stage torque converter is shown above
3 main parts are :
1. The Impeller or the driving member – connected to the engine.
2. The turbine or the driven member – connected to the road wheels through the transmission gears and the drive line.
3. The stator – fixed to the frame through a free wheel.
The converter oil pressure is kept between 200 to 1200 kPa to avoid cavitation.
Working:
The engine starts, the impeller started to rotate.The oil from the impeller is pushed into the turbine.High kinetic energy of the oil
from the impeller hits the outer edge of the turbine.The high energy oil provides the force that tends to rotate the turbine.The force
is increases with the increase of engine speed and when it is enough to rotate the turbine the vehicle moves.The blade angle of
turbine direct the oil flow comes out of the turbine at the centre
Comparison of fluid coupling and Torque convertor
Fluid coupling
 1. Contains only two members impeller and turbine
 2. Simply a torque transmission unit
 3. Serves as an automatic clutch
 4. Efficient at high speeds
 5. Impeller and runner are locked up and oil movement stops when centrifugal force is the same on both the member
Torque convertor
 1. Three members impeller, turbine and a stator
 2. Torque multiplication unit 3:1 to 4:1
 3. Serves as an automatic clutch as well as a torque multiplier.
 4. Inefficient at high speeds but more efficient under load.
 5. No such locking and oil flows continuously.
2. Overdrives :

A device that step up the gear ratio in the car. It is fitted in between transmission and the propeller shaft. High cruising speed can
attained by at low engine speed on long journey. It reduces wear, vibration and noise. Frictional losses at lower speeds are less,
that saves fuel. Generally fitted on top gear only. May be operated either manually or automatically at a predetermined speed.
Working :
It consist of an epicyclic gear train.The sun gear is free to rotate on the input shaft.The carrier can move on splines on the input
shaft and free wheel clutch also fitted on the input shaft splines. When the sun gear is locked with the casing the speed of the output
shaft is increased, that is over drive is engaged. When the sun gear is locked to the carrier or to the ring, solid drive through the gear
train is obtained.

PROPELLER SHAFT(Drive shaft)

Function is to transmits the drive from the transmission to the bevel pinion or worm of final drive in front engine, rear drive vehicle.
Main parts
Shaft :- Made of tubular cross- section, it should withstand tortional load and to be well balanced to avoid whirling at high speeds
Universal joint :- This joint is used were the up and down movements of the rear axle when the vehicle is running. Slip joint :- This
serves to adjust the length of the propeller shaft according to the rear axle movement and it is depends on the type of drive. A
propeller shaft with two universal joints and a Sliding or slip joint is shown below.
Differential

When a vehicle taking a turn the outer wheel will have to travel grater distance than the inner wheel In the same time. At the same
time keep the speeds of all the wheels same when going straight ahead.This can be obtained by certain mechanism which is used in
a device is called differential.
Construction :
Crown wheel is attached a cage which carries a cross-pin ( for two planet pinions are employed) or spider (for four planet pinions are
employed).Sun gears are meshed with planet pinions. Axle half-shafts are splined to sun gears. Crown wheel is free to rotate on the
half-shaft.
Working:
Vehicle is going straight the cage and inner gears rotate as a single unit and the two half- shafts revolve at the same speed.There is
no relative motion between the differential gears at this situation. Vehicle is taking a turn, assume the cage is stationary ,Turning of
one sun gear causes the other to rotate in the opposite direction.This rotation is super- imposed on normal wheel speed. There will
be a resistance to the motion of inner wheel that results the differential action to rotates inner wheel to back and outer wheel
rotate forward.
Torque from final drive is divided between the half shafts. The planet pinions are free to rotate on the cross-pin the torque
applied is equally on both the planet pinion. That divide the torque equally between the two wheels on the axle, when their speeds
are different
Front axle
 Types-Live axle,Dead axle
 Made by:- drop forged steel with 4% carbon steel and 1 to 3% nickel steel
STUB AXLE
 The main axle beam is connected to the stub axles by means of king pins.
 The front road wheels are mounted on these stub axles.
 Made of forged steel with 3% nickel steel and alloy steels of chromium and molybdenum
Types of Stub axles :
 a. Elliot b. Reversed Elliot
 c. Lamoine d. Reversed Lamoine
 - Reversed Elliot type is most common

Elliot stub axle

 In this king pin is usually fixed in the stub axle forging and its end turns in the forked end of the axle beam
Reversed elliot stub axle
 In this the king pin is fixed in the axle beam. Its ends turn in the forks of the steering knuckle.
Lamoine stub axle
 In this instead of a yoke type hinge, L shaped spindle is used.
Reversed Lamoine stub axle
 The construction is same as the Lamoine stub axle, but the upside of the axle is inverted, so that the wheel axle is below the axle beam.
Live rear axle
 Types- 1.Semi floating axle 2. Full floating axle 3.Three quarter floating axle
Semi-floating axle

 - The wheel hub is directly connected to the axle shaft.

 -The axle shaft is splined at the inner end and is supported by the final drive unit .
 The outer end is supported by a single bearing inside the axle casing.
 The vehicle load is transmitted to each of the half shaft through the casing and the bearing. Widely used on cars.
Full – floating axle

 - Used in heavy vehicles.

 The flange of axle shaft connected to the flange sleeve by means of bolts.
 There are two taper roller bearings supporting the axle casing which take any side load.
- The axle shaft carry only the driving torque.
 The weight being completely supported by the wheels and the axle casing.
 Thus the axle shaft can replace easily with out jacking up the vehicle when the shaft is broken.
Three quarter floating axle

 This will compromise with both fully floating and semi-floating type.
 The bearing is located between the axle casing and the hub.
 The axle shaft do not have to take shearing or bending action due to the weight of the vehicle.
 The weight of the vehicle is taken up by the axle casing through the hub and the bearing
- It has to take the end load and the driving torque.
 This type is popular for cars and light commercial vehicle.
 Module – 3
SUSPENSION SYSTEM
All the parts which perform the function of isolating the automobile from the road shocks are collectively called a suspension system
Objectives
 1. To safeguard the passengers and goods against road shocks.
 2. To prevent the road shock from getting transmitted to the vehicle body.
 3. To preserve the stability of the vehicle while in motion.
 4. To provide proper road hold when driving cornering and braking.
 5. To maintain proper steering geometry.
 6.To keep the body perfectly in proper level while travelling on an uneven path.
 7. To provide suitable riding and cushioning properties
Components of suspension system

 Spring,Spring shackle,Axles,Wheels,Shock absorbers,Stabilizers

Sprung and unsprung weight
Sprung weight
 It is the weight of all the parts supported by the springs including the weight of the springs
Unsprung weight
 It is the weight of all parts between the springs and the road and a portion of the spring weight itself
Independent suspensions
Advantages
 1.Reduced unsprung weight and hence improved ride and better road holding while cornering and braking.
 2.The frame and body do not tilt but remain horizontal and the wheels vertical when the vehicle encounders a road bump.
 3.The wheels being sprung independently, springing movement of one wheel is not transmitted to the other side.
 4.Provides a greater degree of vertical springing movement.
 5.Provides scope for the use of springs of greater resilience giving much better springing action than most rigid axle vehicles.
Independent front suspension

Independent suspension system means any arrangement that connects the road wheels to the frame , in which the rise or fall of one wheel has no
direct effect on the other wheels. In other words , in case of ordinary axle arrangement the rise or fall of one wheel causes that wheel and the
wheel at the other end to get tilted by an angle. This sets vibration of the wheels on the stub axles causing wobbling. When independent
suspension is used, this wheel wobbling is eliminated.
Rear wheel independent suspension
Though the rear wheels are not to be steered, yet there is a considerable difficulty in the rear wheel springing if the power has to be transmitted to
the rear wheels. But even the rear wheel independent springing is coming into prominence because of its distinct advantages over the rigid axle
type.
Figure shows one method of rear wheel independent suspension. Universal couplings A and B keep the wheel vertical, while the sliding coupling C
is required to maintain the wheel track constant, there by avoiding scrubbing of the tyres.
Leaf spring

Semi-elliptic leaf springs are almost universally used for suspension in light and heavy commercial vehicles.The spring consists of a number of
leaves called blades. The blades vary in length as shown. The lengthiest blade has eyes on its ends. This blade is called master leaf. All the blades
are bound together by means of steel straps.
The spring is supported on the axle, front or rear by means of a U bolt. One end of the spring is mounted on the frame with a simple pin, while on
the other end, connection is made with a shackle. When the vehicle comes across a projection on the road surface, the wheels moves up,
deflecting the spring. This changes the length between the spring eyes. If both the ends are fixed, the spring will not be able to accommodate this
change of length. This is provided for by means of a shackle at one end which gives a flexible connection.
Spring shackles

Spring Shackles provide the link by means of which the chassis frame is connected to the leaf spring. The shackles provide swinging ability to the
leaf springs. Due to shock on the road wheel, the spring flattens up and increases in length and during rebound the spring assumes back its shape
there by decreasing in length. The shackles make the springs worthy to swing in and out.
Steering system
Principle of steering
The basic function of this system is that the vehicle movement is to be steered straight and maintained at a position or slightly deviated from it at
the drivers decision without much effort by him.
This system converts rotary movement of the steering wheel into angular turning of the front wheels. At the same time it also multiplies the drivers
effort with mechanical advantage to turn the road wheels, easily.
Qualities of the steering system
 It must keep the wheels at all times in rolling motion without rubbing on the road.
 Steering must be light and stable with a certain degree of self adjusting ability.
 The steering system should also absorb road shock.
 It must be easily operated with less maintenance.
 It should have self centering action to some extent, to move the vehicle on a straight path

Steering wheel components

  The steering system is composed of the following elements.
 Steering,Steering linkage ,Steering knuckle or Steering spindle
Steering
It is the mechanism which changes the direction of rotation of the steering shaft at right angles and provides a leverage or mechanical advantage
between the steering wheel and steering linkage.
It is composed of the following components.
Steering wheel,Steering column,Steering gear
Steering wheel
It is a circular wheel mounted at the steering shaft and acts as a control to steer the vehicle. A horn push button is fitted at its hub. In modern cars
the push button has been replaced by a push ring which is placed inside the steering wheel. The steering hub sometimes contains trafficator
switch , lighting switch or selector lever for controlling automatic transmission.
Steering column
It is a hollow shaft enclosed by a casing. At its upper end steering wheel is attached and at the lower end steering gear is employed. In modern
cars , the gear change lever is provided at the steering column for the convenience of the driver.
Steering gears
Steering gear is enclosed in a casing known as steering gear box. The functions of steering gear are as follows.
 It provides mechanical advantage and enables the driver to steer the vehicle easily.
 The rotary movement of the steering shaft at right angle is converted into a straight line motion by a drop arm.
Types
 Worm and worm sector steering gear
 Rack and pinion steering gear
 Worm and double roller steering gear
 Cam and double lever steering gear
 Re circulating ball steering gear
Worm and sector

In this type of steering gear , the worm on the end of the steering shaft meshes with a sector mounted on a sector shaft. When the worm is
rotated by rotation of the steering wheel, the sector also turns rotating the sector shaft ( or pitman shaft or steering arm shaft ). Its motion is
transmitted to the wheel through the linkage.
Rack and pinion steering gear
This type of steering gear is used on light vehicles like cars and in power steering. Maruthi 800 cars employ this steering gear. It is simple, light and
responsive. It occupies very small space and uses lesser number of linkage components compared to worm and wheel type of gear.
Figure shows the rack and pinion type of steering gear along with its linkage. The rotary motion of the steering wheel is transmitted to the pinion of
the steering gear through universal joints. The pinion is in mesh with a rack. The circular motion of the pinion is transferred into the linear rack
movement, which is further relayed through the ball joints and tie rods to the sub axles for the wheels to be steered
Re-circulating Ball type steering gear

A nut is mounted on the worm with two sets of balls in the grooves of the worm.The balls reduce the friction between nut and worm.The nut which
has a number of teeth on the outside is in mesh with worm wheel sector. When the steering wheel is turned, the balls in the worm roll in the
grooves and cause the nut to travel along the length of the worm.The balls are in two sets re-circulated through the guide, as shown in figure.The
movement of the nut causes the wheel sector to turn an angle and actuate the link rod through the drop arm that results in desired steering of
the wheel.
Power steering
-It provides automatic hydraulic assistance to the turning effort applied to the manual steering system.
-The system is operated by fluid under pressure.
-The movement of the steering wheel actuates a valve.
- The fluid under pressure from the reservoir enters on the appropriate side of the cylinder.
-The pressure on one side of a piston to operate the steering linkage, which steers the wheel in the appropriate direction.
Center Point Steering
 The axis X-X meets the travel surface or the ground at point A. The vertical through the center of the wheel tread meets the ground at B.
When the vehicle is running on a level surface a force is acts in the plane of contact of wheel with the ground and its direction
 is opposite to the direction of travel. This will cause a moment about the axis X-X and will tend to turn the left wheel in the
corresponding direction
 The moment on right wheel experience a similar, then the system is balanced. If not equal the right wheel tend to turn in the direction
opposite to that of the left wheel. If the linkage is designed in such a way that the the two points A and B coincide, the moment is
nullified and steering becomes stable. Steering with this arrangement is called centre point steering.
Steering geometry
 It is the mechanics of keeping the front wheels in proper relative alignment as the wheels are turned. It refers to the angular relationship
between the front wheels and the parts attached to the front wheels and the vehicle frame. This also involves the inclination of the
steering axis or king pin away from the vertical, the positioning of the front wheels and inclination of the front wheels from vertical.
Factors which are to be considered for steering
 Steering stability
 Tyre wear and riding comfort of the vehicle
Steering depends upon the following factors
 1. Caster
 2. King pin inclination
 3. Camber
 4. Toe-in and Toe-out

Caster
  The angle between the king pin centre line (or steering axis ) and the vertical, in the plane of the wheel is called the caster angle. If the
king pin centre line meets the ground at a point ahead of the vertical wheel centre line, it is called positive caster while if it is behind the
vertical wheel centre line, it is called negative caster.
 The caster produces directional stability by causing the wheels to lead or follow in the same direction as the vehicle travels. Positive
caster tries to make the front wheels toe-in. With negative caster the wheels would try to toe-out. When the vehicle body is lower at
the rear, caster will increase, enhancing the directional stability and thus the steering effort. When the body is lower at the front, caster
angle and hence directional stability will be reduced, which will result in poor vehicle control.

King pin inclination

 The angle between the vertical line and center of the king pin or steering axle , when viewed from the front of the vehicle is known as
king pin inclination. The king pin inclination in combination with caster, is used to provide directional stability in modern cars, by tending
to return the wheels to the straight ahead position after any turn. It also reduces steering effort particularly when the vehicle is
stationary. It reduce tyre wear also. The king pin inclination in modern vehicles range from 4 to 8 degrees. It must be equal on both the
sides. If it is greater on one side than the other, the vehicle will tend to pull to the side having the greater angle.
Camber

 The angle between the centre line of the tyre and the vertical line when viewed from the front of the vehicle is known as camber. When
the angle is outward, so that the wheels are farther apart at the top than at the bottom, the camber is positive. When the angle is
inward, so that the wheels are closer together at the top than at the bottom, the camber is negative. The purpose of camber is to bring
the road contact of the tyre more nearly or under the point of the load. Camber should not exceed 2 o
Toe-in
  The front wheels are usually turned in slightly in front so that the distance between the front ends A is slightly less than the distance
between the back ends B, when viewed from the top. The difference between these distances is called toe-in. The amount of toe-in is
usually 3 to 5mm. The toe-in is provided to ensure parallel rolling of the front wheels, to stabilize steering and prevent side slipping and
excessive tyre wear
Toe-out

 Toe-out is the difference in angles between the two front wheels and the car frame during turns. While taking a turn, the inner front
wheel turns sharper than the outer. Thus it must toe-out more to avoid tyre scrub.
 Toe-out is provided by keeping proper relation between the steering knuckle arms, tie rods and drop arm. These linkages are arranged
such that the inner wheel, left or right, toes-out more than the outer wheel when taking a curve.
Basic suspension movement
 Bouncing
 Pitching
 Rolling
 Yawing

Bouncing
 It is the vertical movement of the complete body. When the complete body of the vehicle rises up and down, it is known as bounce or
bouncing. There may be front or rear end bouncing

Pitching
  It is rocking chair action or rotating action about a transverse axis through the vehicle parallel to ground. Due to pitching, the front
suspension moves out of phase with the rear resulting in rocking effect
Rolling
 It is the movement about a longitudinal axis produced by centrifugal force when cornering.
Yawing
 Motion about the perpendicular axis is called yawing

Wheels
This is the assembly of hub, disc, frame and tyre. The wheels support the inner weight of the vehicle and also absorbs shocks. The side thrust and
the braking stress are resisted by all the wheel. The wheel also transmits the driving and driven thrust through the tyres. They also provide
cushioning effect.
Requirements of an automobile wheel
 Should absorb road shocks
 Should carry load of the vehicle
 Should transmit propeller and brake force
 Be sufficiently strong to withstand the weight of the vehicle.
 Be flexible to absorb the road shocks
 Be enable to roll on the road surface
 Be properly balanced statically and dynamically
 Should be as light as possible
 Be easy to remove and mount
Types of wheel
 Disc wheel
 Spoked wheel
 Cast wheel
Disc wheel

 The main parts of disc wheel are wheel rim and a steel disc. The disc is welded to the inner periphery of the wheel rim. The disc functions
like a spoke. The wheel assembly is bolted to the brake drum. Some slots are provided for air cooling and a hole is there in the rim to
provide seating for the tube valve. The centre of the rim is smaller in diameter than the rest and is called drop centre rim. This portion
makes it possible to remove the tyre from the rim , when one side of the tyre is placed in the dropped area, it is then possible to lift the
outer side of the tyre over the rim flange, this type of wheels are simple , cheap and robust in construction.
Spoked wheel
 This type of wheel consists of a separate hub connected to the rim with a number of wire spokes. The header inner ends of the spokes fit
in the hub holes and the threaded outer ends fit in the rim holes, where mushroom headed tubular nuts are screwed through the rim
holes to tighten the spokes. All the spokes must be correct length and at correct tension to hold the rim centrally around the hub. The
spokes do not stick straight out as radii from the hub, but alternate spokes are screwed to slope forwards and backwards towards the
rim. The forward sloping spokes absorb braking torque and the rearward sloping spokes convey driving torque. The sideways inclination
of the spokes hold the wheel upright against cornering loads and side thrusts.
Light alloy Cast or forged wheel

 Cast wheels are generally used for cars while forged wheels are preferred for wheels of heavier vehicles. The main advantage of light
alloy cast wheel is their reduced weight which reduces unsprung weight. A magnesium alloy wheel weighs about 50% of a steel wheel
and about 70% of an aluminium alloy wheel for similar strength. Moreover light alloys are better conductors of heat which helps the
wheels to dissipate any heat generated by the tyres or brakes. Further wider rims are possible , which improves stability on cornering.
Though cast or forged wheels have to be machined , yet this helps to maintain close tolerances and also produce better appearance
Wheel dimensions

 The wheel is designated by its

 Rim width
 A letter identifying the rim profile
 Rim diameter
 For example the codes 5.5 B-13 means B type rim with 5.5 inch nominal width and 13 inch rim diameter.
Wheel balance
 The balance of tyred wheel is essentially required to avoid front wheel wobble which affects steering and increase tyre wear rates. The
following factors affect the wheel and tyre assembly balance.
 Lateral run out of the wheel
 Radial run out of the wheel
 Uneven distribution of the weight around the axis of rotation.
 Therefore , it is necessary to inspect the wheel centering , before checking the wheels for balance. Lateral run out which is usually the
result of a warped rim from bumps, can be corrected with the use of an arbor press
Tyres
 Tyre is mounted on the wheel rim. It has to carry the vehicle load and provide a cushioning effect absorbing the flexing actions. It must
produce a minimum noise, while the wheel is turning on the road. It resist the tendency for the vehicle to over steer. It should have good
grip while accelerating and braking the vehicle on both the dry and wet roads.
Parts of tyres

Carcass or casing
 The carcass is made of four or six layers of fabric. The layers are called plies. Each layer is a sheet wound of cotton or nylon imprignated
with rubber. Greater strength is obtained if each layer or sheet is placed at an angle to the adjacent layer. Cords of rayon or nylon offer
greater resistance to the heat produced due to flexing of tyres. The carcass is the basic structure of the tyre which bears the shock loads,
side thrusts and the vehicle’s weight. The number of layers of cord depends upon tyre usage. Motor car tyres have from 4 to 6 plies.
Heavy duty bus or truck tyres have upto 22 plies.
Beads
 A number of coils of bronze plated steel wires which retain this tyre on the rim are called beads. The plies of cord are fastened to them
and therefore serve as a metal foundation of the tyre.
Tread
 The portion of the tyre that comes in contact with the road surface is known as the tread. The primary function of a tread is to improve
the tyres ability to transmit driving and braking torques. The tread is bonded directly on the casing. The materials used are natural or
synthetic rubber. Certain fillers such as carbon-black make it hard and abrasion resistant.
Side walls
 These protect the casing but are subjected to maximum flexing action creating a large amount of heat buildup. Side walls are made of a
rubber compound.
Types of tyres
Tube type

 It encloses a tube in which air is forced to a high pressure as a cushioning medium. The outer portion of the tyre which rolls on the road is
made of synthetic rubber and is called tread. At the inner edges, beads are formed by reinforcing with steel wires. The beads act as
strong shoulders , for bearing against the wheel rim. Rayon cords are formed into a number of plies. Where the beads and cords give
strength to the tyre, the treads provide resistance against slipping and thicker surface at the outer periphery.
Tubeless tyre

 This type of tyre does not need a separate tube, instead the air under pressure is filled in the tyre itself, for which purpose a non return
valve is fitted to the rim. The inner construction of the tyre is almost same as that of a tubed tyre, except that it is lined on inside with a
special air retaining liner made up of a halogenated butyl rubber like chlorobutyl or bromobutyl for better air impermeability together
with high heat and weather resistance.
Advantages of tubeless tyre
 1. Temporary puncture repairs are made without removing the wheel. A rubber plug is inserted at the place of puncture
 2. Such tyres are easily mounted on rims
 3. Better air sealing qualities are obtained
 4. Impart more resistance to impact loads, but are unsuitable for spoked and corroded wheels
 5. Being lighter , unsprung weight is reduced, reducing wheel bounce, which also means fuel saving
 6. Since there is no tube in the tubeless tyres, heat can be passed on to the atmosphere directly, resulting in better cooling there by
increasing the tyre life
 7. Since the inner liner in the tubeless tyres is not stretched like the tube, it retains the air better resulting in its slower leakage.
Cross ply or Bias ply tyre
In this type , the ply cords are woven at an angle(30 t0 40 o to the tyre axis. . This type of tyres have better wear and road holding
characteristics
Radial ply tyre
 In radial ply tyre the cords run radially or in the direction of tyre axis. There are some breaker strips in the circumferential direction as
shown in the fig. The material used for breaker strips is flexible, so that there is no change in circumference due to variation of inflation
and provides directional stability.
Tyre material
 . Rubber used in tyres is a blend of the natural and synthetic rubbers to which various chemicals are added to obtain desired properties
like wear resistance, less internal friction etc.. As an example carbon black is added to the tread rubber to improve resistance to wear. For
beads , bronze plated high tensile steel wire is used.
Tread pattern

 Pattern (a) : Good midways adhesion, good grip

 Pattern (b) : Little sideways adhesion but good fore and aft grip. Rapid , irregular wear and noisy running.
 Pattern © : Good sideways, fore and aft grip. Irregular wear on hard roads, noisy running.
 Pattern (d) : Good wear resistance and steering characteristic. Used on trailers and farm implements
 Pattern (e) : Used on rough and loose surfaces, giving maximum grip and sideways stability
Inflation pressure

 This depends upon tyre size, tyre type, speed and load. The inflation pressures are recommended by the vehicle manufacturer.
 Under inflation causes the following defects.
 Uneven tread wear, more wear at the sides
 Lack of directional stability
 Increased rolling resistance leading to increased fuel consumption
 Excessive flexing of sidewalls
 Over inflation causes the following defects
 Reduced tread contact area with the road surface. This results in rapid wear in the tread at the centre.
 Reduced tyre grip
 Reduced impact resistance
 Increased vibrations resulting in uncomfortable ride
 Increased stresses may cause tread separation and cracks in the side walls
Tyre wear
Causes of tyre wear
 Incorrect inflation
 Incorrect camber, castor, or toe-in
 Excessive breaking or violent acceleration
 Worn steering mechanism
 Worn king pins
 Out of balance wheel
 Misalignment
 Over loading, wrong loading
 Defective breaks
 Bleeding of air in tyre
 Careless driving, unequal tyres
 Incorrect rotation of tyres
Braking system
Brake is the mechanism in motor vehicles for slowing down and stopping. Braking is the method of slowing down and bringing down the vehicle to
rest at the shortest possible distances. While operating the braking system, kinetic energy of the moving vehicle is converted into heat and gets
dissipated.
The function of the brake is to slow down, to stop and to hold the vehicle and also to help in the energy conversion and heat dissipation.
Need of brakes
 To stop the vehicle
 To control speed , when and where required quickly and efficiently
 To control the vehicle while descending along a slope
To keep the vehicle in the required place after bringing it to rest even when the operator is not present.
Types of brakes
 1. By application
 (a) Feed break or service break
 (b) Hand brake or parking brake
 2. By method of power
 (a) Mechanical (b) Hydraulic © Vacuum
 (d) Electrical (e) Air
 3. By method of operation
 (a) Manual (b) Servo system
 © Power operation
 4. By construction
 (a) Drum (b) Disc
Braking requirements
 1. It should develop maximum possible retarding force irrespective of road condition and quality
 2. The retardation produced should be uniform throughout its application
 3. Pedal effort required must be within the convenient capacity of the drive and should not be over sensitive.
 4. The response time should be as minimum as possible
 5. Must be reliable and should not be affected by water, heat or dust
 6. It should not be affected by the wear of its components.
 7. It should not be a hindrance to the operation of the other automobile systems.
 8. Should be of minimum weight.
 9. Noise and vibration are to be minimum
Drum brake
Working principle
In a motor vehicle the wheel is attached to a drum. The brake shoes are made to contact this drum. The brake shoes have brake linings on their
outer surfaces. Each brake shoe is hinged at one end by an anchor pin, the other end is operated by some means so that the brake shoe expands
outwards- the brake linings come into contact with the drum. Retracting spring keep the brake shoes into position when the brakes are not applied.
When the brake pedal is pressed, the cam turns, the shoes expands outwards against the drum. A toggle lever is also used for the same
purpose as shown in fig. The brake linings rub against the drum and thus stops its motion
Advantages
 1. Simple in construction
 2. Easy to operate and adjust
 3. Easy to repair and maintain
 4. Easy to dismantle, assemble and fit
 5. Less expensive
 6. Can also serve as parking brake and emergency brake
 7. Less number of parts
 8. The principle employed is only of friction between the mating surfaces. So operator mainly depends only on friction and pedal force
Disc brake

It consists of a cast iron disc bolted to the wheel hub and a stationary housing called caliper.The caliper is connected to the stationary part of the
vehicle. It has two caste parts, each part containing a piston. A revolving disc is provided between these piston and there is friction pad held in
position by pins and spring plates.
Passages are drilled in the caliper for the fluid to enter or leave each housing and also connected to another one for bleeding. When the brakes are
applied, hydraulically actuated pistons moves the friction pads into contact with the disc, applying equal and opposite forces on the later.
On releasing the brakes rubber sealing rings act as return springs and retract the piston and friction pad released from the disc.
Hydraulic brake system
Brake system in which hydraulic pressure is applied is called hydraulic braking system. The operation of hydraulic system is based on Pascal’s law,
which states that ‘pressure applied to a liquid is transmitted equally in all directions’ The main components of the system are master cylinder and
wheel cylinder. The master cylinder is connected by tubing to the wheel cylinders at each of the four wheels. The system is filled with brake fluid
under light pressure.
Each wheel brake consists of a cylinder brake drum which is mounted on the inner side of the wheel and revolves with it and two brake shoes
which are mounted inside the brake drums and do not rotate. The shoes are fitted with a heat and wear resisting brake lining on their surfaces.The

brake pedal is connected to the master cylinder piston by means of a piston road .

When the brakes are applied, the piston is forced into the master cylinder, this increasing the pressure of the fluid in the master cylinder. This
pressure is conducted instantaneously to the wheel cylinders on each of the four brakes, where it forces the wheel cylinder pistons outwards.
These pistons, in turn, force the brake shoes out against the brake drums. Thus the brakes are applied.

Advantages
 1. Simple in construction
 2. Equal braking effort to all the wheels
 3. Simultaneous operation
 4. Irrespective of individual brake adjustment, all brakes act at a time
 5. Increased breaking effort
 6. Self lubrication
 7. Requires less space
 8 High mechanical advantage
 9. Comfortable for the drivers operation
 10. Less rate of wear
Disadvantages
 1. Whenever there is any leakage at any point of the system, the entire system fails.
 2. The leakage in the wheel cylinder may reduce the braking action between the lining and the drum.
Master cylinder
  - It is the heart of the hydraulic braking system.
 - It consist of two main chambers named as fluid reservoir and compression chamber.
 - Push rod is operated by foot brake.
 - Push rod moves the piston to left against the spring force, till it covers the by-pass port. - Further movement of piston increase the
pressure in the compression chamber.
 - When sufficient pressure has built-up, the inner rubber cup of the fluid check valve is deflected, forcing the fluid pressure in the line.
 - This pressurised fluid enters the wheel cylinder or the caliper and moves the pistons there by applying the brake.
Pneumatic brake system

 In this system the operation of the cam in the wheel cylinder is by means of air pressure. The air
pressure is obtained by air compressor driven by the engine. There are separate brake chambers for
separate cams. The brake chamber is connected with the air void. A brake valve operated by foot
pedal, controls the pressure that applied to the brake chamber. This system consists of the following
parts.
 1. A reciprocating type air compressor
 2. Governor or unloaded valve to prevent excessive pressure in the reservoir.
 3. A reservoir for accumulation of compressed air.
 4. Brake or control valve operated by the brake pedal.
 5. Brake chamber- this is a housing which encloses a diaphram with a link rod to operate the cam
shaft.
 When the foot pedal is pressed, air pressure acts upon the diaphragm of the brake chamber. because
of the difference of pressure on either sides the diaphragm gets deflected. The movement of the
diaphragm makes the link rod to operate the cam shaft and there by to move the brake shoes. when
the brake pedal is released, the break valve is closed which releases the pressure in the brake chamber.
When the brake shoe operating cam rotates in the reverse direction the brakes are released
Advantages
 1. More effective, heavy effort at brakes
 2. Employs air only as the working medium which is easily available
 3. Easy to store air at high pressure
 4. Provides heavy braking effect, used in heavy vehicles and trucks
 5. Better control
 6. Reduced stopping distance
  7. More powerful than mechanical drum brake and hydraulic brake
 8. The compressed air can also be used for tyre inflation, the wind screen wiper, horn etc
 9. Less wear and tear of parts

Bleeding of brakes

Sometimes, in the hydraulic brake system, air enters through the joints. Since the air is compressible, high
braking pressure is distributed and pedaling action is not effective. So, any air trapped in the system must be
removed. The procedure adopted to remove the air out of the hydraulic braking system is called bleeding.
A bleeding valve is provided on the shoe expander or the disc caliper. For bleeding the master cylinder is
topped up with the brake fluid and the pipe is connected to the bleeding valve. The other end of this pipe is
dipped in the brake fluid contained in some jar. When the brake pedal presses , bleeder valve opens, some air
bubbles will come out of the pipe and escape through the brake fluid. The bleeder valve is now closed. This
procedure is repeated till the entire air is removed out from the wheel cylinder.
 Module-IV
Antilock braking system

To avoid skidding and rubbing of the wheels on the road surface, the brake have to be applied gradually for better control of steering. In ABS,
relieves the hydraulic pressure automatically in the master cylinder by a bypass line and reduces the pressure reaching the wheel cylinders. This
prevents brake jamming when the brakes are applied hard and keep the wheel rolling without skidding. Electronic sensors are mounted at all the
braked wheels, which prevent any of the brakes from locking when the vehicle is running.
Electronic ignition system

In electronic ignition system braker points are replaced by an armature. Armature sends signals to ignition module to make and brake the circuit.
When the ignition switch is turned on , current flows from the battery through the ignition switch to the coil primary windings. When the reluctor
or armature tooth comes in front of the pick up coil , a voltage signal is generated. The electronic module senses the signal produced by the pick up
coil and stop the current to flow from the primary circuit. A timing circuit inside the ignition module turns ON the current flow again when the
reluctor tooth rotates away from the pick up coil. Due to continuous make and brake of the current a magnetic field is generated in the ignition coil
and an emf is induced in the secondary winding , causing the voltage to increase upto 50000Volts. This high voltage is then transferred to the spark
plug through distributor and spark is finally produced.
Gasoline injection system or Multi point fuel injection system (MPFI)
Petrol vehicles uses device called carburetor for supplying the air fuel mixture in correct ratio to cylinders in all rpm ranges. Due to construction of
the carburetor is relatively simple, it has been used almost exclusively on gasoline engines in the past. However  presently we need cleaner exhaust
emission system, more economical fuel consumption, improved drivability, etc.
So in order to get all these , we need a carburetor that must have various devices to do the above functions, making it more complex system. So In
place of the carburetor, therefore, the MPFI (multi point fuel injection) system is used, assuring proper air fuel ratio to the engine by electrically
injecting fuel in accordance with various driving condition.
Common rail fuel injection system

In this system a single injection pump with injector is employed on each cylinder. The injectors are operated by rocker arms and springs . A linkage
connects the control racks of all the unit injectors, so that the fuel injection in all the cylinders may be equal and simultaneously controlled.
The fuel is taken from the fuel tank by the feed pump and is supplied at low pressure through a filter, to all the unit injectors. Any excess fuel from
the relief valve is returned to the fuel tank
Parking aid with ultra sonic sensors
Ultrasonic Sensors in a vehicle detects the distance between the vehicle and the obstacle. This vehicle is equipped with two ultrasonic sensors.
Each ultrasonic sensor transmits ultrasonic waves, receives the reflected waves from an obstacle behind the vehicle, and transmits a signal to the
clearance sonar. Clearance Sonar Judges the approximate distance between the vehicle and obstacle based on the signals from the ultrasonic
sensors and sends the buzzer signal to the clearance warning buzzer. Clearance Warning Buzzer emits an intermittent sound to inform the driver
that the Clearance Sonar has detected an obstacle within the prescribed range.
Central locking system
With this facility, all the doors and the luggage compartment can be locked or unlocked simply by operating one key. A two position electric
solenoid actuator is installed in each door to electrically operate the door locking mechanism. Each door can be locked or unlocked individually or
alternatively all the doors can be locked or unlocked with one switch or key.
Power windows
Power windows or electric windows are automobile windows which can be raised and lowered by pressing a button or switch, as opposed to using
a hand-turned crank handle.
There is an electric motor and a switch at every window besides a master switch at the dash board which can control all motors simultaneously.
The electric motor drives the windows regulator mechanism forward or reverse, thus opening or closing the same
Turbo charger
Turbochargers are installed on an engine to put more and denser air into the engine combustion chambers. Because of this increased volume and
weight of compressed air more fuel can be scheduled to produce more horsepower from a given size engine. A turbocharger very simply is an air
pump designed to operate on the normally wasted energy in engine exhaust gas.
Working
The heat energy and pressures in the engine exhaust gas is utilized to drive the turbine wheel. The housing acts as a nozzle to direct the exhaust gas
flow to the turbine wheel blades, which drives the shaft wheel assembly. Since the compressor wheel is directly coupled to the shaft, it rotates at
the same speed as the turbine wheel. Clean air from the air cleaner is drawn into the compressor housing and wheel where it is compressed and
delivered through a crossover pipe to the engine air intake manifold.
Advantages
 1.Turbocharger increases the volumetric efficiency of the engine.
 2.It increases the output power produced.
 3.It reduces the intake of fuel or air-fuel mixture.
 4.It allows the engine to work smoothly in various ambient conditions.
 5.The kinetic energy of exhaust gases is fed back to the engine and used beneficially.

Intercooler

Some times an intercooler is also used in between the supercharger and the engine. The purpose is to cool the mixture which has become hot on
account of compression in the super charger. The volumetric efficiency obviously is decreased at higher temperatures which is again increased by
cooling of the mixture in the intercooler.
The design of intercooler is such that the air to be cooled is passed through the outer tube and the refrigerant passes through the inner tube of the
two concentric tubes arrangement fitted in the arrangement of fins. When the air conditioning system (AC) is running, the hot air can give its heat
to both, the refrigerant and the cold air passing through the fins of the intercooler. When the AC is not running, the hot air from the turbocharger
can give its heat to the cold air passing through the fins and will work as the normal intercooler. In winters, the intercooler will work as a normal
intercooler and in summers, it will be assisted by the air conditioning system of the vehicle.
Air suspension system
A layout of air suspension system is shown below.- An air compressor is used to compress the atmospheric air to 240 Mpa An accumulator tank is
used to maintain this pressure, which provided with a safety valve.This high pressure air goes through the lift control valve and the leveling
valves, to the air springs. The lift control valve is operated manually by means of a handle on the control panel

BLIND SPOT DETECTION

Blind spot A blind spot in a vehicle is an area around the vehicle that cannot be directly observed by the driver while at the controls, under existing
circumstances. Blind spots exist in a wide range of vehicles: cars, trucks, motorboats, sailboats. and aircraft. Blind spots can be caused by the
window pillars, headrests, passengers, and other objects.
Blind spot detection
Blind Spot Detection systems warn a driver that a vehicle is in his or her blind spot –areas to the side and rear of the vehicle outside the driver’s
view. So that accidents can be avoided, and due to it changing of lane will be easier and safely
Sensors (camera, ultrasonic, or radar) monitor the sides and rear of the vehicle for vehicles (including motorcycles) approaching from behind and
alert the driver with lights mounted in either the side-view or rear-view mirrors, or the door. If you switch on a turn signal showing intent to make a
lane change, and a vehicle is present in the blind spot, the system may warn you with red or yellow flashing icons and/or audio alerts, or by
vibrating the steering wheel or the driver’s seat.
WORKING OF SENSORS
These sensors continuously monitor the velocity and direction of the vehicle to obtain a digital picture of the vehicle's environment. The warning
indicator is switched on when the vehicle approaches the blind spot. The system also emits an audio alarm to give an additional warning.
Air bag
 An airbag is a part of the safety restraint system in cars. . Airbags are gas-inflated cushions ,that rapidly fill with gas when an accident
happens. That way they can prevent injuries that occur when the driver hits a hard
Basics of air bag
 Newton’s second law of motion. If objects aren’t restrained they will continue moving at the speed of the moving car even if the car is
stopped by a collision. All airbags need to do is slow down the passengers speed to zero.
MAIN PARTS AND WORKING OF AN AIRBAG
Bag. Made of thin nylon fabric,folded into a steering wheel or dashboard or more recently the door or seat.
Sensor. Tells the bag to inflate
Inflation system. The rapid pulse of hot nitrogen gas to inflate the bag.
WORKING
During collision, a mechanical switch is flipped and an electrical contact takes place. Sensors send an electric current to the inflation system.
Inflation system contains sodium azide and potassium nitrate. Electric current heats the filament which ignites the capsule containing Nitrogen gas.
The gas expands quickly and inflation of air bags takes place, which literally bursts from its storage site in the steering wheel.
Electronic Control Module
In the Automobile industry an electronic control unit (ECU) is an embedded electronic device, basically a digital computer, that reads signals
coming from sensors placed at various parts and in different components of the car and depending on this information controls various important
units e.g. engine and other automated operations within the car.
Components of ECU
An ECU consists of a number of functional blocks:
 1. Power Supply – digital and analog (power for analog sensors)
 2. MPU – microprocessor and memory (usually Flash and RAM)
 3. Communications Link
 4. Discrete Inputs – On/Off Switch type inputs
 5. Frequency Inputs – encoder type signals (e.g. crank or vehicle speed)
 6. Analog Inputs – feedback signals from sensors
  7. Switch Outputs – On/Off Switch type outputs
 8. PWM Outputs – variable frequency and duty cycle (e.g. injector or ignition)
 9. Frequency Outputs – constant duty cycle (e.g. stepper motor – idle speed control)
The ECU uses closed-loop control, a control scheme that monitors outputs of a system, to control the inputs to a system, managing the emissions
and fuel economy of the engine. Gathering data from dozens of different sensors, the ECU performs millions of calculations each second, including
looking up values in tables, calculating the results of long equations to decide on the best spark timing or determining how long the fuel injector is
open.
Automatic transmission
Changes gear ratios automatically as the vehicle accelerate or deaccelerate. Freeing the driver from having to shift gears manually. So there is no
clutch pedal in an automatic transmission car .The main components
1. Planetary gear sets that provide the various forward gear ratios as well as reverse gear .
2. Torque converter which acts like a clutch to transmit torque while the engine is still running. Hydraulic system which uses a special
transmission fluid sent under pressure by an Oil pump to control the Clutches and the planetary gear sets
3. Governor and Modulator or Throttle valve that monitor speed and throttle position in order to determine when to shift
4. Computer controls Detect such things as throttle position, vehicle speed, engine speed, engine load, etc. Downshifting automatically
when going downhill. Up shift when braking on a slippery surface.