Gec05 Module 3

GEC 05: Mathematics in the Modern World Academic Year 2020-21
1|Southern Luzon State University

V. Logic
Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish correct from incorrect
reasoning. Using the methods and techniques of logic—one can distinguish reliably between
sound and faulty reasoning.
Every language contains different types of sentences, such as statements, questions, and
commands. For instance,
“Is the test today?” is a question.
“Go get the newspaper” is a command.
“This is a nice car” is an opinion.
“Denver is the capital of Colorado” is a statement of fact.
A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or

false, but not both true and false.
You may not know if the sentence is true, but you do know that the sentence is either true or it
is false, and that it is not both true and false. Thus, you know that the sentence is a statement.
Example:
Determine whether each sentence is a statement.
a. Florida is a state in the United States.
b. How are you?
c. 99 + 2 is a prime number.
d. � + 1 = 5.
Solution:
a. Florida is one of the 50 states in the United States, so this sentence is true and it is a
statement.
b. The sentence “How are you?” is a question; it is not a declarative sentence. Thus, it is not
a statement.
c. You may not know whether 99 + 2 is a prime number; however, you do know that it is a
whole number larger than 1, so it is either a prime number or it is not a prime number.
The sentence is either true or it is false, and it is not both true and false, so it is a
statement.
d. � + 1 = 5 is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is true for x = 4, and it is
false for any other values of x. For any given value of x, it is true or false but not both.

EXERCISE
Determine whether each sentence is a statement or not, then explain why or why not.
1. The Dark Knight is the greatest movie of all time.
2. Open the door.
3. The area code for Lucban is 3003.
4. January 1, 2021 will be a Sunday.
5. 7055 is a large number.

Simple Statements and Compound Statements
A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement is a

statement that conveys two or more ideas. Connecting simple statements with words and
phrases such as and, or, if . . . then, and if and only if creates a compound statement.
We will use symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple statements and the symbols ∧ , ∨
, ∼ , → �� ↔ to represent connectives as shown in the table below.
Example 1: (Negation)
Write the negation of each statement.
a. Bill Gates has a yacht.
b. Avatar was not selected as best picture at the 82nd Academy Awards ceremony.
Solution
a. Bill Gates does not have a yacht.
b. Avatar was selected as best picture at the 82nd Academy Awards ceremony.
Example 2: (Conjunction)
Determine whether each statement is true or false.
a. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number.
b. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.
Solution:
a. This is a false statement because 5 is not an even number.
b. This is a true statement because each simple statement is true.
In any conditional statement represented by “If �, then �” or by “If �, �” the � statement is called
the antecedent and the q statement is called the consequent.
The conditional � → � is false if � is true and � is false. It is true in all other cases. The
conditional statement, “If �, then �,” can be written using the arrow notation � → �, read as “if
p, then q” or as “p implies q.”
Example 3: (Conditional)
Identify the antecedent and consequent in the following statements.
a. If our school was this nice, I would go there more than once a week.
b. If you don’t stop and look around once in a while, you could miss it.
c. If you strike me down, I shall become more powerful than you can possibly imagine.
Solution
a. Antecedent: our school was this nice
Consequent: I would go there more than once a week
b. Antecedent: you don’t stop and look around once in a while
Consequent: you could miss it
c. Antecedent: you strike me down

Consequent: I shall become more powerful than you can possibly imagine.
Example 4: (Conditional)
Determine the truth value of each of the following.
a. If 2 is an integer, then 2 is a rational number.
b. If 3 is a negative number, then 5 > 7.
c. If 5 > 3, then 2 + 7 = 4.
Solution:
a. Because the consequent is true, this is a true statement.
b. Because the antecedent is false, this is a true statement.
c. Because the antecedent is true and the consequent is false, this is a false statement.
Example 5: (Biconditional)
State whether each biconditional is true or false.
a. � + 4 = 7 if and only if � = 3.
b. �2 = 36 if and only if � = 6.
Solution:
a. Both equations are true when � = 3, and both are false when � ≠ 3. Both
equations have the same truth value for any value of x, so this is a true statement.
b. If � = − 6, the first equation is true and the second equation is false. Thus, this is a
false statement.
Example 6: (Translating Compound Statements)
Let p, q, and r represent the following simple statements:
p: You get a promotion.
q: You complete the training.
r: You will receive a bonus.
a. Write (p ∧ q) → r as an English sentence.
b. Write “If you do not complete the training, then you will not get a promotion and you
will not receive a bonus.” in symbolic form.
Solution:
a. Because the p and the q statements both appear in parentheses in the symbolic form,
they are placed to the left of the comma in the English sentence.
Thus, the translation is:
“If you get a promotion and complete the training, then you will receive a bonus.”
b. Because the not p and the not r statements are both to the right of the comma in the
English sentence, they are grouped together in parentheses in the symbolic form.
Thus, the translation is: ~q → (~p ∧∼r)
In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at least one are called existential
quantifiers. Existential quantifiers are used as prefixes to assert the existence of something.
In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every are called universal quantifiers. The universal
quantifiers none and no deny the existence of something, whereas the universal quantifiers all
and every are used to assert that every element of a given set satisfies some condition.
Examples:
There exists a real number whose multiplicative inverse is itself.
All elements of the set of integers are elements of the set of rationals.

Equivalent Forms of the Conditional Statement
Every conditional statement can be stated in many equivalent forms. The table below lists some
of the various forms that may be used to write a conditional statement denoted by � → �:
If �, then �. � only if �. Not � or �. �, if �. � is a necessary condition for �.
If �, �. � implies �. Every � is a �. �, provided that �. � is a sufficient condition for �.
Example 1:
Write each of the following in “If p, then q” form.
a The number is an even number provided that it is divisible by
b Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday.
Solution:
a. The statement, “The number is an even number provided that it is divisible by 2,” is
in “q provided that p” form. The antecedent is “it is divisible by 2,” and the
consequent is “the number is an even number.” Thus its “If p, then q” form is “If it is
divisible by 2, then the number is an even number.”
b. The statement, “Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday,” is in “p only if q”
form. The antecedent is “today is Friday.” The consequent is “yesterday was
Thursday.” Its “If p, then q” form is “If today is Friday, then yesterday was Thursday.”
Statements Related to the Conditional Statement

The converse of p → q is q → p.
The inverse of p → q is ∼p → ∼q.
The contrapositive of p → q is ∼q →∼p.
Example 2:
Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the statement “If I get the job, then I will rent
the apartment.”
Solution:
Converse: If I rent the apartment, then I get the job.
Inverse: If I do not get the job, then I will not rent the apartment.
Contrapositive: If I do not rent the apartment, then I did not get the job.

EXERCISE
Write the negation of each statement.
1. The Giants lost the game.

2. The lunch was served at noon.
3. The game did not go into overtime.
4. The game was not shown on ABC.
5. The dog does not need to be fed.
Determine whether each statement is true or false.
6. 7 < 5 �� 3 > 1
7. 3≤9
8. (−1)50 = 1 �� (−1)99 =− 1
9. 7 ≠ 3 �� 9 ��
10. −5 ≥− 11
11. 4.5 ≤ 5.4
12. 2 is an odd number or 2 is even. __________ _________________
Write each sentence in symbolic form. Represent each simple statement in the
sentence with the letter indicated in the parentheses. Also state whether the
sentence is a conjunction, a disjunction, a negation, a conditional, or biconditional.
13. If today is Wednesday (�), then tomorrow is Thursday (�).

14. I went to the post office (�) and the bookstore (�).
15. A triangle is an equilateral triangle (�) if and only if it is an equiangular triangle (�).
Write each sentence in symbolic form. Use p, q, r and s as defined below.

�: Dwyane Wade is a football player.
�: Dwyane Wade is a basketball player.
�: Dwyane Wade is a rock star.
�: Dwyane Wade plays for the Miami Heat.
16. Dwyane Wade is a football player or a basketball player, and he is not a rock star.
17. Dwyane Wade is a rock star, and he is not a basketball player or a football player.
18. If Dwyane Wade plays for the Miami Heat, then he is a basketball player and he is
not a football player.
Identify the antecedent and the consequent of each conditional statement.
19. If I had the money, I would buy the painting.

20. If Shelly goes on the trip, she will not be able to take part in the graduation
ceremony.
Write each statement in “If �, then �” form.
21. Every nonrepeating, nonterminating decimal is an irrational number.

22. Being well known is a necessary condition for a politician.
Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the given statement.
23. If � + 4 > 7, then � > 3.

24. Every trapezoid has exactly two parallel sides.
Determine the original statement if the given statement is related to the original
statement in the manner indicated.
25. Converse: If � > 2, then x is an odd prime number.

26. Inverse: If their manager will not contact me, then I will not purchase any of their
products.
27. Contrapositive: If Ginny can’t rollerblade, then I can’t rollerblade.

REFERENCES
Aufman,Richard N.,et al,(2013), Mathematical Excursions. 3rd ed.,Brookes/Cole, Cengage

Learning
Medallon, Merlita C. et al (2018), Mathematics in the Modern World, Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Reyes, Juan Apolinario C. (2019), Mathematics in the Modern World, Unlimited Books Library
Services & Publishing Inc.
Sirug, Winston, (2018), Mathematics in the Modern World, Mindshapers Co.,Inc.
Online References:
http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/pdf_files/LANG1.pdf
https://www.dpmms.cam.ac.uk/~wtg10/grammar.pdf
https://math.libretexts.org/Courses/Mount_Royal_University/MATH_2150%3A_Higher_Arithm
etic/1%3 Binary_operations/1.1%3A_Binary_operations

Module 3
PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
“Every problem has a solution. You just have to be creative enough to find it.”
- Travis Kalanick
INTRODUCTION
Problems are inevitable. And because of that, one must learn the necessary skills to arrive at
solutions to different types of problems encountered. It is imperative that we study different
approaches and strategies in problem solving. This module presents the fundamental principles
of problem solving along with some specific processes that can be applied to certain types of
problems. Its main goal is to develop students’ skills in pattern recognition, critical and logical
thinking, and creativity. This also aims to help students become better problem solvers, develop
interest in problem solving and consider it as an enjoyable experience.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Explain Polya’s four-step problem solving strategy;
2. Apply Polya’s four-step problem solving strategy in solving certain problems;
3. Distinguish inductive reasoning from deductive reasoning;
4. Give examples of inductive and deductive processes of inference; and
5. Use either the inductive or deductive reasoning to solve practical problems; and
6. Solve problems using different approaches and strategies.
DISCUSSION
I. Polya’s Strategy
George Polya, known as the father of modern problem solving, created his famous four-step
process for problem solving. The steps are:
10 | S o u t h e r n L u z o n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
Example 1:
A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In how many different orders could they
have two wins and two losses in four games?
Solution:
Understand the Problem – There are many different orders. The team may have won two
straight games and lost the last two (��) or they may have lost in the first two games and
won the last two (��). Of course there are other possibilities, such as ��.
Devise a Plan – We will make an organized list of all the possible orders. An organized list is a
list that is produced using a system that ensures that each of the different orders will be listed
once and only once.
Carry Out the Plan – Each entry in our list must contain two � s and two � s. We will use a
strategy that makes sure each order is considered, with no duplications. One such strategy is to
always write a � unless doing so will produce too many � s or a duplicate of one of the
previous orders. If it is not possible to write a � , then and only then do we write an � . This
strategy produces the six different orders shown below.
1. �� (Start with two wins)
2. �� (Start with one win)
3. ��
4. �� (Start with one loss)
5. ��
6. �� (Start with two losses)
Review the Solution – We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list
considers all possibilities, so we are confident that there are six different orders in which a
baseball team can win exactly two out of four games.
Example 2:
The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the teens are the same age.
What are the ages of the teenagers?
Solution:
Understand the Problem – We need to determine three distinct counting numbers, from the list
13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19, that have a product of 4590.
Devise a Plan – If we represent the ages by �, �, and �, then �� = 4590. We are unable to solve
this equation, but we notice that 4590 ends in a zero. Hence, 4590 has a factor of 2 and a factor
of 5, which means that at least one of the numbers we seek must be an even number and at least
one number must have 5 as a factor. The only number in our list that has 5 as a factor is 15. Thus
15 is one of the numbers, and at least one of the other numbers must be an even number. At this
point we try to solve by guessing and checking.
Carry Out the Plan –

15 ∗ 16 ∗ 18 = 4320 → No, this product is too small.
15 ∗ 16 ∗ 19 = 4560 → No, this product is too small.
15 ∗ 17 ∗ 18 = 4590 → Yes, this is the correct product.
The ages of the teenagers are 15, 17, and 18.
Review the Solution – Because 15 ∗ 17 ∗ 18 = 4590, and each of the ages represents the age of a
teenager, we know our solution is correct. None of the numbers 13, 14, 16, and 19 is a factor
(divisor) of 4590, so there are no other solutions.
EXERCISE
Apply Polya’s Strategy to solve the following problems.
1. Twenty-four points are placed around a circle. A line segment is drawn between each
pair of points. How many line segments are drawn?
2. There are 364 first-grade students in Park Elementary School. If there are 26 more girls
than boys, how many girls are there?
3. If eight people greet each other at a meeting by shaking hands with one another, how
many handshakes take place?
II. Problem Solving Strategies
1. Guess and test (Trial and error) – this is the most common method that students tend to
use when solving a given problem. This includes trying different possible answers to the
question and checking if it is correct and if not, then try another guess.
Example:
Place the digits 8, 9, 10, 12, & 13 in the circles so that the sum across and vertically equal to 31.
It is possible to systematically answer this

problem, but since we are dealing with just 5
numbers and addition is the only operation, it
will be faster and easier to just simply guess it.
Few trials will be enough to correctly answer
the problem. (Try it!)
2. Picture/Diagram/Experiment – this method is used by most people because it is much

easier to solve a problem if you can draw or picture it, or try it out yourselves, instead of
just imagining things.
Example:
Using only a 5L and an 11L can, how can you have exactly 7L of water?
This is one of the problems that were

presented in class during our group activities.
5L 11L And solving this easily would involve actually
experimenting on it, or drawing scenarios or
steps. (Try it!)
3. Working backwards – this is when we are given a problem wherein a final output is
given, and we are asked to find something at the beginning or somewhere at the middle.
Since the final output is provided, the best way is to start from there, then work
backwards, reversing all actions.
Example:
Mary is thinking of a number. If you double it, and subtract 7 you obtain 11. What is the number?
Solution:
Since we are given the final answer which is 11, it is best to start from there, and then go
backwards. First, we see that 11 is obtained after subtracting 7 to the previous number. Since
we work backwards, instead of subtracting, we add. Thus, the previous number is 11 + 7 = 18.
From 18, we see that it is obtained by doubling the previous number. Thus, the previous
18
number is 2 = 9 . Therefore, 9 is Mary’s number. We can check it by substituting 9 to the
problem. We have 9, if we double it, we get 18, and subtracting 7 from 18, we get 11. So our
answer is correct.
4. Looking for patterns – this is used when we can find a pattern in a given problem or
sequence. (More examples are presented in Section IV.)
Example:
Fill the missing the number in the sequence 1, 4, 9, 16, ___, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, …
Solution:
In this sequence, we can observe that the given numbers are actually perfect squares, 1 =
12 , 4 = 22 , 9 = 32 , 16 = 42 and so as the others. Thus, we can conclude that the missing number
is actually 52 which is equal to 25.
5. Listing/tabular – this is often used when we are asked to answer problems where we
need to list down possibilities so we can look at it properly. Of course we can just use a
scratch paper and write things randomly but this is more organized and easier to look at.
Example:
Let �(�) denote the ��ℎ term in the Fibonacci Sequence where � 1 = 1, � 2 = 1, � 3 = 2 and
so on. Find the least value of � such that � � > 500.
Solution:
In this problem, we are asked to find the smallest � so that �(�) is greater than 500. One way to
do it is to make a table and list down the terms of the Fibonacci sequence with the
corresponding �.
� 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
�(�) 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597
In this table, all we do is to find the smallest � so that � � > 500. We see that 610, 987, 1597
are all greater than 500. Therefore, the possible values of � that will give us these values are 15,
16, 17, and even greater. But, we are only asked to find the smallest. And the smallest here is 15.
So the answer is 15.
6. Algebraic equations – this method is used when it is not enough to simply look at the
problems, draw it, or guess. This happens when the given problem is too complex and
there are way too many possible answers, or the values are too big.
Example:
The sum of the two digits of a 2-digit number is 11. Reversing the digits increase the number by
45. What is the number?
Solution:
We use Polya’s strategy in solving this problem We enumerate the steps as follows:
Understand the problem – In this problem, we are asked to find a two digit number. It says that if
we add the two digits of this number, we get 11. (For example, 65 is possible because 6 + 5 =
11, but that’s not the only possible combination.) Next, it tells us that if reverse the numbers,
meaning if we interchange their positions, then the resulting number is 45 more than the
original (Well, if we reversed 65, it will be 56, so definitely it’s not the answer).
Translate – After understanding the problem, we now try to translate it to mathematical

sentences. First, how do we translate “The sum of the two digits of a 2-digit number is 11”?
Since we are dealing with two unknown values, we can use two variables to represent them, say
� is the first and � is the second. Therefore,
� + � = 11. (Equation 1)
But what is the number? Is it ��? No. Because if it is ��, you will be multiplying the two digits,
and that is not right (It is different when we are dealing with variables already). For example, if
you have 65, we know that to get 65 out of the digits 6 and 5, we have to multiply the tens digit
with 10 and add the ones digit. So 10 6 + 5 = 60 + 5 = 65.
Now, if we have the � and � as variables, then the number that we are looking for is
10� + � (The unknown number)
But since we have two variables to solve, it is not enough that we only have one equation (The
second one is not an equation). Thus, we need another one. Going back to the problem, it tells us
that if we reversed the digits, we get a number that is 45 more than the original one. So we are
saying that if we have 10� + � (we interchanged � and �), then this will be equal to 45 + (10� +
�). Thus we have the second equation
10� + � = 45 + 10� + � (Equation 2)
Solve – Since we have enough equations to solve for the unknown values, we can already solve it.
� + � = 11 → � = 11 − � Rewrite Equation 1.
10� + � = 45 + 10� + � Simplify Equation 2 by combining like terms

10� − � + � − 10� = 45 and leaving the variables in one side and the
9� − 9� = 45 constant in the other side of the equation.
9 11 − � − 9� = 45 Since � = 11 − � from Equation 1, substitute

99 − 9� − 9� = 45 11 − � to � in Equation 2. Solve for �.
99 − 18� = 45
−18� = 45 − 99
−18� = − 54
−18� −54
=
−18 −18
�=�
� = 11 − 3 Solve for � using the computed value of � and

�=� Equation 1.
Therefore, we have � = 3 and � = 8, so our number is 38.
Check – We now try to check if our answer is correct. If we have 38, then the sum of its digits, 3
and 8 is obviously 11. Now, reversing the digits, we have 83. We can check that 83 = 38 + 45.
Therefore, 38 is correct.
7. Logical Reasoning – this deals with the way we analyse things, and how we come up
with solutions to our problems. This can go with every other method that was discussed
earlier, whichever is appropriate. There are two types of reasoning which will be
discussed in the next section.
EXERCISE
Solve each of the following problems.
1. How many square are in the following figure?
2. In a basketball league consisting of 12 teams, each team plays each of the other teams
exactly twice. How many league games will be played?
3. A room measures 12 feet by 15 feet. How many 3-foot by 3-foot squares of carpet are
needed to cover the floor of this room?
4. Nine dots are arranged as shown. Is it possible to connect the nine dots with exactly four
lines if you are not allowed to retrace any part of a line and you are not allowed to
remove your pencil from the paper? If it can be done, demonstrate with a drawing.
⦁ ⦁ ⦁
⦁ ⦁ ⦁
⦁ ⦁ ⦁
5. You have eight coins. They all look identical, but one is a fake and is slightly lighter than
the others. Explain how you can use a balance scale to determine which coin is the fake
in exactly a) two weighings; and b) three weighings.
III. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
1. Inductive Reasoning – the type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the
examination of specific examples.
Example 1:
During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year, the tree did not
produce plums, so this year, the tree will produce plums.
We arrive at our answer based on our observation on what has been happening for the past
years, thus, this might not be that accurate, but, it is what is most likely to happen based on
experience.
Example 2:
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the sequence 5, 10, 15, 20, ?
Solution:
Each successive number is 5 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict that the next
number in the list is 5 larger than 20, which is 25.
 The conclusion formed using inductive reasoning is often called a conjecture, since it
may or may not be correct.
Example 3:
The period of a pendulum is the time it takes for the pendulum to swing from left to right and
back to its original position. The following table shows some results obtained for pendulums of
various lengths. (For the sake of convenience, a length of 10 inches has been designated as 1
unit.) If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period? If the length of a pendulum is
quadrupled, what happens to its period?
Length of pendulum Period of pendulum,
in units in heartbeats
1 1
4 2
9 3
16 4
25 5
36 6
Solution:
In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its length. Thus we conjecture
that a pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a period of 7 heartbeats. To answer the
second question, note that a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice that of
a pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period that is
twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4 units. It appears that quadrupling the length of a
pendulum doubles its period.
 A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find one
case for which a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement is a
false statement.
Example 4:
Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a counterexample.
For all numbers �:
a) � > 0 b) �2 > �
Solution:
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only fi nd one counterexample to
verify that the statement is false. For a), we can let � = 0 , so that � = 0 which is equal (not
greater than) 0. Thus, this is a false statement because we have found a counterexample. For b),
1 1
we can let � = 1, so that �2 = 1, which is again, equal to 1. We can also take � = 2, so �2 = 4, and
1 1
4
< 2, which is a contradiction to the statement.
2. Deductive Reasoning – it is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general

principles and procedure.
Example 1:
All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated that my home
improvement will cost P200,000.00. Thus, my home improvement will cost more than
P200,000.00.
Here, it is already given as a fact that ALL home improvements cost more than the estimate.
Therefore, if we are given estimate, then we know that the actual cost will be bigger. It is not just
based on observations, but with given facts.
Example 2:
Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is three
times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 9, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 3,
and subtract 2.
Solution:
Let � represent the original number.
9� Multiply the number by 9.

9� + 6 Add 6 to the product.
9� + 6 Divide the sum by 3.
3
9� + 6 Subtract 2.
−2
3
9� + 6
−2 Simplify.
3
3� + 2 − 2
�� We started with � and ended with 3x. The
procedure given in this example produces a
number that is three times the original
number.
 Logic puzzles can be solved by using deductive reasoning and a chart that helps us
visualize the problem.
Example 3:
Each of four neighbors, Kristan, Michael, Luis, and Francis, has a different occupation (editor,
banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.
 Michael gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
 Luis, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
 The dentist and Luis leave for work at the same time.
 The banker lives next door to Francis.
Solution:
From the first clue, we can already tell that Michael is not the banker or the dentist. Thus, we
can already mark it x in our table. From the second clue, it is mentioned that Luis is not the
editor, and the third clue is implying that he is also not the dentist, so we mark it x. Finally,
Francis is living next to the banker, so clearly, he is not the banker. We mark it with x.
editor banker chef dentist

Kristan
Michael x x
Luis x x
Francis x
The table shows the initial information that we can get from the clues given. Now, to deduce
more information, we analyse further the clues. It was mentioned from the second clue that Luis
is the last to get home from work, therefore, from the first clue, we observe that he is not the
banker, because clearly the banker is not the last one to go home because Michael and the
dentist goes home after him. We can mark it with x.

Kristan
Michael x x
Luis x x x
Francis x
From the table, we can observe that the only one who can possibly be the banker is Kristan.
Thus, we can already mark it with ❶. Obviously, Kristan can no longer have the other
occupations so we can mark the entire row with x.

Kristan x ❶ x x
Michael ❸ x x
Luis x x ❹ x
Francis x ❷
Continuing this fashion, we can conclude that Francis is the dentist, mark it ❷. Then Michael is
the editor, mark it ❸. Finally, Luis, is the chef, marked ❹.

Kristan x ❶ x x
Michael ❸ x x x
Luis x x ❹ x
Francis x x x ❷
EXERCISE
 Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each list.
1. 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, _____ 6. 80, 70, 61, 53, 46, 40, _____
3 5 7 9 11 13
2. 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 35, _____ 7. , , , , , , _____
5 7 9 11 13 15
1 2 3 4 5 6
3. 3, 5, 9, 15, 23, 33, _____ 8. 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , _____
4. 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, _____ 9. 2, 7, −3 , 2, −8, −3, −13, −8, −18, _____
5. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, _____ 10. 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, _____
 Determine whether the argument is an example of inductive reasoning or

deductive reasoning. Justify.
11. All pentagons have exactly five sides. Figure A is a pentagon. Therefore, Figure A has
exactly five sides.
12. Every P.E. teacher likes to dance. Vivian is a P.E. teacher, so Vivian likes to dance.
 Use inductive or deductive reasoning to decide whether each statement is correct.

Justify.
13. The sum of any two even counting numbers is always an even counting number.
14. Pick any counting number. Multiply the number by 6. Add 8 to the product. Divide the
sum by 2. Subtract 4 from the quotient. The resulting number is twice the original
number.
1
15. For all numbers �, � > � .
IV. Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns
 An ordered list of numbers such as 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, … is called a sequence. The numbers
in a sequence are called terms of the sequence. In the given sequence, we call 6 as the
first term, 12 the second term, and so on.
 The �th term of a sequence is denoted by ��.
 That is, a sequence consisting of � terms is represented by �1 , �2 , �3 , …, ��.
By examining the given terms in the sequence, we can analyse and try to find the pattern so that
we can identify the next term. In the sequence above, we can observe that the next term is
computed by adding 6 to the preceding term. Thus, we can conclude that the term after 30 is 36,
followed by 42, 48, and so on.
 In some cases, it is possible to predict or derive a formula, called the �� term formula,
which can generate the terms of the given sequence.
Example 1:
Consider the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, … of even numbers. Observe that we can write the term 2 as
2(1), 4 as 2(2), 6 as 2(3), and so on. Generally, we can write the terms in the sequence in the
form 2�, where � is a natural number. Thus, the formula for the �th term of this sequence is:
�� = 2�
Example 2:
Consider the sequence 4, 14, 30, 52, 80, 114. To find the �th term of the sequence, we have the
formula �� = 3�2 + � . Thus, if we want to find the 20th term of the sequence, we simply
substitute 20 to the formula.
�� = 3�2 + �
�20 = 3 202 + 20
�20 = 3(400) + 20
�20 = 1200 + 20
�20 = ��
EXERCISE
 Predict the next term of each sequence.
1. 1, 7, 17, 31, 49, 71, _____

2. 10, 10, 12, 16, 22, 30, _____
3. -1, 4, 21, 56, 115, 204, _____
4. 0, 10, 24, 56, 112, 190, _____
5. 17, 15, 25, 53, 105, 187, _____
 Use the given �th term formula to compute the first ten terms of the sequence.
� 2�+1
6. �� = 2
7. �� = 5�2 − 3�
�
8. �� = �+1
 Determine the � th-term formula for the given sequences, then compute for the
50th term.
9. 1, 5, 11, 19, 29, …
10. 8, 15, 24, 35, 48, …
V. Recreational Problems using Mathematics
KenKen® Puzzles
KenKen® is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the Japanese mathematics
teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun “ken” has “knowledge” and “awareness” as
synonyms. Hence, KenKen translates as knowledge squared, or awareness squared.
In recent years the popularity of KenKen has increased at a dramatic rate. More than a million
KenKen puzzle books have been sold, and KenKen puzzles now appear in many popular
newspapers, including the New York Times and the Boston Globe.
KenKen puzzles are similar to Sudoku puzzles, but they also require you to perform arithmetic
to solve the puzzle.
Rules for Solving a KenKen Puzzle
For a 3 by 3 puzzle, fill in each box (square) of the grid with one of the numbers 1,
2, or 3.
For a 4 by 4 puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, 3,
or 4.
For a n by n puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2,
3,..., n.
Grids range in size from a 3 by 3 up to a 9 by 9.
 Do not repeat a number in any row or column.
 The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares, called cages, must
combine (in some order) to produce the target number in the top left corner
of the cage using the mathematical operation indicated.
 Cages with just one square should be fi lled in with the target number.
 A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is not in the same row or
column.
Here is a 4 by 4 puzzle and its solution. Properly constructed puzzles have a unique solution.
column 1 column 2 column 3 column 4

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
�× �+ �× �+
row 1 → 2 1 3 4
� �× � �×
row 2 → 3 2 4 1
�× �� × �− �× �� × �−
row 3 → 1 4 2 3
� �
row 4 → 4 3 1 2
A 4 x 4 puzzle with 8 cages The solution to the puzzles
Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies

Single-Square Cages – Fill cages that consist of a single square with the target number for that
square. In the puzzle above, the cell in row 4, column 3 is filled with 1.
Cages with Two Squares – Next examine the cages with exactly two squares. Many cages that
cover two squares will only have two digits that can be used to fill the cage. For instance, a
5 × cage can only be filled with 1 and 5.
Large or Small Target Numbers – Search for cages that have an unusually large or small target
number. These cages generally have only a few combinations of numbers that can be used to fill
the cage. For example, in a 5 by 5 puzzle, a 60 × cage with exactly 3 squares can only be filled
with 3, 4, and 5.
Duplicate Digit in a Cage – Consider the 4 + cage shown below. The digits 1, 1, and 2 produce a
sum of 4; however, we cannot place the two 1s in the same row or the same column. Thus the
only way to fill the squares is to place the 2 in the corner of the L-shaped cage as shown below.
Remember: A digit can occur more than once in a cage, provided that it does not appear in the
same row or in the same column.
�+
2 1
Remember the Following Rules – In an � by � puzzle, each row and column must contain every
digit from 1 to � . In a two-square cage that involves subtraction or division, the order of the
numbers in the cage is not important. For instance, a 3 − cage with two squares could be filled
with 4 and 1 or with 1 and 4. A 3 ÷ cage with two squares could be filled with 3 and 1 or with 1
and 3.
Make a List of Possible Digits – For each cage, make a list of digits, with no regard to order, that
can be used to fill the cage. It’s like having a list of possibilities for later use.
Guess and Check – In most puzzles you will reach a point where you will need to just guess, then
try and see if it works. Assume that the possible digits in a particular cage are arranged in a
particular manner and then see where your assumption takes you. If you find that the remaining
part of a row or column cannot be filled in correctly, then you can eliminate your assumption
and proceed to check out one of the remaining possible numerical arrangements for that
particular cage.
A Famous Puzzle
The Tower of Hanoi is a puzzle invented by Edouard Lucas in 1883. The puzzle consists of three
pegs and a number of disks of distinct diameters stacked on one of the pegs such that the largest
disk is on the bottom, the next largest is placed on the largest disk, and so on as shown in the
next figure. The object of the puzzle is to transfer the tower to one of the other pegs. The rules
require that only one disk be moved at a time and that a larger disk may not be placed on a
smaller disk. All pegs may be used. Determine the minimum number of moves required to
transfer all of the disks to another peg for each of the following situations.
There are many possible solutions of course. But what we need is to solve the problem with
minimum number of moves. First, label the pegs from left to right with A, B, and C. We follow the
following steps:
1. Transfer the yellow disk to

peg A
2. Transfer the pink disk to peg
C.

peg C.
4. Transfer the blue disk to peg
A.

peg B.
6. Transfer the pink disk to peg
A.
7. Finally, transfer the yellow

disk to peg A.
The puzzle can be played with any number of disks, although many toy revisions have around 7
to 9 of them. The minimal number of moves required to solve a Tower of Hanoi puzzle is 2� − 1,
where � is the number of disks.
EXERCISE
 The Galton Board
The Galton Board is designed such that when a ball falls on a vertex of one of the hexagons, it is
equally likely to fall to the left or to the right. As the ball continues its downward path, it strikes
a vertex of a hexagon in the next row, where the process of falling to the left or to the right is
repeated. After the ball passes through all the rows of hexagons, it falls into one of the bins at
the bottom. For each hexagon, determine the number of different routes that a ball can take
from that point to the top of the board. Summarize the experiment and what can you conclude
about the numbers in the hexagons?
PROBLEM SET
 Solve each problem Polya’s and any other strategies. Label your work so that each
of Polya’s four steps is identified.
1. A rancher decides to enclose a rectangular region by using an existing fence along one
side of the region and 2240 feet of new fence on the other three sides. The rancher
wants the length of the rectangular region to be five times as long as its width. What will
be the dimensions of the rectangular region?
2. If 15 people greet each other at a meeting by shaking hands with one another, how many
handshakes will take place?
3. Nonie, Louise, Eduard, and Mark are attending Southern Luzon State University (SLSU).
One student is a computer science major, one is chemistry major, one is a business
major, and one is biology major. From the following clues, determine which major each
student is pursuing.
a. Nonie and the computer science major are next door neighbors.
b. Louise and the chemistry major have attended SLSU for 2 years, Eduard has
attended SLSU for 3 years, and the biology major has attended SLSU for 4 years.
c. Mark has attended SLSU for fewer years than Nonie.
d. The business major has attended SLSU for 2 years.
 Determine whether the argument is an example of inductive reasoning or

deductive reasoning.
4. Samantha got an A on each of her fi rst four math tests, so she will get an A on the next
math test.
5. All amoeba multiply by dividing. I have named the amoeba shown in my microscope
Amelia. Therefore, Amelia multiplies by dividing.
 Find a counterexample to show that the following conjecture is false.
2
6. For all numbers �, � + 4 = �2 + 16
�3 +5�+6
7. For all counting numbers �, 6
is an even counting number.
 Predict the next term of each sequence.
8. 5, 6, 3, −4, −15, −30, −49, _____
9. 2, 0, −18, −64, −150, −288, −490, _____
10. A sequence has an �th term formula of �� = 4�2 − � − 2.

Use this formula to determine the first ten terms of the sequence and the 20th term of
the sequence.
 Solve the following problems.
11. A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment that connects nonadjacent vertices (corners) of
the polygon. In the following polygons, the diagonals are shown by the red line segments.
Triangle Square Pentagon

3 sides 4 sides 5 sides
0 diagonal 2 diagonals 5 diagonals
Predict the number of diagonals in a) a hexagon, b) a heptagon, and c) an octagon.
12. In how many different ways can a basketball team win exactly four out of their last six
games?
13. A student has noticed the following pattern:

91 = 9 has 1 digit
92 = 81 has 2 digits
93 = 729 has 3 digits
.
.
.
10
9 = 3,486,784,401 has 10 digits.
a. Find the smallest natural number � such that the number of digits in the decimal
expansion of 9� is not equal to �.
b. A professor indicates that you can receive five extra points if you write all of the
9
digits in the decimal expansion of 99 . Is this a worthwhile project? Explain.
14. Sudoku is a deductive reasoning, number placement puzzle. The object in a 6 by 6 mini-
Sudoku puzzle is to fill all empty squares so that the counting numbers 1 to 6 appear
exactly once in each row, each column, and each of the 2 by 3 regions, which are
delineated by the thick line segments. Solve the following 6 by 6 mini-Sudoku puzzle.
6 2 5
4 3
6 5 4
1 3
1 6 2 5
4 1 6
15. A palindromic number is a whole number that remains unchanged when its digits are
written in reverse order. Find all palindromic numbers that have exactly
a. three digits and are the square of a natural number.
b. four digits and are the cube of a natural number.
REFERENCES
Aufmann, Richard N., et al. Mathematical Excursions, 3rd ed., Cengage Learning, 2013.
Earnhart, Richard T., & Adina, Edgar M., Mathematics in the Modern World, Outcome-Based
Module, C&E Publishing, Inc., 2018.
Petkovic, Miodrag, Famous Puzzles of Great Mathematicians, AMS Bookstore, 2009.
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GEC 05: Mathematics in the Modern World Academic Year 2020-21

1|Southern Luzon State University

A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or

2|Southern Luzon State University

1. The Dark Knight is the greatest movie of all time.

2. Open the door.

3. The area code for Lucban is 3003.

4. January 1, 2021 will be a Sunday.

5. 7055 is a large number.

3|Southern Luzon State University

Simple Statements and Compound Statements

A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement is a

c. Antecedent: you strike me down

5|Southern Luzon State University

Equivalent Forms of the Conditional Statement

If �, then �. � only if �. Not � or �. �, if �. � is a necessary condition for �.

If �, �. � implies �. Every � is a �. �, provided that �. � is a sufficient condition for �.

Statements Related to the Conditional Statement

6|Southern Luzon State University

Write the negation of each statement.

1. The Giants lost the game.

Determine whether each statement is true or false.

13. If today is Wednesday (�), then tomorrow is Thursday (�).

Write each sentence in symbolic form. Use p, q, r and s as defined below.

Identify the antecedent and the consequent of each conditional statement.

19. If I had the money, I would buy the painting.

Write each statement in “If �, then �” form.

21. Every nonrepeating, nonterminating decimal is an irrational number.

Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the given statement.

23. If � + 4 > 7, then � > 3.

7|Southern Luzon State University

24. Every trapezoid has exactly two parallel sides.

25. Converse: If � > 2, then x is an odd prime number.

8|Southern Luzon State University

Aufman,Richard N.,et al,(2013), Mathematical Excursions. 3rd ed.,Brookes/Cole, Cengage

Sirug, Winston, (2018), Mathematics in the Modern World, Mindshapers Co.,Inc.

9|Southern Luzon State University

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

Carry Out the Plan –

Apply Polya’s Strategy to solve the following problems.

II. Problem Solving Strategies

It is possible to systematically answer this

2. Picture/Diagram/Experiment – this method is used by most people because it is much

This is one of the problems that were

Translate – After understanding the problem, we now try to translate it to mathematical

10� + � (The unknown number)

10� + � = 45 + 10� + � (Equation 2)

10� + � = 45 + 10� + � Simplify Equation 2 by combining like terms

9 11 − � − 9� = 45 Since � = 11 − � from Equation 1, substitute

� = 11 − 3 Solve for � using the computed value of � and

Therefore, we have � = 3 and � = 8, so our number is 38.

Solve each of the following problems.

1. How many square are in the following figure?

III. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

2. Deductive Reasoning – it is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general

9� Multiply the number by 9.

editor banker chef dentist

editor banker chef dentist