Water Supply

• Water quality and transmission

Sources of water
• Surface Sources, such as
• Ponds & Lakes
• Streams & Rivers
• Storage reservoirs
• Run off from roofs and paved areas
• Oceans.
• Sub-surface Sources or underground
sources, such as
• Shallow wells
• deep wells
• artesian wells
• artesian springs
• land springs
 Quality of water at various stages within this cycle.

Hydrological Cycle
 • Physical Characteristics
Water Quality • Chemical Characteristics
• Biological Characteristics
Physical Characteristics
• Turbidity is easy to see and thus is a likely source of dissatisfaction for the would-be consumer. It is
caused by the presence of suspended material such as clay, silt, other inorganic material, plankton, or finely
divided organic material. Even those materials that do not adversely affect health are usually aesthetically
objectionable.

• Colour, another visible alteration, is often caused by dissolved organic matter, as from decaying
vegetation. Some inorganic materials also color water, as do microorganisms. Like turbidity, such colour
changes usually do not threaten health, but they are often psychologically undesirable.

• Taste and odour can be caused by organic compounds, inorganic salts, or dissolved gases. This
condition can be treated only after a chemical analysis has identified which source is responsible.
Physical Characteristics
• Temperature is another characteristic of psychological importance—we expect drinking water to be
cool. In general, water supplied between 10˚C and 16˚C is preferred.

• Foamability is usually caused by concentrations of detergents. The foam itself does not pose a
serious health threat, but it may indicate that other, more dangerous pollutants associated with domestic
waste are also present. Because of increased foaming in water in the 1960s, today’s detergents must use
linear alkylate sulfonate (LAS), which biodegrades rapidly—except in the absence of oxygen. Because this
lack of oxygen is characteristic of some septic tank drainage fields, foam in drinking water should be
investigated promptly.
Chemical Characteristics
• A chemical analysis is usually required for individual water supply sources. Such analysis will indicate
1. the possible presence of harmful or objectionable substances,
2. the potential for corrosion within the water supply system, and
3. the tendency for the water to stain fixtures and clothing.
Chemical Characteristics
Hardness
• Hard water inhibits thecleaning action of soaps and detergents, and itdeposits scale on
the inside of hot water pipes and cooking utensils, thus wasting heating fuel and making utensils unusable.
• Hardness, which is caused by calcium and magnesium salts, can be classified as
• temporary (carbonate) or
• permanent (noncarbonate).
• Temporary hardness is largely removed when the water is heated—it forms the scale just described.
• Permanent hardness cannot be removed by simple heating.
• The common practice is to measure hardness in terms of parts per million by weight – in terms of calcium
carbonate.

• Water having hardness not exceeding 70 ppm is termed soft and above that hard.
• In public water supplies, it is customary to reduce carbonate hardness to 35 to 40 ppm and total hardness
to between 50 to 100 ppm.
Chemical Characteristics

pH
• A measure of the water’s hydrogen ion concentration, as well as its relative acidity or alkalinity.
• A pH of 7 is neutral.
• Measurements below 7 indicate increasing acidity (and corrosiveness);
• water in its natural state can have a pH as low as 5.5, with 0 being the ultimate acidity.
• Measurements higher than 7 indicate increasing alkalinity.
• A pH as high as 9 can be found in water in its natural state, with 14 representing the ultimate alkalinity.
• The pH value is the starting point for determining treatments for corrosion control, chemical dosages, and
disinfection.
Chemical Characteristics
Unintentional chemical additions to water supplies most commonly include the following elements:

Toxic substances
• concentrations of substances such as
• arsenic (As),
• barium (Ba),
• cadmium (Cd),
• chromium (Cr6+),
• cyanide (CN),
• fluoride (F),
• lead (Pb),
• selenium (Se), and
• silver (Ag).
Biological Characteristics
• Potable water should be kept as free as possible of disease-producing
organisms—bacteria, protozoa, and viruses.
• These organisms are not easily identified; a thorough biological water test is
complex and time-consuming. For this reason, the standard test is for one kind of
bacteria—the coliform group (Escherichia coli, better known as E. coli), which is
always present in the faecal wastes of humans (as well as those of many animals
and birds) and which outnumbers all other disease-producing organisms in water.
• The recommended maximum concentration of coliform bacteria is one organism
per 100 mL (about ½ cup) water.
Biological Characteristics
• For biological activity to be kept to a minimum in drinking water, a water source should be chosen that does
not normally support much plant or animal life, hence the popularity of groundwater rather than surface
water as a source.
• In addition, the supply should be protected from subsequent biological contamination.
• Where cities depend on small lakes for water, human beings are frequently excluded from the watersheds.
• Organic fertilizers and nutrient minerals should also be kept out of the water supply to further discourage
biological activity.
• For the same reason, stored water should be kept dark and at low temperatures.
• Finally, organisms (or their by-products) are commonly destroyed at treatment facilities.
 • Screening
• Plain sedimentation
• Filtration
Treatment of • Disinfection
Water • Aeration
• Softening
• Miscellaneous treatments
 Water Quality Problems and Treatment
Item Cause Bad Effect Correction
Clogging of pipes by scale,
burning out of boilers, and
Calcium and magnesium salts from impaired laundering and food Ion-exchanger (zeolite
Hardness underground flow preparation process)
Closing of iron pipe by rust,
Acidity, entrained oxygen and carbon leaking connections, destruction Raising the alkaline content (
Corrosion dioxide (low pH) of brass pipe neutralizer )
Chlorination by sodium
Biological Contamination by organic matter or hypochlorite or chlorine gas;
pollution sewage Disease or ozonation
Discoloration of fixtures and Chlorination or ozonation
Color Iron and manganese laundry and fine filtration
Filtration through activated
Taste and odor Organic matter Unpleasantness carbon (purifier); aeration
Silt or suspended matter picked up in
Turbidity surface or near-surface flow Unpleasantness Filtration
Transmission of
Water
Types of Conduits
1. Gravity Conduits
2. Pressure Conduits
Types of Pressure Pipes
• Cast iron pipes
• Steel pipes
• uPVC pipes
• Reinforced cement concrete pipes
Connection to water main
Water Meter
Taps
Bib tap Pillar tap
It is for wall fixing, normally about 150 mm It is used to supply water to basins, baths,
above a sanitary appliance. bidets and sinks.
Direct system of water supply
• For efficient operation, a high-pressure water supply is
essential particularly at periods of peak demand.
• Pipework is minimal in this system.
• Drinking water is available at every draw-off point and
maintenance valves should be fitted to isolate each
section of pipework.
• With every outlet supplied from the main, the
possibility of back siphonage must be considered.
• Back siphonage may occur when there is a high
demand on the main. Negative pressure can then draw
water back into the main from a submerged inlet, e.g. a
rubber tube attached to a tap or a shower fitting
without a check valve facility left lying in dirty bath
water.
Indirect system of water supply
• The indirect system of cold water supply has only one drinking
water outlet, at the sink.
• The cold water storage cistern has a minimum capacity of 230
litres, for location in the roof Space‘ In addition to its normal
supply function. it provides an adequate emergency storage in
the event of water main failure.
• The system requires more pipework than the direct system and is
therefore more expensive to install. But uniform pressure occurs
at all cistern-supplied outlets.
• The water authorities prefer this system as it imposes less
demand on the main.
• In addition, with fewer fittings attached to the main, there is less
chance of back siphonage.
• Other advantages of lower pressure include less noise and wear
on fittings, and the opportunity to install a balanced pressure
shower from the cistern.