RAIN WATER HARVESTING

CIU 07426
 INTRODUCTION
• Definitions and Meaning
• Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is defined as any system that
encompasses methods for collecting, concentrating and
storing various forms of runoff for various purposes.
• Rainwater harvesting is defined as a method for inducing,
collecting, storing and conserving local surface runoff (rain
or surface water flow that occurs when soil is infiltrated to
full capacity) for agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions
(Boers and Ben-Asher, 1982).
• Both small and large-scale structures are used for
rainwater harvesting collection and storage including
water pans, tanks, reservoirs and dams.
 Introduction ...
Commonly used rainwater harvesting systems
are constructed from three principal
components:
• Roof top
• Ground Surface
• Rock Surface
 Historical Background
• RWH is one of the oldest means of collecting
water for domestic purposes.
• It was also a common technique throughout the
Mediterranean and Middle East.
• In third millennium BC, India was using simple
stone-rubble structures for impounding rainwater
• Water collected from roofs and other hard
surfaces was stored in underground reservoirs
(cisterns) with masonry domes.
 Historical Background...
• Western Europe, the Americas and Australia,
rainwater was often the primary water source
for drinking water.
• All three continents it continues to be an
important water source for isolated
homesteads and farms
 IMPORTANCE OF RWH
Rainwater harvesting is essential because it may be
used to enhance the following:
• Crop production in areas where it is normally not
feasible
• Higher productivity (higher yields and less risk)
• Pasture improvement
• Soil conservation
• Improved re-afforestation
• Suppression of salinity in soil (more productive land)
• Groundwater recharge
• Water conservation
 RWH Limitation
• Climatic risks still exist
• No guarantee for high yields
• Methods scientifically not well established
• Very often limited experience of extension service
• Possible conflicts between people upstream and
downstream
• Possible harm to fauna and flora
• Large schemes and structures are difficult to
implement (need acceptance by people, political
backing and financial support
 Rainwater harvesting revival
• In the last two decades, interest in rainwater
harvesting has grown. Its utilization is now an
option along with more 'traditional' water supply
technologies, particularly in rural areas.

• It is of particular importance and relevance for

arid and semi-arid lands, small coral and volcanic
islands, and remote and scattered human
settlements.
 External Factors for RWH
• The shift towards more community-based approaches and
technologies which emphasise participation, ownership and
sustainability;
• The increased use of small-scale water supply for productive and
economic purposes (livelihoods approach);
• The decrease in the quality and quantity of ground- and surface
water;
• The failure of many piped water supply systems due to poor O&M;
• The flexibility and adaptability of rainwater harvesting technology;
• The replacement of traditional roofing (thatch) with impervious
materials (e.g. tiles and corrugated iron);
• The increased availability of low-cost tanks (e.g. made of ferro-
cement or plastics).
 RWH SOURCES AND TYPES
• RWH classification
– Types of Catchment surface used
– by implication of the scale of activity
– Reliability i.e Occasional, Intermittent, Partial
and Full
The figure below illustrate the RWH systems
RWH CATCHMENT SYSTEMS
 Rainwater systems can further be classified by
their reliability, which gives four types of user
regimes:
i. Occasional - water is stored for only a few days
in a small container. Suitable when there is a
uniform rainfall pattern with very few days
without rain and there is a reliable alternative
water source nearby.
ii. Intermittent - in situations with one long
rainy season when all water demands are met
by rainwater; however, during the dry season
water is collected from non-rainwater sources.
Rainwater systems can further be classified by
their reliability, which gives four types of user
regimes:
iii. Partial - rainwater is used throughout the year but the
'harvest' is not sufficient for all domestic demands. For
instance, rainwater is used for drinking and cooking ,
while for other domestic uses (e.g. bathing and laundry)
water from other sources is used.
iv. Full - for the whole year, all water for all domestic
purposes is rainwater. In such cases, there is usually no
alternative water source other than rainwater, and the
available water should be well managed, with enough sto
rage to bridge the dry period.
 Advantages of RWH
• Rainwater Harvesting provides a good supplement to
other water sources, thus relieving pressure to other
water source
• It can supply as buffer and can be used in times of
emergency or break down of public water supply system
• It reduces the storm drainage load and flooding in the
cities
• It is a flexible technology, and can be built to require
meets of any range
• Prevent water wasting to prevent surface run-off and
erosion
• Sustain and safeguard the existing water table
through recharge
EXAMPLES OF RWH FOR DOMESTIC
• Japan at Sumida City (part of Tokyo)
• Fiji small island, fresh groundwater is not
commonly available.
• Thailand, In less than five years (in the 1980s),
more than 10 million 2m3 concrete tanks.
• USA: more than 250,000 households make
use of RWH.
 ROOF TOP CATCHMENTS
• Technologies for domestic rainwater harvesting
(DWRH)
DRWH systems have three main components
• the catchment surface (roof and other surfaces)
• the delivery system to transport the water from
the roof to the storage reservoir (gutters and
drainpipe)
• the reservoir to store the rainwater until it is
used
 PICTURE ILLUSTRATION

AT Makanya village, Same

Schematic of a rainwater harvesting
system
 Materials for rooftop harvesting
• Material includes:
1. Galvanised corrugated iron or plastic sheets,
or tiles
• Thatched roofs made from palm leaves
• Unpainted and uncoated surface areas are best
• Asbestos-cement roofing does not pose health
risks
• Timber or bamboos are also used for gutters and
drainpipes
 Materials...
• The efficiency of rainwater collection depends on
the materials used, the construction,
maintenance and the total rainfall.
A commonly used overall efficiency figure is 0.8.
NOTE, If cement tiles material(0.75)
clay tiles collect usually less than (0.5)
Plastic materials (0.8-0.9)
 Gutters and downpipes
• Ninety percent (90%) or more of the rainwater
collected on the roof will be drained to the
storage tank if the gutter and downpipe system
is properly fitted and maintained.
• Common material, metal, plastics, cement-
based products, bamboo and wood
• high intensity rains in the tropics, rainwater may
shoot over the conventional gutter, resulting in a
low production; splash guards can prevent this
spillage
Gutters and downpipes ...
Gutters and downpipes ...
 First flush and filter screens
• The first rains drain the dust, bird droppings,
leaves etc. that lie on the roof surface
• In practice, preparation and cleaning of the roof
surface before the first rains hardly ever happens
• To prevent these pollutants and contaminants
getting into the storage tank, the first rainwater
containing the debris must therefore be diverted
or flushed
First flush and filter screens...
 DEBRIS & LEAVES
• Screens to retain larger debris such as leaves
can be installed in the downpipe or at the tank
inlet
• Here the preparations before the first rains are
easier and simple gravel-sand filters
can be installed at the entrance of the storage
tank
 STORAGE TANKS & RESERVOIRS
• There are two categories
 surface or above-ground tanks; most common
for roof collection;
Sub-surface or underground tanks; common
for ground catchment systems
 STORAGE TANKS & RESERVOIRS...
• The storage reservoir is usually the most
expensive part of the system so the design and
construction needs due attention to achieve a
durable product.
• The tank must be constructed in such a way that it
is durable and watertight, and that the collected
water does not become contaminated
 STORAGE TANKS & RESERVOIRS...
• Materials for surface tanks include metal, wood,
plastic, fibreglass, brick, inter-locking blocks,
compressed soil or rubble-stone blocks, ferro-
cement and concrete
• The choice of material depends on local
availability and affordability. In most countries,
plastic tanks in various volumes are commonly
available in the market. They are generally more
expensive than underground tanks.
STORAGE TANKS & RESERVOIRS...
 STORAGE TANKS & RESERVOIRS...
• The Tank size depends on rainfall pattern and
user group.
• The common size 1m3 to 40m3 –household
• Schools and Hospitals needs 100m3

• The capacity of the storage tank is based upon

several design criteria: rainfall patterns and
volume, the duration of the dry period and,
of course, the estimate of demand.
 Designing a rainwater harvesting
system
• The rainfall is the important data and should
not be less than 10years.
• It is obtained from meteorological station i.e.
TMA
• Coefficient of surface runoff
• Catchment area
 Water Demand
• For scarce water, 20ltrs per person is used
• Water demand depend on socio-economic
condition and different use of domestic uses.

• Water demand = 20 x n x 365 litres/year, with

n = number of people in the household.
 Water Supply
• Depends on the
annual rainfall,
the roof surface and
the runoff coefficient

Supply = rainfall (mm/year) x area (m2) x runoff

coefficient
 Water Supply...
EXAMPLES
 metal sheet roof of 80m2 , rainfall 800mm and
coefficient runoff 0.8
S= CIA
S=800 x 80 x 0.8 = 51,200 litres/year
 Planning and Management
• DRWH needs to be seen as only part of a system to
meet the overall water requirements of a household
or community.
• Rainwater harvesting planning should be people-
centred and considers:-
 socio-economic,
 cultural,
 institutional, and
 gender issues into account,
 as well as people's perceptions,
 preferences and abilities.
 FACTORS FOR SUCCESS OF DRWH
 Project starts small and grows slowly to allow for
testing and modification of design and
implementation strategy
 Demand for water is clearly expressed
 Full involvement of both sexes in all project stages;
and
 Substantial contributions from the people in ideas,
funds and labour
 Potential effects and impacts
• Reduction of burdens of the poor: less time spent
in collecting water (particularly women and
children);
• Reduction in water-related diseases as quality is
usually better than water from traditional
sources; impact is less sick days, savings on
medical expenses and time for more economic
activities;
 Potential effects...
 improved health status as excess rainwater used
for vegetable and crop growing gives improved
diet
 less back problems and growth reduction
particularly among children and women as
transportation of heavy loads over long
distances is reduced.
 Potential effects and impacts...
 Improved economic and health status from the
income from vegetable and other crops, and
other economic activities using excess rainwater;

 More time for education and personal

development, particularly for young girls as time
saved is now used for school attendance or
homework.
 GROUND WATER CATCHMENT
SYSTEM
• This catchment is found just at the
ground/soil.
• Since the ground may consist different
natural features like rocks and the
manmade structures.
GROUND WATER CATCHMENT SYSTEM...
• Rocks is one of the natural feature for water
harvesting which provides ground catchment, i.e
occurring rock outcrops
• The ground water catchment system includes
i. Rock Catchment
ii. Pavement and Road Catchment
iii. Compacted ground/elevated catchment
 Rock Catchment...
• The concrete wall is constructed at the
downstream of the rock to provides the
catchment for water storage facilities
• Surface runoff is generated at upstream and the
storage provided at downstream which is suitable
for domestic rainwater harvesting.
GROUND WATER CATCHMENT...

Rock catchment in Mutomo, Kitui, Kenya

 Pavement and Road Catchment
• Pavements and roads/highways are structures
that limit the infiltration hence generate surface
runoff that can be harvested.
• At the road sides of the highways in Tanzania
during construction have left behind borrow pits
that are now storages for domestic and livestock
use. i.e roads surface as a catchment and borrow
pits used as a storages.
• Some of borrow pit are left in its natural ground
and others their floors may be sealed using
polythene sheet or treated surface.
 Pavement and Road Catchment

RWH from roadside with storage structures and their conveyances

Compacted ground/elevated catchments
• Water is harvested from naturally compacted
surfaces like central Dodoma-Tanzania
• The harvesting feature is locally called
Mabarangu.
• This the surface may be man made and elevated
• In this case the surface may be made of concrete
to enhance runoff generation
Compacted ground/elevated catchments...

Illustrations in figures of the elevated catchment

 RWH Crop water production
• The rainwater harvesting in this nature is done in
the field of cultivation.
• The RWH during cultivation is called in-situ
rainwater harvesting.
• In this type there is no storage facility other than
conserving the moisture directly into ground by
certain technology common to the farmers for
crop production
 Types of In-situ RWH
• There are several types of in-situ rainwater
harvesting depending on the culture and native
farmers named it.
• There is no common technological names other
than one to two and more.
• In the manual prepared, there are about nine(9)
types applicable in the country.
 Types of In-situ RWH...
• These are as follows:-
 Matengo/Ngoro pits
 Deep tillage
 Large planting pits
 Terraces
 Ditches/Makinga maji
 Macro catchment
 Macro catchment
Diverting run-off from
rangeland
 Flood water diversion
 Excavated banded basin
(EBB- Majaluba )
 Macro catchment with
storage
 Matengo/Ngoro pits
• This is called soil-water conservation with
techniques for preventing runoff and promoting
infiltration.
• Rain is conserved where it falls, but no additional
runoff is introduced from elsewhere
• The moisture is retained at the cropped area
• This RWH techniques is practised in Tanzania such
as Dodoma, Shinyanga, Mwanza, Singida,
Kilimanjaro, Runkwa and Tabora. See the figure
below:
 Matengo/Ngoro pits...

Matengo pits in Rukwa Region

 Deep tillage...
• This techniques involves loosening of soil &
creation of rough soil surface
• This methods facilitates water infiltration and
improves soil-water conservation for plant growth
• The most common crop grown under this
technology are maize, beans, bananas etc
•
 Large planting pits
• This technology involves concentrating rainwater
into small area and optimize the availability for
seeds and plant roots.
• This improves the availability of water for plant
growth.
• The suitable plants for this technology are maize
and tree plants grown in Kilimanjaro and
Shinyanga.
 Terraces
• This is techniques of trying to level the sloping
ground to reduce the water velocity and allow
infiltration
• Nearly level steps are constructed or formed on the
contour and separated by embankments.
• The techniques are normally constructed in steep
land by using stone for embankment where are
available
• This technique reduces surface run-off, erosion and
improves water infiltration, crops are maize, beans
and vegetables. (Mara, Mwanza, Kilimanjaro &Mara)
 Terraces...

Terraces constructed using stone bunds in Same District, Kilimanjaro Region

 Ditches (Makinga Maji)
• The ditches are made along with contour to
reduce surface run-off and catch water to
infiltrate.
• The techniques also is the methods of
protecting soil from erosion
• The commonly crops are maize, beans,
vegetables,
• Kilimanjaro is much practised
 Macro catchment
• This comprises a group of techniques of collecting
surface run-off and stored from external
catchment which includes stream
flows/gully diversion,
Diversion from rangeland
Diversion from roads
Foot paths
Stock roots
 excavated bunded basins or majaluba
 Macro catchment...
• Diverting run-off from rangelands
This includes diversion of flood water from
rangeland to cultivated land or storage structure
i.e charcoal dam
The techniques is used in semi-arid area like
Dodoma, Singida, Tabora, part of Kilimanjaro and
Shinyanga
Common crops maize, beans and rice
 Flood water diversion
• This system involves diversion of flood from
ephemeral streams and conveying it to a cropped
area or storage structures
• It involves diversion & conveyances infrastructure
• It is referred to spate irrigation
• Practised in Dodoma, Singida,
• Shinyanga, Tabora, Kilimanjaro and Mwanza
• System is promoted by MoAFS under Participatory
Irrigation Development Project (PIDP)
• In Bahi & Chikuyu- increase yield 4.5t/ha of paddy
 Food diversion...

Flood water diversion in Same District, Kilimanjaro Region

Excavated bunded basins (EBB, majaluba)
• The Excavated bund basins are constructed by
digging to a depth of 0.2-0.5m and using the
scooped soil to build a bund around the field
perimeter.
• The practice is commonly done on the lower
plains suited for lowland rice (paddy) production
• Majaruba is a form of floodwater harvesting
(FWH) that is being used to support paddy
production on "mbuga" soils, which are vertic,
black-grey cracking clays around Dodoma, Singida,
Tabora, Shinyanga and Mwanza.
• It is estimated that 32% of rice in Tanzania is
produced under the majaruba system
• In Tabora & Shinyanga the land is subdivided
in bands of depth 25-100cm height to form a
cultivated reservoir.
• But still production is low compared to well-
managed irrigation (6t/ha)
Excavated bunded basins (EBB, majaluba)

The Majaluba RWH technology, practised in Shinyanga, Mwanza,

Tabora, Dodoma and Singida Regions
 Macro-catchment with storage
• The methods of rainwater harvesting is done by
harvesting water and storing.
• These includes storage ponds and ponds in river
bed
• This is applicable in area with annual rainfall of
800mm and below.
• Regions like Dodoma, Shinyanga, Tabora, Singida
and Mwanza fall under lower rainfall.
• RWH techniques mitigate erratic and
unpredictable rainfall.
Macro-catchment with storage...

Water storage pond in Same, Kilimanjaro Region.

 Crop production RWH System
• Any system needs design.
• RWH for crop production also needs design that
considers local traditions and indigenous
techniques, where these exist.
• Catchment is the source of surface run-off, hence
the quantity of water harvested is related to the
catchment and
• The ratio between the catchment area and the size
of the cultivated plot
• Engineering design of RWH begins with
calculation of catchment area and then
cultivated area i.e C: Ca
• Therefore, the optimal ratio is calculated
from:-
 Crop water requirement
 A selected level of reliable rainfall
 Average rainfall
 Run-off coefficient
 Efficient factors
 Crop production RWH System...
• Selection of rainwater harvesting techniques
depends on various factors.
 Climate and hydrology
RWH is suitable in semi-arid area (300 -
700mm average annual rainfall) and arid area
(100-300mm)
Topography and hydrology
 Ground slope is the limiting factor in RWH.
 Higher slope provide uneven distribution of
surface run-off
 Crop production RWH System...
Soil and Soil fertility
Soil characteristics like infiltration rate,
water holding capacity, nutrients(fertility),
sodicity or low salinity, sufficient root
depth
Water requirement
Different Crop and livestock have different
water requirement
Technology(Technical criteria)
RWH requires simple technology-select
“Easy to build and cheap to finance technique”
RWH for Livestock
Read page 31-35
 End
Asanteni sana