challenging well list for the operator and in the critical well list for the drilling

fluid service company. The HP/HT section of the well was to be drilled in an 8 Va-

in. hole section. The focus in this section was placed on ensuring no fluid gelation

or extreme thickening during long exposure times occur while being out of the hole

for either changing of a bit, BHA or during logging of the section at the end of the

well.

2.8 ISSUES OF DRILLING HP/HT WELL.

Challenges for drilling and completing deep HP/HT wells are significant. Future

technologies and advances in current technology mgst adequately address the

issues at the heart of HP/HT drilling safety: kick prevention, kick detection and

well control. For example, the volume of an HP/HT gas kick remains virtually

unchanged as it rises in the annulus from 14,000 to 10,000 ft. From 10,000 to

2,000 ft its volume triples. But from 2,000 ft to the surface, there is a 100-fold

expansion. There are other safety concerns that have a similar exponential increase

of exposure that must be taken into account while new protocols are developed to

drill wells in HP/HT deepwater environments. Health safety and environment

HSE) issues with regard to hot drilling fluids and tripping hot drill strings are also

critical to the success of future operations.

Development of new approaches to drilling deep HP/HT wells is required to meet

engineering requirements while keeping projects economically viable. Developing

41
optimum drilling technologies and techniques must also take place within the

framework of completion requirements. For example, casing-while-drilling could

significantly decrease the time spent on down hole problems not associated with

actual drilling processes (e.g., stuck pipe, lost circulation, and well control

situations). This in turn leads to a safer and less expensive drilling operation (fewer

people, less pipe handling, fewer trips, and less mud). Issues listed below represent

primary concerns of drillers when planning HP/HT deep wells. As the state of the

art advances, additional concerns will surface that merit evaluation.

2.8.1 Limited Evaluation Capabilities

i. Most tools work to 425°F on wireline; very limited tool availability from

425°F td 600°F on wireline.

ii. Currently battery technology works to 400°F for MWD applications.

Sensor accuracy decreases with increasing temperature.

iii. LWD/MWD tools are reliable to 275°F with an exponential decrease in

dependability to 350°F.
*

2.8.2 Slow Rate of Penetration in Producing Zone

i. Bits typically remove 10% of the rock per bit rotation in this environment

compared to normal drilling conditions for Gulf of Mexico wells.

42
ii. Crystalline structure breaks down in polycrystalline diamond compact

(PDC) bits at these conditions. (Boron expansion is an issue.)

iii. Roller-cone bits are unsuitable for HP/HT environment.

2.8.3 Well Control

i. Pore pressure is near fracture gradient causing potential well control

problems.

ii. Mud loss is an issue due to lithology and geopressure.

iii. Hole ballooning causes mud storage problems. The walls of the well expand

outward because of increased pressure during pumping. When pumping

stops, the walls contract and return to normal size. Excess mud is then

forced out of the well.

iv. Methane (CH4) and hydrogen sulfide (H3S) are soluble in oil-base mud and

are released from the solution as pressure decreases. The fluid column in the

annulus is thereby lightened.

v. Wellhead design for above 25,000 psig and 450°F is needed. Current rating

is 15,000 psig, 350°F H 2S service with work in progress for 20,000 psig,

350°F equipment. Similar concerns with Blow-Out Prevention Equipment

(BOPE).

2.9 THE USE OF CESIUM FORMATE BRINES IN DRILLING HP/HT

WELL.

43
Experience shows that conventional drilling and completion fluids have been

failing to fully meet the demands of difficult HP/HT well construction. Cesium

formate brines, originally developed from shell research in 1986 and improved

with time have been touted as the new improved HP/HT drilling and completion

fluids. They have been widely used in the North Sea and The Gulf of Mexico.

The use of cesium formate brine as a drilling fluid for HPHT gas wells can

enhance the interpretation of both electrical well logging and logging while

drilling (LWD in two important ways)

i) It allows better definition of those layers of rock that contain movable

hydrocarbons (ie. net reservoir).

ii) It allows better visualization of rock structural and depositional details

for creating accurate reservoir models.

Cesium formate brine delivers these benefits by improving the acquisition and

interpretation of data generated by acoustic, resistivity and nuclear logging tools

run on LWD and wire line. Cesium formate brines make very conductive drilling

fluids that contain few solids, creating the ideal medium for all acoustic

measurements and for high-resolution resistivity image logging.

44
 Cesium formate brine is unique amongst HPHT drilling fluids by having a

very dense filtrate (up to 2.30 s.g./19.2 ppg) that has a stunningly high

photoelectrical cross section (Pe) of up to 259 bams/elec. Any invasion of this mud

filtrate into the formation around the well bore becomes highly visible to nuclear

logging tools against a background Pe of 2-6 bams/elec for common lithologies

and formation fluids.

The logged photoelectric effect provided by the invasion of cesium formate

filtrate is extremely useful for correcting the density curve for mud/borehole

effects and mud filtrate invasion, and for estimating the saturation of the filtrate. It

is also ideal for defining permeable sands. Combining the photoelectric effect and

its high vertical resolution with resistivity measurements from both the drill pass

and ream pass of an LWD produces a very reliable and accurate net reservoir

definition.

Some of the advantages of formate brines when compared with conventional

HP/HT drilling and completion fluid were:

• Reduced hydrostatic fluid resistance.

• Lower swab and surge pressure.

• Minimal formation damage.

• Maintenance of additive properties at high temperatures.

• Elimination of barite and it sagging problems.

45
 Lower ECDs.

• Better power transmission to motor and bits.

• Better kick detection and well control.

• Reduce torque and drag.

• Low potential for differential sticking.

• Very low corrosion rate.

46
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

The aim of this study is to identify drilling problems in HP/HT well and solutions

to it. Poor planning, wishful thinking, and inept supervision combine to cause most

oil field problems. Neglect or misinterpretation of available data and improper

engineering evaluation of consequences of designs and techniques lead often

disastrous results thereby causing some problems.

Besides the demand for new technologies, the HPHT wells aggravate the

challenges and problems already common to conventional drilling like kicks, loss

of circulation, stuck pipe and there are others such as:

1. Identification of the transition zone (from the normal pressure zone to the

abnormally high pressure one);

2. Quantification of the pressures of the pores (Pp),

3. Difficulties in gas kicks detection due to gas high solubility in the fluid base

oil (FBO);

4. Thermal expansion of the FBO’s;

5. Ballooning effect and breathing formation.

6. Non productive time three times bigger;

7. Stuck pipe 30% bigger.

47
3.1 CHALLENGES OF DRILLING HP/HT WELL.

We have different challenges when dealing with a HP/HT well; one is due to the

small margin between pore pressure and fracture pressure which requires that the

BHP is controlled carefully. Also temperature, pressure and ballooning effects can

be challenging in a HPHT environment.

3.1.1 KICK

A kick is an unwanted situation where you have an uncontrolled inflow of

formation fluid into the wellbore. A kick can occur when we have a hydrostatic

pressure in the well that is lower than the pore pressure in the formation

surrounding the well. When this occur the higher formation pressure has a

tendency to force formation fluids into the wellbore. The inflow of formation fluid

can be gas, oil or salt water.

3.1.1.1 Reasons for kick

Kicks normally occur when the formation pressure is greater than the mud

hydrostatic pressure. This causes fluids to flow from the formation and into the

wellbore. There are multiple reasons why the formation pressure exceeds the mud

pressure in the well, the most important reasons are;

Insufficient mud weight

Swabbing effects

48
 Improper fill up

Gas cut mud

3.1.1.2 Insufficient mud weight

When performing various well operations it is important to ensure that the well

fluids used have a higher hydrostatic pressure than the formation pressure. If the

mud weight used in the well is too low, lower than the formation pressure, there is

a possibility for getting inflow of formation fluids into the well inducing a so

called kick. In some cases there can be some uncertainty in the pore pressure

prognosis and during drilling there is a risk for experiencing unexpected high pore

pressures which can result in a kick situation. The temperature effect in HP/HT

wells can make us believe that the mud weight at bottom of the well is the same as

we observe at surface, while the effective mud weight in the well might be lower.

3.1.1.3 Swabbing effects

The swabbing effect is the temporary pressure reduction we get in the well when

pulling the drill pipe out of the well. This pressure reduction can result in inflow of

fonnation fluids to the wellbore. If we circulate while pulling the pipe we can

reduce or eliminate the swab effect, in HP/HT wells this procedure is common and

called “pumping out of hole”. The pulling speed is also of importance, it is

important not to pull out too fast. During well planning it is common to perform
%

swab/surge calculations in advance to determine the safe operational limits. An

49
example on the swabbing effect can be if we have a 1.83 sg mud in the well, the

expected pore gradient is 1.8 sg. The swabbing effect when pulling the pipe is 0.04

sg. This means that now the well pressure is 1.79 sg, which is below the pore

pressure, this can lead to inflow of formation fluids into the well.

3.1.1.4 Improper fill up

During tripping, when the pipe is pulled out of the well, the fluid level in the well

is reduced due to the volume of pulled pipe. This can result in a reduction of the

hydrostatic pressure in the well which can lead to a kick. It is therefore of

importance to pay attention when pulling pipe out of the well and refilling the well

with mud.

3.1.1.5 Gas cut mud

When drilling formation gas we get a reduction ol the effective mud weight in the

well. The reduced mud weight leads to a reduced bottom hole pressure, which can

result in inflow of formation fluids into the wellbore.

3.1.2 LOST CIRCULATION

When tripping into the well we can get a surge effect, which can result in an

increase of the well pressure. This can lead to fracturing of the formation and loss

of well fluid into the fractured formation. The loss of well fluids will lead to a drop

50
in the annulus fluid level and we get a reduction of hydrostatic pressure in the well

which can result in a kick situation.

3.1.3 TEMPERATURE EFFECT.

We have temperature effects in high temperature wells. Due to the temperature

effects the drilling fluid density will change along the well depth. High

temperatures will decrease the density of mud, so if the well is dominated by high

temperature the down hole effective mud weight will be lower than what you

observe at surface. In some cases it is easy to mix the temperature effect with a

kick incident due to the increase in mud volume at surface. This can be dangerous

during drilling operations because we then have an effective mud weight down in

the well that is lower than what we observe at surface, this means that the risk of

an underbalance situation is higher. If we get underbalance during drilling then

formation fluids can start to flow into the wellbore. To avoid kicks it can be

necessary to adjust the effective surface mud weight so that we get the correct

effective mud weight down hole. The temperature of the drilling mud can change

rapidly depending on the operation, when we have static conditions in the well the

mud temperature approaches the geothermal temperature in the well. When we

start to circulate the well, cold mud from the drill string will enter the annulus

while hot mud will be flowing up the upper part of the annulus. This causes the

51
mud density and rheology to change rapidly at different positions in the well,

causing variations in the ECDs and changes in surface mud volumes.

3.1.4 PRESSURE EFFECT.

In HP/HT wells we get more, variation in the hydrostatic pressures than we get

when drilling standard wells. This is due to the mud density changes caused by

temperature and pressure. High pressures increases the density of mud, so if the

well is dominated by high pressures the down hole effective mud weight will be

higher than what we observe at surface. We also experience pressure effects due to

changes in the rheology, first we get frictional pressure changes due to rheology

variations caused by temperature effects and also rheology changes can induce

transitions in flow regimes causing higher frictional pressure losses.

3.1.5 BALLOONING EFFECT AND BREATHING FORMATION.

Normally, HP/HT wells are deeper than conventional wells, we can therefore see a

ballooning effect. Ballooning effects can occur during drilling operations, where

the return mud volume varies, giving either a too low or a too high return rate.

These false kicks can make the driller shut down the well when it is completely

unnecessary. It is therefore important to separate the ballooning effect from

situations where we have mud loss to the formation or a kick. We can experience

52
the ballooning effect when we look at the well under both static and dynamic

conditions.

The ballooning of shales is one of the effects. When the pumps in the well are

turned on, we have a pressure loss in the annulus and the drilling hydrostatic

pressure which cause an over pressure on the shale formation in the well. When the

pumps then are turned off we get a pressure decrease on the shale, which can lead

to a small decrease in diameter of the well leading to an increased mud volume out

of the well. This can be interpreted as a kick, leading to well shut-down. The

ballooning effect also occur in conventional wells'but is much more common in

HP/HT wells, this is because they often have greater depths.

Ballooning effect and breathing formation even though they have different

principles, they trigger the same effect during the drilling process: they provoke a

reverse flow in the well with the pumps turned off, generating a “false kick”,

which leads the driller to, unnecessarily, shut down the well. In this case, the

closing of the well is mandatory according to international standards procedures of

well control, since the increase of volumes inside the tanks and or the reverse flow

are primary indications of the formations influx to the well (kick).

Along the years, it has become established in the industry that the well stability

is a priority factor when safety and efficiency of drilling are concerned and the

53
knowledge of the stability of the shales and other rocks is fundamental in that

respect. When rocks behave in a stable manner, there are no problems regarding

“swelling” or “sloughing”. However, when there is an instable behavior, stability

related problems occur. The instability mechanism is similar, in some cases to

what takes place in saline formations. The shales are impermeable clay formations,

and in some studies, it was observed that, similarly to the salt, they present a

plastic behavior when the well under-pressurization occurs, that means, when the

well is drilled and the pressures on the clay formations decrease, they may flow.

This occurs, for example, when we consider the dynamic and static situation of
5

the well. When the pumps are turned on, the pressure loss in the annular along with

the drilling fluid’s hydrostatic pressure exert an over-pressure on the shales. When

the pumps are turned off, these pressure losses “disappear” and a pressure decrease

on the rocks occurs, making it possible for a small decrease in the diameter of the

well, which provokes the expulsion of the fluid in the annular out of the well,

creating a false impression of a kick, which in this case, could be the result of the
*

influx of some porous formation fluids inwards the well, or the result of gas

expansion inside the well.

This phenomenon also occurs in conventional wells, however, it is much more

common in HPHT wells, since HPHT wells are usually of great depths, superior to

4,000 meters, which grant the ballooning effect more relevance. The term
54
“ballooning effect” is applied since the well’s behavior is analogue (being specific

proportions guaranteed) to that of a balloon which inflates when the pumps are

turned on, and deflates when the well goes back into the static conditions with the

consequent return of the fluids.

Pressure Imbalance and Induced Plastic Flow

Fig. 3.2 - Pressure Imbalance and Induced Plastic Behavior [Abeerden Drilling

Schools & Well Control Training Centre, 1982],

From the diagram shown in Fig.3.2, we can infer two cases which show the shales

instability mechanism. In the first case we have the well drilling in underbalanced

condition, that is, the shale’s pore pressure is superior to the one exerted by the

drilling fluid. Considering a pore pressure inside the shale of 10 Ibm/gal, it is

observed that if the pressure exerted by the drilling fluid is of up to 31b/gal inferior

to the pore pressure, the well will remain stable. However, if this difference

exceeds 3 Ibm/gal, the plastic behavior will take place and the well may collapse,

causing serious problems like stuck pipe. In the second case, considering the same

pore pressure inside the shale, of 10 lbm/gal, when the well is being drilled with

55
the hydrostatic pressure superior to the one of the pores (overbalance), the drilling

will happen smoothly if the difference between the pressure in the well and the

pore pressure remains within 51bm/gal. Once this value, (51bm/gal), is exceeded

the plastic behavior happens, inducing the ballooning effect as soon as any

decrease in the value of the pressure in the well occurs, according to the above

described explanation (Abeerden Drilling Schools & Well Control Training

Centre, 1982).

Differently from the ballooning effect, where the effects are produced by the

presence of impermeable shales we will onlv notice the hreathina formation if we

v r ~ ~ — J ^" o* ------------* *■“ —

have an exposed formation with permeable and porous characteristics. The

phenomenon occurs when the drilling happens in overbalance, that means, when

there is in front of this permeable and porous formation a pressure superior to the

pore pressure, but inferior to the formation’s fracture pressure. This positive

pressure differential from the well to the formation will provoke a drilling fluid

loss to the formation, especially when the pumps are turned on and the pressure in

the annulus increases due to the presence of pressure losses. When there is a

decrease of pressure in the annular space, like it happens when the pumps are

turned off, the formation may return the drilling fluid which had been lost, causing

fluid return the surface with the pumps turned off, leading the drilling team to

close.

56
3.1.6 NARROW OPERATIONAL MARGIN.

In Fig.3.2 the transition zone is clearly seen, always present in the HP/HT wells,

where the sudden increase of the pores’ pressure occurs, narrowing down the

operational window (difference in ppg of the fracture pressure and pore pressure)

and demanding a larger number of casing running, increasing drilling time and,

consequently, drilling costs, given that in offshore conditions, the daily cost of the

drilling rigs represents the main portion of the costs.

Once the pore pressures (Pp) and fracture pressure (Pf) has been foreseen for the

entire well, a criterion is defined for the settlement of the casings. If the settlement
*

criterion adopted is based only on Pp and Pf, then the geometry of the well as well as

the occurrence of a kick are not considered. For HP/HT wells, the choice of this

riterion is somehow frightening. The safest way is to consider the settlement

criterion based on the concept of Kick Tolerance, where the occurrence of a certain

olume of kick and the geometry of the well are taken into consideration. According

57
to the definition itself, “Kick Tolerance is the maximum pore pressure, expressed in

equivalent density, in a way that, in case a kick of a certain volume occurs, at a

certain depth, the well may be closed without provoking the fracture of the shoe

(Falcao, 2007). Through this criterion, the well safety criteria remain linked to the

casing design, making the HP/HT well drilling less risky.

3.1.7 DIFFERENTIALLY STUCK PIPE

The inability to move the drill string can result from a number of circumstances;

many of which have already been covered. The remaining drilling fluid related,

cause is differential sticking. ,

3.1.8 BIT BALLING

Water sensitive, young shale can form soft sticky clay when exposed to water. This

sticky clay can adhere to water wet metal. If the problems severe the clay may

block the annulus, or cover the bit completely.

3.1.9 TORQUE AND DRAG

Torque is rotational resistance arising from ^contact with the wellbore. Drag is the

linear resistance. Excessive wall Contact and sticky clays/ thick filter cake can

increase the torque and drag; reducing drilling efficiency. Etc.

58
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DISCUSSION OF SOLUTIONS ASPECT IN AN HP/HT WELL.

In the following, we will try to highlight some special things that one has to be

especially aware of when addressing an HP/HT well. An HP/HT well is much

more critical with respect to well control both with respect to frequency of kick

and consequences. There are aspects that are more critical/special for a HP./HT

well and it is important to reflect this report.

4.1 Kick behavior in OBM and WBM

5.

The mud is normally either water based or oil based. The main tasks for the mud

are to transport cuttings and cool down the system. The mud type chosen will have

a huge impact on the well control scenario, and it is therefore important to choose

the right mud in the different sections for the well.

WBM

The kick is easily detected.

i- The gas kick will start to migrate upwards even if the well is shut in.

4- Maximum casing shoe pressure and choke pressures will be larger during

well kill operations compared to OBM.

4- In WBM the gas kick is expected at surface earlier than in OBM.

59
 4- The well pressures will build up all the time the well is shut in, they will

build up until the kick is just below the BOP.

OBM

4- For high pressures the kick will fully dissolve in the OBM.

4- The kick can be undetected in the well.

4- The kick will boil rapidly in the upper parts of the well.

4- Requires fast action, there will be a large expansion in the well as the free

gas starts to boil out from the mud, the well therefore needs to be shut in as

quickly as possible.

4- The kick will not migrate upwards when the kick is dissolved in the mud,

with no circulation.

4- The gas kick is expected at surface later than with WBM since there is no

free gas migration when the kick is dissolved.

4.2 ECD

The equivalent circulating density is a very important parameter in avoiding

kicks and losses, particularly in wells that have a narrow window between the

fracture gradient and pore- pressure gradient. It is an increase in the BHP that

occurs only when the mud is circulated, this is due to friction in the annulus as the

mud is pumped. The ECD is important in a HP/HT well because of tlie narrow

60
window between pore pressure and fracture pressure. The ECD is a function of the

mud weight, the rheological properties, frictional pressure drop in the annulus and

solids loading. The mud weight we observe at surface might not be the effective

mud weight down in the well, the ECD takes into account the pressure drop in the

annulus.

4.3 Temperature effects

In a HP/HT well we are submitted to high temperatures and high pressures which

can affect the conditions in the well. The hydraulic simulation takes into account

that mud density will change depending on the temperature and pressure conditions

in the well. Temperature effects during connections can cause flow return at

surface and is easily mixed with an inflow situation. It can therefore be very

important to perform fingerprinting, to avoid being tooled by the temperature

effect. By using fingerprinting, we mean that when the well is getting an increase

in the return mud during connections, we can record how much increase we get

each time we perform a connection. That way we can more easily control and

monitor the well situation, because we know how much increase in mud level to

expect during different well operations.

When the well is circulated there is either a net cooling in the well or a net heating

in the well. If there is a net cooling in the well the well is pressure dominated, then

the mud weight will increase down in the well. If the well is temperature

61
dominated there will be a net heating in the well, then the mud weight will

decrease down in the well. When the well is temperature dominated there is a

higher risk for taking a kick down in the well, because the mud weight in the

bottom of the well might be lower than what is observed at surface. When this

occurs there is a risk for underbalanced conditions, which can lead to a kick

4.4 Effect of cuttings

The muds carrying capacity is important to be able to carry out the cuttings from

the well. When dissolved gas is mixed with the mud the mud weight will decrease

and the carrying capacity and weight material of the inud is affected.

4.5 Effect of gas solubility

We are dealing with different types of mud, from WBM that has no gas solubility

to OBM that can solve large amounts of gas. This means that it is crucial to be able

to detect any volume changes in the well as early as possible. The effect of gas

solubility can lead to undetected kicks. Since large amount of gas can dissolve in
*

OBM, the gas might not be detected before it starts to boil out from the mud.

Normally when we experience undetected kicks, they are relatively small, less than

0.5m3. It is therefore important to have a detailed pore pressure prognosis to avoid

situations where the well is in underbalance, and can take a kick.

62
4.6 Surge and swab effect

The effect of the up and down movements of the string can influence the

conditions in the well. When the string is tripping into the hole the mud will be

pushed forwards into a wave motion, this is called surge pressure. When pulling

the pipe out of the well, swabbing, there can form a “under pressure” in the well

that can lead to an inflow of formation fluids into the well. The pressure that arises

is dependent on the free area between the pipe and the annulus, it is also dependent

on the viscosity of the mud, the velocity of the pipe movement and the length of

the pipe. In HPHT wells where there are small margins, it is common procedure to

pump out of hole to reduce the swab pressure. Fig. 16 shows how important it is to

maintain circulation during swabbing operations to avoid underbalanced

conditions.

4.7 Construction and Maintenance Operations.

The main issue is the high-pressure regime that exists in the prospective zone and

more specifically the narrow margin between the required borehole pressure to

control the reservoir' pore fluid pressures and the allowable pressure to retain

borehole competence. Operators are employing the following methods to prevent

well control problems:

i. Accurate recording of minor influxes from detailed measurements of flows

and rig movements.

63
ii. Using PWD equipment to obtain complete information on the ECD at any

time.

iii- Employing ‘fingerprinting’ techniques to demonstrate to the rig personnel

the correct procedures for minimizing pressure surges,

iv. Refining the knowledge of jack up movements in deep water.

In addition sophisticated pore pressure predictions are carried out during well

planning to design an optimum drilling control programe that will avoid loss of

borehole competence. The latter has a high priority as kick and loss situations are

agreed to be the most hazardous.

The problem of well control is amplified when there is a need to penetrate partly

depleted reservoirs within the over pressured sequence. The available method

involves borehole strengthening by selective pore blocking. It is concluded that the

industry is on the right track to keep the HP/HT well control risk as low as

reasonably possible. The Health & Safety Executive believes that the frequency of

kicks can be reduced further by continued close attention to the available

pore/fracture pressure window for each individual well. It is expected that

development and eventual application of some potential new techniques may also

assist in reducing the kick incidence.

64
Surface Temperature 70°F

Mudline Temperature 39°F

Rig Floor Elevation 82 ft

Water Depth 3,440ft

Water Depth + Elevation 3.522 ft

Bottomhole Temperature (BHT) 355°F

True Vertical Depth 17,880 ft

Bottomhole Pressure 13,200 psi

Overbalance 250 psi

VERTICAL DEPTH PRESSURE TEMPERATURE
Feet Psi °F
0 0 70
41 31 70
82 62 ' 70
WATER SURFACE
770 585 64
1,458 1,109 58
2,146 1,635 51
2,834 2,161 45
3,522 2,689 39
Ml 1)1 IMF
4,240 3,239 51
4,958 3,789 63 ,
5,676 4,337 74
6,394 4,885 98
7,112 5,431 123
7,829 5,977 133
8,547 6,521 145
9,265 7,065 157
9.983 7,607 179
10,701 8,148 192
11,419 8,689 204
12,137 9,228 216
12,855 9,766 238
13,573 10,304 251
14,291 10,840 276
15,008 11,375 298
15,726 11,905 315
16,444 12,442 331
17,162 12,974 343
17,880 13,505 355

66
From Table 4.1b, the temperature at the bottom of the hole increases as the depth
of the well increases because the earth’s core is hotter than its crust with a
continuous flow of heat from the center towards the surface. Further, the
temperature in the drillpipe and borehole changes with time and well depth. Mud
weights at downhole temperature and pressure can be significantly different from
the measured at the surface in HT/HP deep wells.

The conditions defined are wells drilled 27,000 ft below mud line with reservoir
temperatures in excess of 400°F and reservoir pressures of 24,500 psig. It is
explicitly recognized that reservoir temperatures on the order of 500°F are
ultimately possible.

67
Field Parameters

Data |
Water Depth in Field 4,000ft

Number of Producing Wells 6 (Non-subsalt)

Hydrocarbon Type Dry gas with contaminants

Net Reservoir Thickness 300 11 to 600 tl (Single production zone)

Reservoir Rock Very line medium grain subarkoses

Reservoir Type
Dune (50%); Sheet Sand (30%) with jigsaw puzzle
discontinuous faults.

Reservoir Depth 27,000 ft BMP

Bottom Hole Pressure 24,500 psi

Pressure Gradient (from mud line) 0.84 psi/ft

Bottomhole Temperature (BHT) 400°F

Temperature Gradient (from mud line) 15 T'/1000 tl

Shut-In Wellhead Pressure 21 .OOOpsi

Producible Reserves 600 befg (=75% RF)

Typical Reserves Per Well 100 befg

Natural Drive Mechanism Pressure Depletion

Production Well Spacing Approx. 700 acres

Initial Production Rate Per Well lOOMMscf/d

Typical Production Rate Per Well 100 MMscf/d and 10 bbl/MMscf liquids.

68