UNIT 5 – Let’s Talk

As long as computers did not need to share data with other computers, or just
needed to share data with computers within wiring or walking distance, no inter-
computer communication standards were needed. This is especially true since the
data from one computer could only be shared with another computer that used the
same data format. It was impossible for different types of computers to share data.

Different standards developed not only in different countries, but within companies.
At one time, the US military had over 600 different languages and standards on its
computers – most unable to communicate with any other.

In order to come up with a way for all of the various computers to communicate with
each other, the various stakeholders – business, government, science, education –
called for standards to be developed. In the late 1970s, two international standards
bodies - the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the
International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT, from
French: Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique) undertook
projects to develop such standards. The two each developed a document that
defined similar networking models.

In 1983, these two documents were merged to form a standard called The Basic
Reference Model for Open Systems Interconnection (OSI). The standard is
usually referred to as the Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model, the
OSI Reference Model, or simply the OSI model. It was published in 1984 by both the
ISO, as standard ISO 7498, and the renamed CCITT (now called the
Telecommunications Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication
Union or ITU-T) as standard X.200.

In this model, a networking system was divided into seven layers (see below).
Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity
interacts directly only with the layer immediately beneath it and provides facilities
for use by the layer above it. Each layer could then be developed independently by
different companies, thus allowing many companies to participate (each major
company – IBM, UP, NEC – wanted their protocol to be the standard).

Therefore, Company A could develop software to implement the fifth layer (Session),
while two other companies could develop the software to interact with that software
for the fourth (Transport) and the sixth (Presentation).

While the concept was good, no company was about to not develop software and
hardware for as many layers as possible, especially the large companies, this was
especially true of fourth-sixth layers which were specific computer-based protocols
that each manufacturer of hardware and producer of software developed. Thus, not
only were software products unable to use the data from other software, software
could only be run on specific computers. This limited the usefulness of both
hardware and software and required costly rewrites and translations.

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UNIT 5 – Let’s Talk

Figure 1. The OSI Layers

http://www.expertsmind.com/CMSImages/219_The%20OSI%20reference%20Model.png

It is important to note that the model had not been implemented, but rather the
framework for which the model could be implemented was provided. Also, the year
it was released (1984) was seven years after the introduction of the microcomputer,
which had proliferated in business, education, and science. In addition, the mid-
sized computers (midis), such as the PDP-11, System 38, and the VAX also had
phenomenal growth in various fields. The need for an actual implemented standard
was imperative.

For that reason, starting in the late 1970s, the US Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency (DARPA) collaborated with a number of universities and scientific
organizations to develop a temporary protocol that could be implemented quickly and
easily. By 1981, they had developed a series of standards they named ARPANET,
which became TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). It was
limited in scope and implementation. Only six sites (2 military, 1 scientific, and 3
universities) were connected. This protocol was in a point-to-point configuration.
TCP/IP will be discussed in detail in a later unit.

As mentioned, TCP/IP was to be a temporary solution. Once the OSI model was
implemented, TCP/IP would either be incorporated into it or done away with
completely.

As happens with many committee-driven standards, reality overtook the proposed

standards. More and more sites, especially universities, wanted to be part of the
TCP/IP network which allowed for sharing of research. By the time the OSI model
guidelines had been issued, over 213 sites worldwide were using the “temporary”
standards. This included CERN (Centre de Research Nucleaire Europeé). When in
1989, Berners-Lee of CERN released software to enhance TCP/IP – Hypertext

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UNIT 5 – Let’s Talk

Transport Protocol (HTTP), which powered the World Wide Web (WWW) – the
“temporary” solution became the de facto standard.

There were attempts by the ISO and the ITU to replace TCP/IP with an OSI-
referenced software, but it was too late. Businesses had begun to adopt TCP/IP as
a way to connect computers with the outside world, the switchover would have
been too expensive for universities and scientific organizations, so the ISO
incorporated TCP/IP into the OSI model as an alternative implementation.

Figure 2. TCP/IP vs OSI

http://webpage.pace.edu/ms16182p/networking/osi-model.jpg

FACTOID: Before the implementation of the World Wide Web, all communication
between computers over the internet was text-based, usually on green screen
monitors (the backgrounds were either black with green letters, or green with white
letters). This did not, however, prevent users from playing text-based computer
games such as Zork, Moria, and Rogue.

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UNIT 5 – Let’s Talk
VOCABULARY
TECHNICAL
entity (n) – реальність, об’єкт,
сутність / элемент предметной
области базы данных, сущность-
объект
facility (n) - об'єкт, технічні засоби
інформаційної системи, засоби
захисту інформації \ технические
средства
framework (n) – модель, програмний
каркас, лаштування, рамка \
структура
functionality (n) – функціональність,
функціональні можливості \
технические возможности
implement (v) – впроваджувати,
реалізувати; выполнять
inter-computer (adj) -
міжкомп'ютерний
layer (n) – пласт, шар; слой
text-based (adj) – текстовий;
основанный на тексте
NON-TECHNICAL
adopt (v) – to start using – приймати;
принять
alternative (adj) – альтернатива
collaborate (v) – співпрацювати;
сотрудничать
concept (n) – концепція; понятие
do away with (v) – знищувати,
позбавлятися; уничтожать
guideline (n) – керівництво; инструкция
по работе
imperative (adj) - імператив;
повелительный
incorporated (adj) – made part of -
об'єднаний; встроенный
interact (v) - взаємодіяти;
взаимодействовать
midi (adj/n) – mid-sized - міді; средней
длины
overtake (v) - обігнати; обгон,
перепроизводство
phenomenal (adj) - феноменальний;
феноменальный
scope (n) - обсяг; объём и содержание
site (n) - сайт; месторасположение
specific (adj) - конкретний; с учётом
специфики
stakeholder (n) - зацікавлена сторона;
сторона, от которой зависят успех или
неудача
switchover (n) – перехід на …, перейти
на…; принятие совершенно
противоположной точки зрения
undertake (v) - зобов'язується;
принимать на себя ответственность
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UNIT 5 – Let’s Talk

ACTIVITIES:

1. Why do you think two international standards organizations began work

on communication standards?

2. Why did the US military develop TCP/IP with universities and research
organizations?

3. Was the old text-based communication used only for sharing research?
Why?

4. Why did TCP/IP become the de facto standard?

Vocabulary exercises

Exercise 1. Match the word / phrase with its definition

1) entity a) a piece of information that suggests how something should be

done
2) facility b) extremely important or urgent
3) framework c) to communicate with or react to each other
4) functionality d) to go beyond something by being a greater amount ordegree,
or to come from behind and move in front of
5) implement e) the range of matters considered or dealt with
6) layer f) a change from using or doing one thing to another
7) stakeholder g) to take responsibility for and begin doing something
8) undertake h) any or all of the operations performed by a piece of
equipment or a software program
9) switchover i) to put a plan or system into operation
10) scope j) a thin sheet of a substance on top of a surface, or a level
of material that is different from the material on either side
11) overtake k) a person ( or a group of people) such as
an employee, customer, or citizen who is involved with
an organization, society, etc. and
therefore has responsibilities towards it and an interest
in its success
12) interact l) the ideas, information, and principles that form the structure of
an organization or plan
13) guideline m) something such as a place, building, or equipment used for
a particular purpose or activity
14) imperative n) something that exists apart from other things, having its
own independent existence

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UNIT 5 – Let’s Talk

Exercise 2. Fill in the blanks with the words / phrases from the Unit.

specific site phenomenal midi incorporated concept collaborate

1) The fan club has its own Web _______________.

2) An efficient manager can do a ______________ amount of work in
one day.
3) Suggestions from the survey have been ____________ in the final
design.
4) In this city, time is an elastic _______________.

5) Personnel at Intel and MIT will _________________ on the study.

6) A _______________ system is a piece of high-
quality electronic equipment of medium size for playing music
7) The virus attacks _________________ programs on the computer.

Exercise 3. What does the abbreviation/acronym stand for?

1) TCP/IP vs OSI
2) ITU
3) ISO
4) CERN
5) DARPA
6) ITU-T
7) CCITT

Exercise 4. Use these prompts while preparing to present your answer

to the class.

1. With respect to (noun/gerund)…

2. Not only … but also …
3. As a result of (noun\gerund)…
4. Although\Even though (subject + verb), …
5. Taking everything into consideration, …
6. My own view of the matter is …
7. … any questions?

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UNIT 5 – Let’s Talk

Supplementary activities

Grammar

Exercise 5. Focus on the Adjectives.

1. Adjectives (adj.) describe nouns and have the same form in

the singular and plural, and normally they go before nouns.

The students have had high grades. (What kind of grades\a grade?
High ones\ a high one.)

2. There are

fact adjectives. opinion adjectives.

Large, triangular, turquoise, etc Stunning, magnificent, pretty, etc.

3. After state verbs (appear, be, become, get, feel, look, seem,
smell, sound, stay, taste) adjectives are used not adverbs.

The weather gets warm. (not: warmly)

4. Many common adjectives (nice, happy, etc) do not have particular

endings. However, there are some common endings for adj. formed
from nouns and verbs. These are:

-able -ent -ical -like

knowledgeable dependent satirical jellylike
-al -esque -ious -ly
presidential picturesque victorious friendly
-ant -ful -ish -ory
pleasant beautiful British explanatory
-ar -ian -ist -ous
rectangular Ukrainian rightist spacious
-ary -ible -ive -some
imaginary visible attractive troublesome
-ate -ic -less -y
affectionate polysyllabic endless wintry

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UNIT 5 – Let’s Talk

5. There are also compound adj. which are formed with:

Present participles,
A time-consuming activity, a hard-working student, a never-ending
game, etc.

Past participles,
A broken-down computer, home-made food, medium-sized office, etc.

Cardinal numbers + nouns,

A three-day workshop, a two-week vacation, a twenty-five minute break,
etc.

Well, badly, ill, poorly + past participle,

A well-written essay, poorly-equipped lab, ill-formed sentences, etc.

6. Certain adj. are used with the as nouns to talk about groups of
people in general,
The young, the employed, the rich, the strong, the disabled, the living,
etc.

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