Weistrass Approximation theorem

Lemma 1. Suppose g : [0, 1] → R is continuous. Then

there exists a polynomial p : [0, 1] → R such that for each
 > 0,
|g(t) − p(t)| <  (t ∈ [0, 1]).
Then the following is true. If f : [a, b] → R is a continuous
function, then there exists a polynomial q : [a, b] → R such
that for each  > 0,
|f (x) − q(x)| <  (x ∈ [a, b]).
Proof. Let  > 0.
Consider the function Φ : [0, 1] → [a, b] defined by Φ(t) =
(b − a)t + a. This is a one-one and onto function.
Let f : [a, b] → R be given. Define g : [0, 1] → R by
g(t) := f ((b − a)t + a).
g : [0, 1] → R is continuous.
Let q : [0, 1] → R be a polynomial such that
|g(t) − q(t)| <  (t ∈ [0, 1]).
Let x0 ∈ [a, b].
Then, x0 = (b − a)t0 + a for some t0 ∈ [0, 1].
Now, g(t0) = f (x0).
Also,
x0 − a
t0 = .
b−a
So,
x0 − a
q(t0) = q( ).
b−a
1
Define
x0 − a
p(x0) = q( ).
b−a
Then, p : [a, b] → R is a polynomial. Now
|g(t0) − q(t0)| < 
is same as
|f (x0) − q ◦ p(x0)| < .

2
 Bernstein polynomials
Fix n ∈ N. Let 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. Let
αk := nCk k = 0, 1, . . . , n.
n
nCk xk (1 − x)n−k = 1.
P
Identity 1:
k=0
Proof: Let β = x and γ = 1 − x. Then,
Xn
(β + γ)n = nCk β k γ n−k .
k=0
This gives
n
X
1n = 1 = nCk xk (1 − x)n−k .
k=0
n
x(1−x)
nCk xk (1 − x)n−k (x − nk )2 =
P
Identity 2: n .
k=0
Proof: Put gk (x) := nCk xk (1 − x)n−k . Then,
gk0 (x) = nCk (kxk−1(1 − x)n−k − (n − k)(1 − x)n−k−1xk ).
= nCk (xk−1(1 − x)n−k−1(k(1 − x) − (n − k)x)).
= nCk (xk−1(1 − x)n−k−1(k − nx)).
(1)
Now,
n
X n
X
gk0 (x) = nCk xk−1(1 − x)n−k−1(k − nx) = 0
k=0 k=0
To get rid of x−1, we multiply by x and 1 − x on both the sides.
This gives
Xn
nCk xk (1 − x)n−k (k − nx) = 0.
k=0

3
Put
h(x) = xk (1 − x)n−k .
This gives
h0(x) = −xk (n − k)(1 − x)n−k−1 + k(1 − x)n−k xk−1.
This is
xk−1(1 − x)n−k−1[kx − nx + k − kx)] =
xk−1(1 − x)n−k−1(k − nx).
So,
n
X
0


nCk h (x)(k − nx) − nh(x) = 0.
k=0
Note that n
X
nCk h0(x)(k − nx) = n.
k=0
Hence:
n
X
nCk xk−1(1 − x)n−k−1(k − nx)2 = n.
k=0

Multiply by x(1 − x):

n
X
nCk xk (1 − x)n−k (k − nx)2 = nx(1 − x).
k=0
2
Divide by n .
n
X k x(1 − x)
nCk xk (1 − x)n−k (x − )2 = .
n n
k=0

4
 Two identities:
n
X
nCk xk (1 − x)n−k = 1
k=0
n
X k x(1 − x)
nCk xk (1 − x)n−k (x − )2 = .
n n
k=0
Given a continuous function f : [0, 1] → R, define
n
X k
pn(x) = nCk xk (1 − x)n−k f ( ).
n
k=0

Consider
n n
X k X
nCk xk (1 − x)n−k f ( ) − nCk xk (1 − x)n−k f (x).
n
k=0 k=0
n
X k
nCk xk (1 − x)n−k (f ( ) − f (x)).
n
k=0
Let  > 0. We shall show that there exists n0 ∈ N such that
n ≥ n0 =⇒ kf − pnk∞ < .
This means, for any y ∈ [a, b],
n ≥ n0 =⇒ |f (y) − pn(y)| < .
Fix w ∈ [a, b].
First, by uniform continuity of f , note that, there exists δ > 0
such that
|x − y| < δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (y)| < .
5
Let M := max{|f (x)| : x ∈ [a, b]}. Choose n0 ∈ N such that
2M
n ≥ n0 =⇒ < .
n0δ 2
Consider
m
X k
pm(x) − f (x) = n0Ck xk (1 − x)m−k (f ( ) − f (x)),
m
k=0

where m ≥ n0. Partition

{0, 1, . . . , m} = Ω ∪ Ω0,
where
k k
Ω := {k : w ∈ (δ − , δ + )},
m m
Ω0 = {0, . . . , m} r Ω.
Consider
X k
n0Ck wk (1 − w)n−k |f ( ) − f (w)|.
m
k∈Ω

This is less than

X
n0Ck wk (1 − w)n−k  < 1() = .
k∈Ω

Consider
X k
n0Ck wk (1 − w)n−k |f ( ) − f (w)|.
c
m
k∈Ω

Now,
k
|w − | ≥ δ.
m
6
This means
k 2
δ 2 ≤ |w − |.
m
2
X k
δ mCk wk (1 − w)n−k |f ( ) − f (w)| ≤
m
k∈Ωc
X
2M mCk wk (1 − w)m−k δ 2 ≤
k∈Ωc
X k 2 w(1 − w) 2M
2M mCk wk (1 − w)m−k (w − ) = 2M ≤ .
m m m
k∈Ωc
(2)
So,
X k 2M
mCk wk (1 − w)n−k |f ( ) − f (w)| ≤ 2
.
c
m mδ
k∈Ω
As m ≥ n0,
2M
< .
mδ 2
Thus,
n ≥ n0 =⇒ |f (y) − pn(y)| < 2.
The proof is complete.

7
Theorem 1. Let f (t) := |t|. Suppose pn → f uniformly.
Then, there exist polynomials gn such that gn(0) = 0 con-
verging uniformly to f .
Proof. (pn(0)) is a sequence of real numbers. The limit is 0.
Put gn := pn − pn(0). We claim that gn → f uniformly. Let
 > 0. There exists N0 such that
n ≥ N0 =⇒ |pn(t) − f (t)| <  (t ∈ [a, b]).
Suppose n ≥ N0. Then,
|pn(t) − pn(0) − f (t)| < 2.

Theorem 2. Let a > 0 and f ∈ C[−a, a]. Suppose f (0) =

0. Let G be any open set containing f . Then, there exists
a polynomial p ∈ P [a, b] such that p ∈ G and p(0) = 0.
Proof. Consider a open ball B(f ).
By Weirstrass approximation theorem, there exists g ∈ P [a, b]
such that g ∈ B/2(f ).
m
aj tj .
P
Let g(t) =
j=0
Consider g̃(t) = a1t + · · · + amtm.
We know that
kg − f k∞ < /2.
So,
|g(t) − f (t)| < /2 (t ∈ [a, b]).
In particular, for t = 0,
|a0 − f (0)| = |a0| < /2.
8
So,
|g̃(t) − f (t)| = |g(t) − f (t) − a0| < |g(t) − f (t)| + |a0| < .
This means
g̃ ∈ B(f ).

Theorem 3. Let X be a compact metric space. Let f ∈

C(X). Let A be a closed algebra of C(X). Then, |f | ∈ A.
Proof. Put a := kf k∞.
Consider C[−a, a].
Let g : [−a, a] → R be g(t) = |t|.
Consider an open ball B(|f |).
Consider B(g).
There exists p ∈ P [−a, a] such that p(0) = 0 and p ∈ B(g).
So,
|p(t) − g(t)| <  for all t ∈ [−a, a].
Let x ∈ X. Then, f (x) ∈ [−a, a]. So,
|p(f (x)) − g(f (x))| < .
Note:
g(f (x)) = |f (x)|.
m
aiti.
P
As p(0) = 0, p(t) =
i=1
So,
m
X
p◦f = aif.
i=1

9
Therefore, p ◦ f ∈ A.
Now,
kp ◦ f − |f |k∞ < .
This means,
p ◦ f ∈ B(|f |).
So, |f | is a limit point of A.
As A is closed, |f | ∈ A.
Let F be a non-empty set of (X, d). We say that f ∈ X is
a limit point of F if:
• Any open set containing f contains a point y ∈ F such
that y 6= f .
Lemma 2. Suppose F is closed. Then, f ∈ F if and only
if every open set G containing f has a point x ∈ F .
We say that a algebra A of C(X) separates points if:
x ∈ X and y ∈ X, x 6= y =⇒ There exists f ∈ A such that
f (x) 6= f (y).
Stone Weirstrass theorem:
Theorem 4. Let X be a compact metric space. Let A be a
closed algebra of C(X). Suppose A separates points. Sup-
pose the function f such that f (x) ≡ 1 lies in A. Then, A
is dense in X.
Proof.

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