UNIVERISAD AUTÓNOMA DE NUEVO

LEÓN
FACULTAD DE INGENIERÍA MECÁNICA
Y ELÉCTRICA

2049864 Andree Salvador Rubi Gonzalez

1658428 Brian Emanuel Amaro Garcia

1925895 Carlos Giovanni Ornelas Espinoza

2057918 Guillermo Alanis Quintanilla

Aeronautical
Structures
Intoducction to the Aerospace Science
01 what are aeronautical
structures?
• The airframe of an aircraft is a lightweight ecosystem
made up of circular trusses, linear spars, and skin
panels, either machined or formed from sheet metal.
Each structural component must be precisely
manufactured and assembled to withstand the various
forces, both normal and tangential.
Fuselage
 What is the fuselage of
an airplane?
The fuselage is the 'body' of an aircraft, its primary
structure; It is the covering that houses the cockpit,
the space for the transport of passengers or the
cargo hold. In addition, it is the frame to which
other fundamental parts are attached, such as the
wings, the tail empennage or the landing gear.
single engine
aircraft
In single-engine aircraft, the
fuselage contains the
group engine and crew
cabin; also serves as a
support to the wings and
stabilizers; and carries the
landing gear.
multi-engine
aircraft
In multi-engine aircraft, the engines are arranged in
nacelles or masts, above or below the wings, or in
the tail.
In the case of the ATR, the fuselage is attached
directly to the wings and tail, while the powertrain
is attached to the fuselage indirectly through the
wings.
 What is the fuselage for?

aerodynamic
force
It shapes the plane and distribution Protections
provides the necessary It distributes the forces
aerodynamics for the It is a protective barrier
along its entire for passengers in
type of flight to be surface.
carried out. the event of an
accident.
TYPES OF FUSELAGES

There are several types of aircraft fuselages, depending on the

absorption of forces (monocoque/semi-monocoque), the size
(wide/narrow) or the way they are manufactured (reticular or
tubular).

04
 monocoque fuselage
The monocoque fuselage is the
one that forms a tubular
structure with frames covered
by a sheet of metal or fiber.
They are tough airframes and
can fly at high altitudes.

In monocoque fuselages, the coating

is responsible for supporting all
the forces, for this reason, it must
be of a certain thickness. Due to
its robustness and simplicity, it is
the most widely used fuselage
model in general aviation aircraft.

In these fuselages, the most used

material is fiber, which allows
molding the desired shape
more easily, as well as being a
very light material.
 Semi-monocoque fuselage
Use
For the construction of large
commercial aircraft, since you
have to lighten the weight of
having a coating that
supports all the forces.

Composition
there is a braid made up of stringers,
frames and the coating itself. Thus,
the forces are distributed throughout
the entire fuselage, and it is possible
to lighten the weight by using a
It is duralumin, or also known as aeronautical
much thinner metal coating.
aluminum. This material is an aluminum
alloy with copper, manganese,
magnesium and silicon.
 wide and narrow fuselage
Narrow-body aircraft are those
with a single aisle that
separates the passenger
seats into two blocks of rows.

However, wide-body aircraft have

more than one aisle to divide the
seats. In these aircraft, we can
find configurations of 3 – 4 – 3
rows, separated by two aisles, or
even 3 – 5 – 3, this being the
widest arrangement of all..
Airbus A380
 Reticular or tubular fuselage
the reticular fuselage is
formed by frames, spars
and diagonals that are
covered with canvas, wood
or metal. It is a very light coating
but also not very resistant.

Within the reticular

fuselages we can find
several subtypes, such
As the Warren fuselage,
the Pratt or the Geodesic.
 Components
The structure of an aircraft is generally considered to be composed
of five main parts: the fuselage, the wings, the stabilizers, the flight
control surfaces and the landing gear.
02

04
The components of the structure are
constructed from a variety of materials and are
joined by rivets, bolts, screws and welds or
adhesives.
These structural components are made up of
various parts called structural members (e.g.
stringers, stringers, ribs, bulkheads, etc.) that are
designed to transmit loads or support stresses.
Traditionally, the components of an aircraft
have been divided into two main groups: the
fixed and the movable. The fixed parts
constitute the basic structure that makes an
aircraft fly: the fuselage, the wings and the
horizontal and vertical stabilizers. The movable
surfaces are those that make the aircraft
controllable, the so-called flight controls. called
flight controls and we can group them into two
types: primary fligth controls and secondary
controls
The horizontal stabilizer: contributes
greatly to the longitudinal stability of
the aircraft. aircraft. It is generally a
symmetrical aerodynamic surface, as
it must be able to generate vertical
loads.

The vertical stabilizer: contributes

greatly to the aircraft's directional
stability. It is generally a symmetrical
aerodynamic surface, as it must be
able to generate horizontal loads.

Tabs: are auxiliary compensating vanes placed on the trailing edge

of a primary control surface (rudder, depth, ailerons) and can be
moved up or down causing a relatively greater deflection of the
primary control surface.
Depth rudder: provides longitudinal control or pitching around the lateral or transverse axis. lateral or
transverse axis. They are installed at the rear of the horizontal stabilizer and are connected to the
steering column for up and down movement. and are connected to the control column for up and
down movement. They are used to keep the aircraft level in flight at different speeds. When the
control column is moved backwards, the rudder is raised, thus decreasing the lift at the tail. the lift in
the tail, which lowers the tail and raises the nose.
The rudder: provides directional control of the aircraft around the vertical axis. axis. The rudder is
actuated in response to the pilot's movements of the rudder pedals on the rudder. rudder pedals in
the cockpit. If the left pedal is pushed, the rudder turns to the left and the force produced by the
vertical stabilizer causes the rudder to move to the left.
Ailerons: are the main control surfaces of the aircraft and are located at the rear of the wingtip.
rear part of the wing tips and when actuated they cause the aircraft to tilt in flight. tilt. They are
responsible for lateral control or roll movement around the longitudinal axis.

Flaps: in order to obtain a low

landing speed, a relatively large wing
area is necessary. relatively large
wing surface. On the other hand, an
increase in wing area corresponds to
an increase in wing drag with a
consequent loss of speed. increase in
wing drag with a consequent loss of
maximum speed. Hyperslide devices
such as flaps and slats were created
in order to increase the lift of the
aircraft. so that lift could be increased
for takeoff and landing.
The spoilers: are plates fixed to the upper
surface or upper surface or top surface of the
wing. They are generally deflected upward by
means of hydraulic actuators in response to
the movement of the control wheel in the
cockpit. in the cockpit. The purpose of the
spoliers is to disturb the flow of air across the
top surface of the wing the top surface of the
wing, creating an increase in drag and a
decrease in wing lift.
 Torsion Box
It is the structural element in an aircraft from which the wing extends, generally
limited between the wing root located at the junction with the fuselage and the wing
tip rib, plus two main beams or spars.
It is located at the base of the wing, so it is subjected to the different and main
efforts while it is in operation and this in turn transmits the movement to develop the
operation to be performed.
 Materials

Several factors influence the selection of the structural material for an

aircraft, but among these strength and lightness is probably the most
important.

The main groups of materials used in aircraft construction have been

wood, steel, aluminum alloys, with more recently, titanium alloys, and
fibre-reinforced composites
 Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum alloyed with other
metals its properties are improved
significantly . Three groups of
aluminum alloys have been used
in the aircraft industry for many
years and still play a major role in
aircraft construction.
 Aluminum Honeycomb

The stiffness of aluminum honeycomb is

second to none, as is its strength-to-
weight ratio. Its resistance to
compression is also high, as well as its
resistance to heat, temperature
fluctuation, and shear, all of which are
particularly important in-flight scenarios.
 Aluminum Honeycomb
Advantages Disadvantages

• Non-moisture absorbent • The fracture resistance,

• Resistant to mold and fungal folding resistance and
growth peeling resistance are
• Highly recyclable weak
 Steel
Its high specific gravity prevents its
widespread use in aircraft
construction, but it has retained some
value has a material for casting for
small components demanding high
tensile strength , high stiffness and
resistance to wear.
Such components include
undercarriage pivot brakers, wing
root attachments, fasteners and
tracks.
 Steel

Advantages Disadvantages

• High stiffness • High density

• High resistance to corrosion
• Resistance to heat
 Titanium
The use of titanium alloys increased
significantly in the 1980s, particularly
in the construction of combat aircraft.
This increased continued inn the
1990s to the stage where, for combat
aircraft, the percentage of titanium
alloys as a fraction of structural
weight is of the same order as that of
aluminum alloy.
 Titanium

Advantages Disadvantages

• Excellent biocompatibility • Stress shielding

• Corrosion resistance • High price
• High ratio strength • Low elastic modulus
• High temperature strength • High density
• Poor tribological property.
F-15

F-22
 Composite Materials

Composite materials consist of strong

fibers such as glass or carbon set in a
matrix of plastic or epoxy resin, which
is mechanically and chemically
protective.
 Composite Materials
A sheet of fibre-reinforced material is
anisotropic, it means that the
properties depend on the direction of
the fibres. Generally, therefore, in
structural form two or more sheets
are sandwitched together to form a
lay-up so that the fibre directions
match those of the major loads.
 Glass Fibers
Fiberglass is often used for secondary
structure on aircraft, such as fairings,
radomes, and wing tips. Fiberglass is
also used for helicopter rotor blades.
There are several types of fiberglass
used in the aviation industry.
Electrical glass, or E-glass, is
identified as such for electrical
applications.
 Carbon Fibers

Carbon Fiber is a very strong material that is

also very lightweight. Carbon fiber is five-times
stronger than steel and twice as stiff. Though
carbon fiber is stronger and stiffer than steel, it
is lighter than steel; making it the ideal
manufacturing material for many parts. These
are just a few reasons why carbon fiber is
favored by engineers and designers for
manufacturing.
Rivets and other
fasteners
 What are rivets?
Low cost joining elements capable of being placed in manual,
semi-automatic and automatic assembly processes. Low cost
of manufacture and installation, compared to threaded
elements.
 Types of rivets
Rivets can be classified according to material, head
shape, kind of installation, and a lot many more
things.

They are defined by head shape (standard),

material, cane diameter and length
Choice of rivets
Countersunk • The fixing of sheets on
head sheets or profiles, on
external surfaces due to
their low aerodynamic
resistance.

Universal • Used in manufacturing and

head repair of external and
internal parts

Flat head • Used in interior structures

when maximum tensile
strength is required

Round Head • They are used in interior

parts, the head is
dimensioned so that it
can withstand tensile forces
Other important rivets
IMPORTANCE OF CHOOSING THE
RIGHT RIVET
The choice of rivet must be made
so that the cutting strength of the
rivet is slightly lower than the limit
load to crushing the sheet.
How does riveting work?

1. Making a hole with a diameter

slightly larger than that of the rivet
through the two pieces to be joined.

2. Introduction of the rivet.

3. Deformation of the rivet end.

Riveting defects
 Advantages:
• Are manufactured in a wide variety of
materials and can be used to join
pieces of the same or different
materials, with a wide variety of
thicknesses.
• Can be used in different types of
finishes: Electrolytic, parkerized,
painted.
• Rivets can be used for joining parts
that have parallel mating surfaces and
have sufficient space for rivet
application and the necessary tools.
Disadvantages:
• Riveted joints are not normally
watertight to the flow of liquids or air,
although this effect can be achieved
by the use of sealants.
• Vibrations can affect alapril between
surfaces.
• The disassembly of the riveted parts
can only be done by destroying the
rivet.
 Blind rivets
▲ When access to the two sides of
the union is not possible to use
conventional rivets
because it cannot be used to
make the closing head. In such
situations the
called blind rivets are used, so-
called because usually the head
to form is not visible
 Rivets Cherrylock

denominated
"POP"
The rod retention rivets by a third piece,
are the most frequently used in aviation,
manufactured according to the American
standards NAS and MS, among the most
popular denominations are those
corresponding to the commercially
known as "Cherrylock", "Cherrymax",
Huckmax, etc.
Cherrymax
HuckMAX
 Other non-removable fixings

▲ Lockbolts

• Permanent union system similar

to riveting but with better
characteristics, since they can work
with shear and traction

• It consists of two pieces, a stem with

head and grooves at the other end,
plus a collar
 BOLTS & SCREWS
• Bolts and screws are fastening elements for
removable joints, therefore
is always used that for manufacturing reasons,
maintenance or other reasons frequent
disassembly operations are required and when the
stresses are higher than those of
rivets.
 Nuts
❖ The bolts, these are always used together
with the nuts while that the screws usually
thread directly into the last piece of the union
without prejudice to can in some case be used
with them

• Due to the importance of preventing nuts

from being unintentionally loosened, a
first classification of nuts is to distinguish
between those that can be turned with keys
or by hand and anchored or riveted. Another
classification is to differentiate between non-
auto braking from auto braking.
 Washer lock
❑ Are complementary elements
of screws and nuts and they
are used for:

• Facilitate the seating of the heads of screws

and nuts on the parts.
• Distribute the tightening loads produced by the
screws on the parts
• Act as brake elements reducing the possibility
of loosening
• Make shims of the parts so that the end of the
thread of the bolts comes out of the same being
inside the washer
 Wire Braking

Wire braking is performed to avoid the possibility of

loosening threaded elements that are subject to
movements or vibrations and therefore to their
detachment.