DME 303 Mathematics 1 Stage 1

LECTURE NOTES
ED-201-1
ENGINEER OFFICER CADET TRAINING PROGRAMME – STAGE 1
DME303 Mathematics 1
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1st Issue Date: 2014.08.11 Revision No. 00 Revision Date: N/A Authority : CEO
Department Marine Engineering
Course Approval
Course Code ED 201-1 MTP/01/ED-201/2014
No:
MSAF Training Course
MS 12/10/19 Approval Date: 2015/11/20
Reference No:
Reviewed By Subject Lecturer Sig.
Mr. Sunia Biu
Approved By Head of Department Sig.
Lavaki
1st Issue Date: 2014/08/11 Revisions: As per revision Table
STCW 1978, As Amended Reg. III/1, Sec. A III/1,Table A- III/1
IMO Model Course: 7.04 (2014 Edition)
Designed & Developed By: Colombo International Nautical and Engineering College (CINEC)
Table of Revisions
Date of Revision Description of Revision HoD’s

Revision Referenc Signature
e No.
Contents
Learning the Basics................................................................................................................................4
Product..............................................................................................................................................4
Factor................................................................................................................................................5
Coefficient.........................................................................................................................................5
Power................................................................................................................................................5
Algebraic Expression..........................................................................................................................6
Simple and Compound Expression....................................................................................................6
Like and Unlike Terms........................................................................................................................7
Brackets.............................................................................................................................................7
Addition and Subtraction in Algebra..................................................................................................9
Complex Multiplication.......................................................................................................................12
Multiplication..................................................................................................................................12
Fractions..........................................................................................................................................15
Addition and Subtraction.................................................................................................................16
Simplifying expressions.......................................................................................................................23
Ratios...................................................................................................................................................23
Indices.................................................................................................................................................35
Calculations.........................................................................................................................................42
Algebra................................................................................................................................................47
Factors.................................................................................................................................................48
Solving Equations................................................................................................................................49
Simple Equation...............................................................................................................................49
Transposing of Equations....................................................................................................................50
Formula Transposition.........................................................................................................................51
Simultaneous Equations...................................................................................................55
Solution by Substitution..................................................................................................................56
Solution by Elimination....................................................................................................................56
Quadratic Solution by Formula........................................................................................................60
Trigonometry.......................................................................................................................................61
Angular Motion................................................................................................................................61
Angular Displacement ()................................................................................................................62
Lecture Notes Page 1 of 9

Angles and Triangles............................................................................................................................65
Angle...................................................................................................................................................66
Triangles..............................................................................................................................................66
Trigonometry and Angle Measurement...........................................................................................68
Trigonometric Functions..................................................................................................................69
Trigonometric Function of an Acute Angle.....................................................................69
Rule of Signs....................................................................................................................72
Mensuration.......................................................................................................................................73
A sector of a circle...........................................................................................................................74
Area of a parallelogram...................................................................................................................75
Defines a centurion.........................................................................................................................75
Deduces a formula for the areas of a segment of a circle................................................................76
Area of a segement of a circle.........................................................................................................76
Volume of a cylinder........................................................................................................................77
Volume of a cone.............................................................................................................................77
Defines centre of volume................................................................................................................78
Simpson's First Rule.........................................................................................................................79
Graphs.................................................................................................................................................85
2-D and 3-D Coordinates.................................................................................................................85
Explain Axis of Reference, Scales, Coordinates..............................................................................85
Sketch Linear and Quadratic Graphs....................................................................................................86
Sketching and Plotting.........................................................................................................................88
Explain Equation of a Straight Line.......................................................................................................88
Independent and Dependent Variables.................................................................................................89
Introduce Independent and Dependent Variables..........................................................................89
The Best Fit......................................................................................................................................89
Sketches Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions....................................................................................90
Calculus...............................................................................................................................................96
Functions.........................................................................................................................................96
Exponential Functions.....................................................................................................................96
Inverse Functions and Logarithms...................................................................................................96
Finding the inverse from a graph.....................................................................................................97
Limits and Derivatives................................................................................................................106
The Tangent and Velocity Problems..............................................................................................107

Velocity Problems..............................................................................................................................107
Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws.............................................................................................109
Theorems on limits.....................................................................................................................110
Limits of polynomials..................................................................................................................112
Continuous Functions.................................................................................................................113
A continuous function.................................................................................................................114
Derivatives and Rates of Change...................................................................................................121
The Derivative of a Function..........................................................................................................121
Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions..................................................................122
Derivative of the Exponential Function...................................................................................123
The Product and Quotient Rules....................................................................................................129
Differentiation – The Product Rule................................................................................................131
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions.........................................................................................134
The Chain Rule...............................................................................................................................138
An introduction to Integration.......................................................................................................140
Matrices.............................................................................................................................................141
Null matrices..................................................................................................................................148
Square Matrices.............................................................................................................................149

Mathematics 1
Learning the Basics
In Arithmetic all numbers are expressed in terms of the digits, all of which have definitive
values. In Algebra, these digits are used with some symbols, which usually do not have any
single values.
Algebra uses all the definitions and methods of arithmetic, so the signs (+, -, x, , =) have the
same meaning as in arithmetic. However, applications are much wider to include quantities
that are not found in arithmetic. Some of the basic rules and processes applied in algebra are
given below.
Product
When two or more numbers are multiplied, the result is called the product of the numbers.
In arithmetic, the product of the two number 5 and 9 is written:
5 x 9.
In algebra the product of two symbol “a” and “b” may be written in three different ways.
They are:
a x b, or
a .b or simply
ab
The “x” sign and “.” have the same meaning.
Factor
Quantities that are multiplied together to form a product are called factors of the product. For
example,
7  a = 7a.
The number “7” and the symbol “a” are the factors of the product “7a”.
Coefficient
In a product, if one of the factors is a number and the other is a symbol, the number is
usually called the coefficient of the symbol.
Looking at the previous example, the product of factors “7” and “a” is:
7a
“7” is a number and “a” is a symbol. Thus, “7” is the coefficient of the symbol “a”.
symbol
7a
coefficient
In algebra very often the coefficient contains symbols too. For example in,
4by2
4b is the coefficient of y2.
Power
When a factor (i.e. a number or symbol) is multiplied by itself, the product is called the
power of that factor. For example,
22 is called the 2nd power of 2

555 is called the 3rd power of 5.
The power of a number or symbol is expressed as below:
2  2 = 22
5  5  5 = 53
a  a  a  a = a4
Therefore, for symbol,

a  a  a  a  a  a  a ……. up to n factors = an
Algebraic Expression
A group of numbers connected by the signs +, -, x and  is called an algebraic

expression. For example,
a + (b + c)
Term
Each part of an expression separated by + and – sign is called a term. The signs x and  do
not separate terms. For example:
a . b +2a  3b
consists of two terms, (note: “.” is the same as “x”). They are:

a  b and 2a  3b
Similarly,
2a – 5c  5b + 2a  3b + a  b
consists of four terms. They are:
2a, 5c  5b, 2a  3b, and a  b.
Simple and Compound Expression
A simple expression consists of one term only. For example,
4d, 5c  5b, and 2a  3b.
A compound expression consists of two or more terms. For example,
a  b +2a  3b or 3a – 5c  5b + 2a  3b + a  b
Like and Unlike Terms
The terms with the same symbol are called like terms. For example,
5a, 2a, -3a are like terms and
5bx2, 2bx2, -3bx2 are like terms.
The terms with different symbols are called unlike terms. For example,
5cb, 2ab, 4xy2, 9b2c are unlike terms.
Like terms may have different numerical coefficients.
Brackets
Brackets such as ( ), [ ], and { } are used to show that the terms inside them are to be
considered and treated as one quantity.
For example in:
a + (b + c)
“c” has to be added to “b” and the result then added to “a”. Similarly in,
a + (b - c)
“c” has to be subtracted from “b” and the result then added to “a”.
Example
Simplify the algebraic expression given below,
8a + (4a - 2b) - (3b + 3a)
= 8a + 4a - 2b - 3b - 3a (Remove brackets)
= 8a + 4a - 3a – 2b - 3b (Add the like terms)
= 9a - 5b
There are certain rules to be followed when removing brackets in an

algebraic expression.
Rule 1: If there is “+” sign before the bracket in an expression such as,
a + (b + c)
the bracket can be removed without making any change in the expression,
a + (b + c) becomes a + b + c.
Rule 2: If there is “ – ” sign before the bracket in an expression such as,
a – (b + c)
then when the bracket is removed, every sign (+ and – sign only) within the bracket
will change. Thus, the above becomes,
a–b–c
Also a – (b – c) becomes a – b + c.
If there are several sets of brackets, one inside the other, then it is essential to
remove the innermost pair first and work outwards. Consider the following
example.
Example
Simplify the following expression:
ac – (ad + (c – (d + x – (zy +cd) - bc – bd))).
This is simplified by removing the innermost brackets and working outwards.
= ac - (ad + (c - (d + x - zy - cd - bc - bd))) (innermost bracket removed)
= ac - (ad + (c - d - x + zy + cd + bc + bd)) (next set of bracket removed)
= ac – (ad + c - d + x + zy + cd + bc + bd) (next set of bracket removed)

= ac – ad - c + d - x - zy - cd - bc - bd (finial set of bracket removed)
Remember to apply the Rules 1 and 2 at each bracket removal step.
Also the sign change rule applies to “+” and “-” signs only.
It is also possible to reverse the procedure, i.e. put back brackets. This is
especially useful when grouping together like terms. Consider the following
expression,
8a + 4a - 2b - 3b - 3a
First group all the like terms:
8a + 4a - 3a – 2b - 3b
It is now possible to express this using brackets as follows:
(8 + 4 – 3)a – (2 + 3)b
Note: the coefficients of like terms are grouped into one bracket. This can then be
solved to give,
9a – 5b
Now attempt the following activities.
Activity 1.1
Remove the brackets in the following expressions:
1. x + 3 - 4 (x -1)
2. (c + d) + (c - d)
3. (ac - ad) + (bc - bd)
4. (x + 4) - (x + 5)
5. x - 5 - (4 + b(x + 5))
Solution
Activity 1.1
1. -3x + 7
2. 2c
3. ac - ad + bc - bd
4. -1
5. x – bx –5b - 9

Addition and Subtraction in Algebra
The addition and subtraction has the same meaning in algebra as in arithmetic,
with only a slight difference. The difference is that in algebra you can add or
subtract only like terms, and the result will be a single like term. For example:
7ax – 4ax = 3ax and
9xy2 + 5xy2 = 14xy2.
When the terms are unlike they cannot be collected and expressed as one term. For
example, when adding “a” to “b”, the simplest result we get is “a + b”.
Similarly, if we subtract “4x2y” from “6xy2” we get “6ay2 – 4x2y”.
Examples of such additions and subtractions are given below. Once you have
studied them, try to work them out on your own.
Example:
Solve the following expressions:
1. 6x + 5x + 3x = 14x
2. 2ab + 9ab + 7ab = 18ab
3. x+y+z=x+y+z
4. (5xy + 3yz + 2zx) + (6yz + 5zx + 3xy) + (6zx + 9xy + 2yz)
1. 6x + 5x + 3x = 14x
2. 2ab + 9ab + 7ab = 18ab

3. x + y + z = x + y + z
4. (5xy + 3yz + 2zx) + (6yz + 5zx + 3xy) + (6zx + 9xy + 2yz)
In this case it is needed to first group the like terms together. This can be achieved by
arrange the like terms under one another as:
5xy + 3yz + 2zx

+ 3xy + 6yz + 5zx
+ 9xy + 2yz + 6zx
17xy + 11yz + 13zx
Note: any term, number, or symbol without a sign is positive, e.g.,
7=+7
a=+a
9xy = +9xy.
Example
Solve the following expressions:
1. 16x - 5x - 3x
2. 9ab + 2ab - 7ab
3. x - y - z
4. Subtract “3ab - 5bc - 6ca” from “5ab - 6c + 3ca”
1. 16x - 5x - 3x = 8x
2. 9ab + 2ab - 7ab = 4ab
3. x - y - z = x - y – z
4. Subtract “3ab - 5bc - 6ca” from “5ab - bc + 3ca” , i.e.,
(5ab - bc + 3ca) – (3ab - 5c - 6ca)
In this case it is needed to first group the like terms together. This can be achieved by
arrange the like terms under one another as:
5ab - bc + 3ca first write the term to be subtracted from

−¿ 3ab - 5bc - 6ca then write the second term, remembering to
2ab + 4bc + 9ca change the sign (Rule 2) inside the bracket,
and then add them.
Example
Solve the following expression,
(8xy + 3yz - 2zx) + ( 6yz + 5zx + 3xy) - (6zx + 9xy + 2yz)
Now arrange the like terms under one another, remember to change the sign (Rule 2) inside
the bracket, and then add them together.
8xy + 3yz - 2zx

+ 3xy + 6yz + 5zx
- 9xy - 2yz - 6zx
2xy + 7yz - 3zx
Example
Simplify and solve the following expressions:

2[x - 3 (x + 2)]
3[x - 2 (x - (x + 2)) + 4]
3. 2[x + 3 - 4 (x -1)]
4. 4{x - 3y (x + 2) - xy}
1. 2[x - 3 (x + 2)]
= 2[x - 3 x - 3 (2)]
= 2[x - 3x - 6]
= 2x - 6x - 12
2. 3[x - 2 (x - (x + 2)) + 4]
= 3[x - 2 (x - x - 2) + 4]
= 3[x + 4 + 4]
= 3x + 24
3. 2[x + 3 - 4 (x -1)]
= 2[x + 3 - 4x + 4]
= 2[-3x + 7]
= - 6x + 14
4. 4{x - 3y (x + 2) - xy}
= 4{x - 3xy - 6y - xy}
= 4{x - 4xy - 6y}
= 4x - 16xy - 24y
Activity 1.2
Simplify the following expressions by removing the brackets and collecting

the like terms:
a) 2x - 4y - (3x - 2y) + (4x - 5y) - (3x - 4y) + 5x

b) 3a2 - (b2 + c2) - (c2 - 2a2) - (2a2 - b2 - 2c2)
Find the sum of following expressions:
a) 5ab + 3bc – ca; 7ab - 5bc - 3ca; -9ab + 7bc - 5ca

b) -xy + 3yz + zx; 2xy - yz + 4zx; 6xy - 3yz -5zx
Solve the following:
a) deduct 6a + 4b - 2c - 3d from a - 3b + 6c - 5d
b) deduct 4 - 3y + 5xy - xy2xy from - 3x2 + 6x –5
Simplify the following:
a) 3 {x - 2 [x + 3y - x (2 - 4y)] + xy}
b) 2 {x2 - y + x (y - 3 [x + y - (2x + y)] - xy) + y}

Activity 1.2
1. a) 5x - 3y, b) 3a2
2. a) 3ab + 5bc - 9ac, b) 7xy - yz
3. a) -5a - 7b + 8c - 2d, b) -3x2 + 6x -9 + 3y + 5xy + x2 y3
4. a) 9x - 18y - 21xy, b) 8x2 + 2xy - 2x2y
Complex Multiplication
Multiplication
Consider the multiplication of the complex expression,
(a + b) x (c + d).
There is a simple rule to follow when multiplying simple or complex compound expressions.
Multiply each term of the first expression by each term of the second
expression, (remembering the sign convention).
Then collect the like terms.
Example
Solve (a + b) x (c + d).
First write down the expression:
(a + b) x (c + d)
Now multiply each term of the first expression by each term of the second
expression, (remembering the sign convention).
= a (c + d) + b (c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd
Example
Solve (x + 4) (x + 5).
Using the above method,
(x + 4) (x + 5) = x (x + 5) + 4 (x + 5)
= x2 + 5x + 4x + 20
= x2 + 9x + 20 (i.e. adding like terms)

The multiplication may be carried out in the steps described below, which are similar to that
in arithmetic.
1. First write out the expressions one under the other.
2. Then start from the left bottom term and multiply each of the terms in the
upper expression by it.
3. Write down the like terms in the same column.
4. Go to the next term in the bottom expression and repeat steps 2 and 3.
5. Once all terms in the bottom expression have been used, add the like terms
(i.e. columns) together.
Considering the example: (x + 4) (x + 5).
x+4
x+5
x2 + 4x  Begin at the left
+ 5x + 20  Work to the right
x + 9x + 20
2
 Keep the like terms in the same column and
add them
Example
Solve (3a + 4b) (5a - 6b)
(3a + 4b) (5a - 6b) = 3a (5a - 6b) + 4b (5a - 6b)

= 15a2 - 18 ab + 20ab - 24 b2
= 15a2 + 2ab - 24 b2
OR
3a + 4b
5a - 6b
15a2 + 20ab
- 18 ab - 24b2
15a + 2ab - 24b2
2
Example
Solve (3x - y + 1) (2 x + 3y -2)
(3x - y + 1) (2 x + 3y -2) = 3x (2x + 3y -2) - y (x2 + 3y -2) + (2x + 3y -2)

= 6x2 + 9xy - 6x - 2xy - 3y2 + 2y + 2x + 3y -2
= 6x2 + 7xy - 4x -3y2 + 5y -2
OR
3x - y +1

2x + 3y - 2
6x2 -2xy + 2x
+9xy -3y2 + 3y
-6x + 2y - 2
6x2 + 7xy - 4x -3y2 + 5y - 2
Activity 1.3
1. Perform the following Multiplication’s:
a) (7x2 + 5x – 11) (3x - 5).

b) (2x2 – 5x + 4) (3x2 – 2x – 7).
c) (5 – a2 + 2a3 – a4) (2 – 3a)
d) (a3 – 3a2b + ab2 – 2b3) (3a + 2b)
Activity 1.3
1.
a) 21x3 – 20x2 – 58x + 55, b) 6x4 – 19x3 + 8x2 + 27x – 28
c) 10 – 15a – 2a2 + 7a3 - 8a4 + 3a5, d) 3a4 – 7 a3b – 3a2 b2 – 4ab3 – 4b4
Division
 Defines the parts of a fraction as the numerator and denominator
 Simplifies fractions by cancellation
]
Fractions
A fraction is the result of one algebraic quantity (i.e. number or symbol), divided by another.
For example,
numerator
a
b
denominator
is a fraction, where “a” is the numerator and “b” is the denominator.
In a fraction, the number below the line is called the denominator and that
above the line is called the numerator.

If the numerator and the denominator of a fraction are both multiplied by the same number,
the value of the fraction will not change. Consider the following example.
Example
3
a) Obtain the value of the fraction 6 .
3
6 = 3  6 = 0.5
b) Multiply both the numerator and denominator by 3 and find its value.
3x3 9
=
6 x 3 18 = 9  18 = 0.5
Therefore, a fraction will not change if both the numerator and the denominator are both
multiplied by the same number (or symbol).
Addition and Subtraction
The addition and subtraction in algebraic fraction is similar to that for arithmetic. Therefore,
it follows the procedure discussed previously, i.e. that for basic algebraic addition and
subtraction. Thus,
Arithmetic addition
w w y ( w+ x + y )
+ + =
Similarly in algebra z z z z
If the denominators are different, then their CD (Common Denominator) must be found,
before addition or subtraction can be carried out.
In order to find the CD, each fraction has to be multiplied by appropriate numbers, as will be
shown later in the examples. As stated previously, provided that the numerator and the
denominator are both multiplied by the same number, no change will occur to the value of
the fraction.
Let us consider an example.
Example

a b e
+ +
Add the following fractions: c d f
Since the denominators are different, the CD has to be calculated. This is obtained by
multiplying the three denominators. However, remember if the denominator is multiplied by
a number or symbol, the numerator should also be multiplied by the same.
Since the three denominators are “c”, “d”, and “f”, the CD is “cdf”. Thus, the expression
becomes,
a b e adf + bcf + ecd

+ +
c d f = cdf
a
Note: since the denominator of the first fraction, i.e. c , is multiplied by “df”, the numerator
is also multiplied by “df”. For the second fraction the numerator and denominator are
multiplied by “cf”, while the third is multiplied by “cd”.
Example
Solve .
Since the denominators are different, the CD is,
CD = 3 x 6 x 5 = 30
Thus, the expression becomes,
10 x 25 x 24 x 10 x + 25 x − 24 x 11x
+ −
= 30 30 30 = 30 = 30
Example
Solve .
The CD in this can be obtained by:
CD = xy2 . x2y . xy = x4y4
and it is possible to proceed as in the previous example. In fact you should attempt this
example in that manner. However, it is also possible to solve it as follows.
Select a denominator that subsumes each of the three denominators. For example, if we take
the CD as,

CD = x2y2
it includes all three denominators. In other words, by multiplying each denominator by

appropriate symbols, we obtain the CD, i.e.,
The first denominator is xy2. If this is multiplied by “x” it gives x2y2.

The second denominator is x2y. If this is multiplied by “y” it gives x2y2.
The third denominator is xy. If this is multiplied by “xy” it gives x2y2.
Therefore, use x2y2 as the CD, multiply the numerators with the respective symbols, and solve
the expression. Thus,
2
x( x +1) y( x−1 ) 2 xy x +x −xy+ y+ 2 xy
− 2 2 + 2 2
= x y
2 2
x y x y = x2 y2
2
x −xy +x+ y
= x2 y2
You should have got the same answer using the previous CD, i.e. x4y4.
The method of adding and subtracting fractions:
i) Find the CD of these denominators.

ii) Multiply the numerator and denominator by the same value to bring
the denominator to the CD.
iii) Collate their numerators and simplify.
Activity 1.5
Solve the following fractions.

b c d
a. x + y + z
2x 3 x x
b. 4 + 6 − 3
x+5 x 3 x−1
c. r 2 y − ry + y 2 r
1.
2.
3.

4.

 Adds, subtracts, multiplies and divides fractions and simplifies the results
 solves problems, using one or more of the operations in the above
objective
Division
In a similar manner to that explained for multiplication above, the division of a simple or
compound expression by another simple or compound expression is performed as follows.
Example
Divide the simple expression: (12a + 4b – 16c)  4
Since this is a simple division, i.e. divided by “4”, it is possible to divide each term in the first
expression by “4”. Thus
(12a + 4b – 16c)  4 = 3a + b – 4c
This division can also be carried in a similar manner to that in arithmetic. For example, in
arithmetic we divide 20 by 8 as:
answer
2.5 .
8 20
divisor 16
40 dividend
40

Now let us attempt the above example in a similar manner,
(12a + 4b – 16c)  4
3a + b – 4c
4 12a + 4b – 16c
12a
+ 4b – 16c
+ 4b
– 16c
– 16c
Thus, the answer is = 3a + b – 4c
Now let us attempt the division of a compound expression.
Example
Solve (3x2 + 13 x +14)  (3x + 7).
This can be written as,
x + 2
3x + 7 3x2 + 13x + 14
3x2 + 7x
0x2 + 6x + 14
6x + 14
The steps followed are:
a) Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor, i.e.
. This gives the first term of the answer.
b) Multiply the whole of the divisor by x (i.e. the answer), and write the product
under the dividend in the correct columns. Then subtract it from the dividend.
c) Treat this as a new dividend and repeat the process i.e. 6x  3x = 2. Multiply
3x + 7 by 2 and subtract from 6x + 14.
2
3 x +13 x + 14
d) There is no remainder. Thus 3x + 7 = x+2

Example
Solve 6x3 + x2y – 23xy2 + 12y3  2x – 3y.
3x2 + 5xy – 4y
2x – 3y 6x + x y – 23xy2 + 12y3
3 2
6x3 – 9x2y
+10x2y – 23xy2 + 12y3
10x2y – 15xy2
-8xy2 + 12y3
-8xy2 + 12y3
Therefore: 6x3 + x2y – 23xy2 + 12y3 = (3x2 + 5xy – 4y)

2x – 3y
Activity 1.3

Simplifying expressions
Solves problems, using ratios
Ratios
In considering ratios we assume that the changes occur linearly. Let us consider a simple
example.
Example
In considering ratios we assume that the changes occur linearly. Let us consider a simple
example.
Example
If 10 oranges cost $2.00, calculate the cost of 4 oranges.
To obtain the cost of 4 oranges, first we need to calculate the cost of 1 orange. It is then
possible to calculate the cost for any number of oranges.
10 oranges cost = $2.00

$2.00
thus, 1 orange cost = 10 = $0.20 per orange
thus, the cost of 4 oranges = $0.20 x 4 = $0.80
Similarly, if we needed to calculate the cost of 25 oranges:
since 1 orange cost = $0.20 per orange

thus, cost of 25 oranges = $0.20 x 25 = $5.00
Activity 4.8
1. If 3 cans of paint are needed to paint 80 m 2, calculate the number of cans

of paint needed to paint:
a) 125 m2 b) 50 m2
Ans
a) 4.69 cans = 5 cans
b) 1.88cans = 2 cans
2. Calculate the width “w” of the shaded triangle given below. (Hint: a
height of 5 m gives a breath of 4.5 m, therefore calculate it for 3 m).

Ans 2.7m
 Applies the four basic arithmetic operations to expressions involving decimals

 Converts a decimal to a fraction and vice versa
 Recognizes recurring decimals as non-terminating decimals
 Reduces a decimal number to a specified number of decimal places
 Reduces a decimal number to a specified number of significant figures
 Adds and subtracts decimal numbers

 Multiplies and divides decimal numbers, giving answers to a specified number of
decimal places and significant figures
 Solves problems involving more than one of the operations in the above
objectives

Indices
 Recognizes numbers involving indices, powers and roots
 Define Indices
 Applies the indices rules

 Expresses a binary number in the standard form of mantissa and exponent
 Converts to normal decimal form a number given in standard form
 Adds, subtracts, multiplies and divides two numbers given in standard form
 Defines logarithms to the base of 10 and to the base of e (i.e. 2.718)

Calculations
 Defines percentage
 Expresses one quantity as a percentage of another
 Expresses increase and decrease as a percentage
 Estimates the appropriate value of arithmetic problems and compares
with given correct and false answers
 Adds, subtracts, multiplies and divides numbers

 Determines reciprocals, squares, square roots and fractional indices
 Evaluates expressions, using realistic problems and the processes covered by the
above objectives

Algebra
 States that an algebraic expression is a statement in which numerical quantities
 have been replaced by letters or other suitable symbols
 Reduces an algebraic expression to its simplest form
 Factorizes expressions by the extraction of a common factor
 Applies any of the arithmetic expressions
 Simplifies expressions when quantities are placed within brackets
 Simplifies expressions when positive or negative signs are placed in front of a
 Bracket

Factors
If an algebraic expression can be split up into the product of several other algebraic
expressions, these expressions are said to be factors of the original expression. For example:
2a2 + 5ab + 3b2 this expression can split up by following steps:
= 2a2 + 2ab + 3ab + 3b2 (since 2ab + 3ab = 5ab)

= 2a(a + b) + 3b(a + b)
= (a + b)(2a + 3b)
If we multiply (a + b) by (2a + 3b), we will get back our original expression.
Therefore, (a + b) and (2a + 3b) are factors of 2a2 + 5ab + 3b2
Example
Find the factors of 2a2 + 4b2
2a2 + 4b2 = 2(a2 + 2b2).
Therefore, 2 and (a2 + 2b2) are factors of (a2 + 2b2)
Therefore, for factorisation, we can rearrange the terms into groups and follow the
above method.
Example
Factorise ab + db + cb + ad
ab + db + cb + ad = ab + ad + db + cb
= a(b + d) + b(b + d)
= (a + b)(b + d)
Example
Factorise the following:
1. xy2 + 3x
2. 7a2b2 – 14ab2 – 7ab
2. 12 + 3x – y – xy
3. pr + sq + qr + ps
1. xy2 + 3x = x(y2 + 3) factors are x and (y2 + 3)
2. 7a2b2 – 14ab2 – 7ab = 7ab(ab – 2b – 1)
factors are 7ab and (ab – 2b – 1)
3. 12 + 3x – y – xy = 12 – 4y + 3x – xy
= 4(3 – y) + x(3 – y)

= (3 – y)(4 + x) factors are (3 – y) and (4 + x)
4. pr + sq + qr + ps = pr + ps + qr + sq
= p(r + s) + q(r +s)
= (r +s)(p + q) factors are (r + s) and (p + q)
Activity 1.4
Perform the following factorisations:
1. a2x2 – 2ax
2. x2y2z2 – x3yz4 – xy3z2
3. 121a2x2 + 11ax3 + 44a2x
4. 14a2x2 + 21a2bx – 7a3bx
5. 32x2yz2 – 64xy2z2 + 28x2y2z
Solves linear equations with one unknown
Solving Equations
Simple Equation
Generally, equality and one unknown quantity form an equation. There are two sides of an
equation, Left Hand Side (LHS) and Right Hand Side (RHS). When the LHS expression is
equal to the RHS expression for all values of the unknown quantity, they form an identity.
For example:
5x - 4 + 3x + 8 = 8x + 4
is true for all values of x. Thus, for any value of x, LHS = RHS. This type of equation is
known as identity.

If two expressions are equal for only certain values of unknown quantities then the
relationship is an equation. For example,
6x + 8 = 5x + 10
is only true when x = 2. Therefore, it is an equation.
In order to solve an equation, transpose the unknown (x) to one side, and all of the
other terms to the other side.
Example
Solve the equation 9x – 11 = 3x + 7.

Transposing gives,
9x – 11 – 3x = 7
6x – 11 = 7
6x = 7 + 11 = 18
x = 18  6 = 3
Activity 1.7
Solve the following equations:
1. 4x = 24 2. 16c + 32 –5c = 8c + 17
3. 4(a – 3) + 6a = 8 4. 9(x – 1) – 5(3x + 4) – 1 = 0
5. 6x – 13 = 7(x + 4) – 3 + 2(5-x) – 1
Applies the rules which govern the transposition of quantities.

Transposing of Equations
In your past studies you learnt how to carry out basic transposition of equations. If a term is
taken from one side of an equation to the other side, the sign of the term has to be changed.
The basic rules are:
Transposing Addition and Subtraction:
 addition (+) changes to subtraction (-)

 subtraction (-) changes to addition (+)
Transposing Multiplication and Division:
 multiplication (x) changes to division ()

 division () changes to multiplication (x)
Transposing Equations having a Combination of Operations:
Step 1: calculate the terms within the brackets

Step 2: calculate the multiplications and divisions
Step 3: transpose the equation to solve for the unknown term
Example
Transpose and obtain the value of term “a” in equation:
3 (2. 5 x 4 )+(a/3 . 4 )
=7
6 .
First write down the equation,
3 (2. 5 x 4 )+(a/3 . 4 )
=7
6
Step 1: calculate the terms within the brackets
Step 2: calculate the multiplications and divisions
Step 3: transpose the equation to solve for the unknown term
30 + (a / 3.4) = 42
(a / 3.4) = 42 - 30
(a / 3.4) = 12
a = 12 x 3.4 = 40.8

Formula Transposition
A general theorem may be expressed as an equation by means of symbols. This expression is
called a formula. In a formula, the unknown quantity can be expressed in terms of other the
quantities.
For example, consider a cylinder having a radius of r, height h, and volume V. If

the radius and height of the cylinder are known, it is possible to express the
volume by the following formula:
V =  r2 h
Similarly, if the radius is the unknown,
r= √ V
πh
Also if the height is the unknown,
V
2
h = ππ r
The formula can be so arranged that each quantity can be separated from, and be
expressed in terms, of the other quantity. The separated unknown quantity is
usually placed on the left-hand side of the equation.
Solve the following for the variable stated.
Activity 1.6
Transpose the following formulae.
1. V = u + at(for t)
2. V2 = u2 + 2as (for a)
3. F = ma (for m)
4. 9C = 5 (F - 32) (for F)
1 2
rh
5. V = 3 (for h)
6. C = 2  r (for r)
7. A = P (l + rt) (for t)
8. A = 2 rh + 2r2 (for h)
9. a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc Cos A (for Cos A)
10. S = (for r)
11. 2A = h (a + b) (for h and for a)
12. N = a + (n - 1) d (for d)

13. I = (for E, for R and for r)
14. E = I.R (for I and for R)
15. A = bh (for b and h)

16. V = a2h (for a)
17. x2 + y2 = a2 (for x assuming x>o and a>y)
18. P = (a + b)R (for R)
19. (for x)
20. T = 2 (for L)
21. (express a in terms of b)
22. (for t)
23. (for z)
24. (for P)
25. C = a + (for b)
26. T = (for k)
27. Ma = F - kv2, (for v)
28. V = (for r)
29. V = at + bt, (for t)
30. x = (for r)
31. p(t - 1) = q + t - p, (for t)
32. F = mg - kv, (for v)
33. W = 5 , (for d)
34. (for r)
35. (for s)
36. P = av - (for a)
37. D = (for s)

a ( x −a ) b ( b−x )
− =x
38. b a (for x)
Binomial & Polynomial Expansion

Solves simultaneous equations with two unknowns
1.1 Solves problems by forming an equation, initially in algebraic, finally in
Numeric form
Simultaneous Equations
When a problem contains two unknown quantities, it is required to use two quations to
solve for these quantities.
Consider the equation:
2x + y = 5 ----------(1)
If we “give” a value to “x”, it is possible to obtain a value for “y”. Thus, for every value
of “x”, there will be a corresponding value of “y”. However, it is not possible to obtain
both “x” and “y” from this equation.
Now consider another equation:
5x – 3y = 7 ----------(2)

Again for every value of “x”, there will be a corresponding value of “y”. However, it will
not yield the values for both “x” and “y”.
If we solve the two equations together, then it is possible to obtain a pair of values for
“x” and “y”, which will satisfy both equations. When equations are solved together,
they are referred to as Simultaneous Equations.
There are two methods for solving simultaneous equations:
 substitution; and
 elimination.
Solution by Substitution
In this method using one of the equations, the value of one unknown is found as a function of
the other unknown. This is then substituted into the second equation and solved. Let us
consider an example.
Example
Solve the following simultaneous equations.
2x + y = 5 ----------(1)
5x – 3y = 7 ----------(2)
From equation (2) it is possible to find “y” as a function of “x” as,
2x + y = 5
y = 5 - 2x
Now substitute this value (for “y”) in equation (1), i.e.,
5x – 3(5 – 2x) = 7
5x – 15 + 6x = 7
11x = 22
x = 2
To find “y” use Equation (2),
y = 5 – 2x = 5 – 2.(2)
y = 1
So, the required values to satisfy both the equations are: x = 2 and y = 1.
Solution by Elimination
In this method, one equation is multiplied by a given quantity to bring the value of one of the
unknowns to equal the value of the same unknown in the second equation. Then add or
subtract the equations to eliminate the above unknown. Since the value of one of the

unknowns are the same in both equations, is will cancel out leaving only the other unknown.
Let us consider the same example as before.
Example
Solve the following simultaneous equations.
2x + y = 5 ----------(1)
5x – 3y = 7 ----------(2)
If we multiply equation (2) by 3, the value of “y” will be the same as in equation (1).
Therefore, first write down equation (2),
2x – y = 5 ----------(2)
Then multiplying by 3,
3(2x + y = 5)
6x + 3y = 15 ----------(3)
Now write down equation (1) and (3), with the like terms under each other.
5x – 3y = 7
6x + 3y = 15 (on inspection it is noted that by adding them
11x +0 = 22 together the “y” term will cancel out, thus,)
Therefore,
x=2
Now using equation (1) to get “y”
2x + y = 5
y = 5 - 2x
y = 5 – 2x = 5 – 2.(2)
y = 1
Note: it is the same as obtained by substitution.
Let us consider a few more examples.

Example
Solve the equations:
36x - 24y = 29 ----------(1)
4x - 3y = 3 ----------(2)
If equation (2) is multiplied by 9, the “x” value in both equations will be the same.
Therefore, first write down equation (2),
4x - 3y = 3 ----------(2)
Then by multiplying by 9 gives,
9(4x - 3y = 3)
36x - 27y = 27 ----------(3)
Now write down equation (1) and (3), with the like terms under each other.
36x - 24y = 29
36x - 27y = 27 (on inspection it is noted that by subtracting them
0 + 3y = 2 the “x” term will cancel out, thus,)
(Note: 24 – (-27) = 3)
Thus,
2
y = 3
From equation (1) we get “x” as,
36x – 24. = 29
( 29+ 16 )
x = 36 = 1.25

Activity 1.9
Solve the following simultaneous equations:
1. 3x + 4y = 11
5x – 2y = 1
2. 2x + 6y = 5
2y – 5x = 13
3. 8x –2y = 5
10x – 3y – 3 = 0
4. 5x + 2y = 14
3x – 4y =24
5. 3x + 2y = 16
4x – 3y = 10
Activity 1.9
1. x = 1, y = 2
2. x = ½, y = – 1
3. x = 2¼, y = 6½
4. x = 4. y = -3
5. x =4, y = 2
Now let us develop a pair of simultaneous equations to suit a specific problem and then solve
them.
Example
Tom is 12 years older than Bill. Six years ago Tom was three times as old as Bill.
What are their ages now?
Let Tom's be “x” years old and Bill's be “y” years old.
Now look at the conditions given.
Tom is 12 years older than Bill
x – y = 12 ----------(1)
Six years ago Tom was three time as old as Bill

(x – 6) = 3 (y – 6)
Simplifying the above gives,
x – 3y = -12 ----------(2)
These are the two simultaneous equations. Now to solve them. Both equations
have the same value for “x”. Therefore, writing down equation (1) and (3), with
the like terms under each other.
x - y = 12
x - 3y = -12 (on inspection it is noted that by subtracting them
0 + 2y = 24 the “x” term will cancel out, thus,)
24
y = 2 = 12 years
In equation (1) gives “y” as,
x – 12 = 12
x = 12 + 12 = 24 years
1.2 Solves quadratic equations by using the formula method
Quadratic Solution by Formula
The above procedure is tedious if the equation cannot be easily factorised. A more general
method of solving quadratic equations is to employ standard formulae. Consider the general
expression for a quadratic equation,
ax2 + bx + c = 0
where “a”, “b”, and “c” are constants, (i.e. coefficients of the equations).
Then the two solutions (i.e. roots x1 and x2) of the quadratic equation are:
−b+ √ b2 − 4 ac −b− √b 2 − 4 ac
x1 = x2 =
2a and 2a
Example
Find the roots of the quadratic equation: 3x2 – 2x – 8 = 0
Comparing the above equation with the general form:

3x2 – 2x – 8 = 0
ax2 + bx + c = 0
gives,
a = 3, b = – 2, and c = -8
Now substituting into the two formulae give,
2+ √ 4 +96 2+10
x1 = =
2 .3 6 = 2
2−√ 4+96 2−10 4

x2 = =
2.3 6 = 3
Therefore, the solutions of the quadratic equation are x = 2 or 4/3.
If:
B2>4ac: the expression under the root sign is positive and two
different solutions are obtained.
B2=4ac: the expression under the root sign vanishes and both
solutions are equal to “– b/2a”.
B2<4ac: the expression under the root sign is negative and cannot
be solved (at this level).
Activity 1.11
Solve the quadratic equations using the standard formulae:
1. x2 – x – 72= 0
2. 28x2 – 66 = 53x
3. x2 – 2x + 1 = 0
4. 5x2 + 12x + 3 = 0
5. 3x2 – 10x + 4 = 0
Ans
1. x = -8 or 9
2. x = -11/4 or -6/7
3. x = 1
4. x = -2.117 or -0.284
5. x = 0.456 or 2.869

Trigonometry
Describe the measurement of angles in degrees and radians
Angular Motion
Angular Displacement ()
In the previous section we dealt with motion in a straight line, ie. linear motion. This is
shown in Figure 3.2(a). Now consider the motion in Figure 3.2(b).
Linear Motion Angular Motion

(a) (b)
Figure 3.2
In this case the motion follows a curved path and is called angular motion. The simplest of
this motion is one that follows a circular path, ie. travels along the circumference of a circle.
This is shown in Figure 3.3(a). At this level we will only be dealing with angular motion
following a circular path. In other words, rotating bodies.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.3
Consider the point “P” travelling along the circumference of the circle shown in Figure
3.3(a). The radius of the circle is “r”, while the centre is at “O”. Let us say after a time of “t”
seconds, point “P” moves to a new position along the circumference, ie. point “Q”.
The displacement of point “P” is usually measured by the angle that is created by this
motion. In this case it is give by the angle “”.
Although the angle can be given in degrees, the standard unit used is radians (rad).

One radian: is the angle formed by an arc having the same length as the
radius (R) of the circle. This is shown in Figure 3.3(b).
Let us now calculate the equivalent degrees for 1 radians.
We know that a circle has an angle of 360 0. In radians a circle has an angle of 2. Thus,
using ratios we can calculate the value of 1 radian.
Angle of a circle in degrees = 360 0

Angle of a circle in radians = 2
Therefore,
2 radian = 3600
 radian = 1800
3.1416 radian = 1800
0
180
Thus, 1 radian = 3.1416 = 57.30
Therefore, 1 radian is equal to 57.30.
Noting that,
 radian = 1800
the relationship between the radians and degrees can be given as:
Conversion of degrees to radians:
radians = degrees x
Conversion of radians to degrees:
degrees = radians x
The distance along the curved path between P and Q can be obtained in a similar
manner to that used to calculate the circumference of a circle.
Distance of the Circular Path = Radius x Angular Displacement

x = r x  --------------(3.5)
units: = m x radian = m
(since a radian is a ratio, it has no units)
Thus, the circular path between P and Q will be:
PQ = Radius x Angular Displacement

= r x  = r m
Example
Calculate the distance along a circular path having a radius of 5 cm and an angle
of 720.
Write down the information that has been given, (in base units and draw a
sketch, Figure 3.4).
Radius = r = 5 cm = 0.05 m
angle =  = 720
Figure 3.4
Write down what must be found
Distance along circumference
Write down the formulae to be used (3.5)
x = r x  --------------(3.5)
p
radians = degrees x 180
Insert the relevant values into the formulae and perform the necessary
calculations to solve the problem
Using the conversion of degrees to radians:

radians = degrees x
 = 72 x = 72 x 0.0174 = 1.257 radians
Now using equation (3.5),
PQ = r x  = 0.05 m x 1.257 radians = 0.063 m
Activity 3.5
a) A cylindrical disc having a diameter of 7.2 cm, rotates through an angle of

1260. Calculate the distance a point on its circumference will travel.
Ans 7.9cm
b) A vehicle travels along a circular bend having a radius of 12.3 m. The

distance the vehicle travels along the bend is 20.4 m. Calculate the angle of
the bend. (Hint: transpose equation (3.5) to get the angle).
Ans 950
1.3 Sketches and names the following angles: obtuse, right, complementary,
Supplementary and reflex
Angles and Triangles

Geometry deals with the magnitude of an object and it’s configuration within a space. Plane
geometry deals with the magnitude and configuration in one plane. For example, it deals
with the magnitude and the angular measurement of triangles and circles.
Angle
There are four different types of angles. These are:
 acute angle: an angle that is less than 90, (Figure 2.1(a)).
 right angle: an angle that is equal to 90, (Figure 2.1(b)).
 obtuse angle: an angle that is more than 90 but less than 180, (Figure
2.1(c)).
 reflux angle: an angle that is more than 180 but less than 360, (Figure
2.1(d)).
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 2.1
Triangles
A triangle is a figure bounded by three straight lines. A triangle can be classified by either
the length of its sides or by the magnitude of its angles.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.2
Classification by the Length of the Sides:
 equilateral triangle: all of its three sides are equal, (Figure 2.2 (a)).
Therefore, all three angles will also be equal.
 isosceles triangle: two of its sides are equal, (Figure 2.2 (b)). Therefore, the
angles opposite these two sides are also equal.
 scalene triangle: all its three sides are unequal, (Figure 2.2 (c)).
Classification by the Magnitude of the Angles:
 right-angled: one of its angles is a right angle, (Figure 2.3 (a)).
 obtuse-angled triangle: one angles is an obtuse angle, (Figure 2.3 (b)).
 acute-angled triangle: all its three angles are acute angles, (Figure 2.3 (c)).
hypotenuse
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.3
Note: The right angle triangle shown in Figure 2.3 (a) deserves special
mention. As stated before it has a right angle. The side opposite to the right
angle is called the hypotenuse. It is also the longest side of the triangle.
When referring to triangles, they are usually referred to by the labels of the three nodes. For
example, consider the two triangles shown in Figure 2.4. The first triangle is referred to as
triangle ABC. The second is referred to as triangle PQR.
The angles of a triangle are referred to by their nodal label. Thus, angle A or <A. Note the
symbol < will represent “angle” in this text.
The sides are referred either:
 by the two nodes at their ends, for example, side AB; or
 using the opposite angle, for example side AB can be referred to as “c” as
it is opposite to angle “C”.
 Defines a degree as 1/360 of a revolution and a minute as 1/60 of a degree

 Defines a radian
 Converts angular measurement into radians and vice versa

Trigonometry and Angle Measurement
If a circle is divided into 360 equal parts, each angle formed is called a degree. This is
written by inserting the symbol (°) after the numerical value of the angle. For example, 90°,
45°, 120°, etc. Up to this point we have measured the angles in degrees, with smaller parts
(fractions) given in decimals, i.e. 37.420, 83.670, etc. Now we will look at a different method
of presenting these fractions.
In this case, each degree is divided into sixty equal parts known as minutes. This is written
by inserting the symbol () after the numerical value of the angle. For example 40, 20, 1,
etc.
Each minute is again divided into sixty equal parts known as seconds. These are written by
inserting the symbol () after the numerical value of the angle. For example 40, 20, 1,
etc.
60 seconds = 1 minute; 60 = 1

60 minute = 1 degree; 60 = 1°
90 degrees = 1 right angle; 90° = 1 right angle
360 degrees = 1 circle; 3600 = 1 circle
Uses the theorem of pythagoras to find the length of one side in a right-angled
Triangle
 Defines sine, cosine and tangent from trigonometric tables
 States that the sum of angles inside a triangle is 1800
 Applies numerical solutions in respect of the side and angles of a right-angled
 Triangle
 Applies positive and negative values as appropriate to the sines, cosines and
 Tangents of angles between 00 and 360°
Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric Function of an Acute Angle
Trigonometry is based on three basic functions (or ratios). In this sub-section we will only be
considering acute angles, i.e. angles between 0 and 90 degrees. Consider right angle triangle
shown in Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11
The trigonometric functions (or ratios) for this triangle are given by:
Trigonometric Functions (Ratios):
(Sine) ----------(2.1)
(Cosine) ----------(2.2)
(Tangent) ----------(2.3)
The above relationships can be used to obtain the values of the sides or angles of a right angle
triangle. These functions can be directly obtained from your calculator. The function keys
required are usually the following:
In order to obtain the angle from a Tan, Sin, or Cos value, most calculators will require the
use of the “inverse” key before the function key, i.e.
Note: depending on your calculator the use of the function keys could be different. Check
your calculator instruction guide for details.
Example
Obtain the Sin, Cos, and Tan value of the angle 300.
To obtain the Sin of angle 300, write it down as follows:
Sin 30

By entering this into your calculator, (the method of entering the data will depend on the type
of your calculator), you will get the answer as,
Sin 30 = 0.5
Now go ahead and attempt Cos 30 and Tan 30. The answers should be:
Cos 30 = 0.866 and Tan 30 = 0.577
Example
Obtain the angles represented by:
a) Cos  = 0.756
b) Sin  = 0.423
c) Tan  = 1.35
a) To obtain the angle  that gives Cos  = 0.756, write out the information as
follows:
Cos  = 0.756
 = Cos-1 0.756 (or Inv Cos 0.756)
Now enter the values in to the calculator, which should give an answer of,
 = Cos-1 0.756 = 40.890
Now go ahead and attempt parts (b) and (c). The answers should be:
 = Sin-1 0.423 = 25.020

 = Tan-1 1.35 = 53.470
Example
For the stay required for the mast shown in Figure 2.12, using trigonometric
functions obtain
a) the angle of the stay; and
b) the length of stay.
Figure 2.12

a) First let us calculate the angle . In relation to the angle , we know the
lengths of the adjacent (AB) and opposite (BC) sides. Thus looking at the
functions, we can use equation (2.3) to obtain the angle.
= 0.6735
 = Tan-1 0.6735 = 33.960 = 340
b) Now to obtain the length of the stay using trigonometric functions. (Note: it
can also be obtained using Pythagorean theorem). Since the stay is
represented by the hypotenuse of the triangle, we can use either equation (2.1)
or (2.2). Let us use equation (2.1).
Transposing we get,
= 11.81 m
Activity 2.2
A ships stores crane is shown in Figure 2.13. The 5 m jib is at an angle of 40 0

to the horizontal. The top of the winch drum is 1.1 m vertically above the base
of the jib. Calculate using trigonometric functions:
a) the angle  the cable makes with the horizontal; and
b) the cable length between the cable winch and the jib head.
(Hint: divide the sketch into right angle triangles, and then find the distances)
Figure 2.13

Rule of Signs
Up to now when dealing with trigonometric functions, we have only dealt with acute angles,
(i.e. 0 to 90 degrees). However, it is sometimes necessary to apply these functions to larger
angles. In order to do so, there is a sign convention to determine the signs of these functions.
1st Quadrant
P
O N
Figure 2.19
Figure 2.19 shows a line OP that moves with a circular motion to create angle .
The sign of the angle is determined by:
 If OP moves in an anti-clockwise direction, the angle created is positive.
 If OP moves in clock-wise direction, the angle created is negative.
90
P2
P1
2 Quadrant
nd
+ + + 1st Quadrant
+
– +
180 Q2 Q3 O Q4 Q 1 0
– + + –
3 Quadrant
rd
4th Quadrant
P3 P4
270
Figure 2.20

Figure 2.20 shows the four quadrants that occur as line OP rotates through the
circle. The quadrants are defined in an anti clockwise direction as: 1st quadrant,
2nd quadrant, 3rd quadrant, and 4th quadrant. We will now look at the sign
convention for each quadrant in turn.
Remember the following rules regarding sign convention:
Quadrants are defined anti clockwise.

In the horizontal axis: right side of origin is positive, left side of origin
is negative.
In the vertical axis: above the origin is positive, below the origin is
negative.
Mensuration
States and applies formulae to find the area of the following
A circle
Area of a Circle = π × radius2
π
= × Diameter 2
4
A sector of a circle
The area enclosed by a sector is proportional to the arc length of the sector. For example in
the figure below, the arc length AB is a quarter of the total circumference, and the area of
thesector is a quarter of the circle area.
The area of a sector of a circle is ½ r² ∅, where r is the radius and ∅ the angle in radians subtended
by the arc at the centre of the circle. So in the below diagram, the shaded area is equal to ½ r² ∅ .

A triangle
1
Area of a triangle = ×base ×height
2
A parallelogram
Area of a parallelogram
A trapezium

Defines a centurion
noun
The commander of a century in the ancient Roman army.
States the position of the centroid of common regular shapes

Deduces a formula for the areas of a segment of a circle
Area of a segement of a circle
1.4 Defines volume, for shapes having a constant cross-sectional area, as the
Product of area and length
Volume of a cylinder
Volume of a cone

Applies formulae to find the volume of the following:
A cube
A cylinder
A sphere

A triangular prism
Defines centre of volume
Definition of center of volume. : the point of a 3-dimensional figure that would coincide

with the center of mass of a homogeneous material body having the same boundaries —
compare center of figure.
States the position of the centre of volume of common solids
In mathematics and physics, the centroid or geometric center of a plane figure is
the arithmetic mean ("average") position of all the points in the shape. The definition extends
to any object in n-dimensional space: its centroid is the mean position of all the points in all
of the coordinate directions. Informally, it is the point at which an infinitesimally thin cutout
of the shape could be perfectly balanced on the tip of a pin (assuming uniform density and a
uniform gravitational field).
 Uses the mid-ordinate rule to find the area of irregular figures

 Uses simpson's 1 st and 2nd rules to find the area of irregular figures
 Uses simpson's 1 st and 2nd rules to find the volume of irregular objects
Simpson's First Rule

An alternative procedure used to calculate the area under the curve is Simpson’s First Rule.
This requires an even number of strips, taken two at a time. This time, we do not replace the
curved lines at the top of the strips with straight lines. Instead we approximate it to a second
order (quadratic) curve through the three coordinates (y values) as shown in Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.8
If the curve is quadratic, it can be shown from calculus that the total area of the two strips is:
The area of the two strip:
h
A = 3 x (y0 + 4 y1 + y2) ---------------(3.17)
Remember, the number of strips have to be even, i.e. 4, 6, 8, etc. Referring back to Figure
3.5, the areas obtained from each pair of strips (from equation (3.17)), can be added to give
the total area as,
Simpson’s First Rule:
h
Total Area = 3 [y0 + 4 y1 + 2y2 + 4 y3 + 2y4 + …. + 4 yn-1 + yn]
---------------(3.18)
Note the pattern of the Simpson's Multipliers:
1 4 2 4 ...... 2 4 1
Example
Find using Simpson's First Rule, the area of the half water plane given in the
previous example.
Write down the information that has been given
n = 6 (even number) h = 3m

y0 = 2.5 m y1 = 3.0 m y2 = 3.5 m y3 = 3.5 m
y4 = 3.0 m y5 = 2.0 m y6 = 0.0 m
half waterplane area (½ AW)
h
---------------(3.18)
Insert the relevant values into the formulae and perform the necessary calculations to
solve the problem
Using equation (3.18), the half wtaerplane area (½ AW) is obtained as,
h
½ AW = 3 [y0 + 4 y1 + 2y2 + 4 y3 + 2y4 + …. + 4 yn-1 + yn]
3
= 3 [2.5 + (4x3) + (2x3.5) + (4x3.5) + (2x3) + (4x2) + 0]
= 1 x 49.5 = 49.5 m2
Note: you need a minimum of three y values to perform Simpson’s first rule.
Also it can only be used if the number of y values is an odd number, 3,5,7, etc,
(i.e. an even number of strips).
Example
At midships, a vessel has a draft of 3 m. The half beam values from the keel to the 3 m draft
at equal intervals at the midships are given below. Calculate the whole area of the midship
cross-section (AM).
Waterlines BL 1
2 3
4 5
6
½ beam (m) 0 1.5 2.5 3.25 4.0 4.5 5.0

See Figure 3.9
T = 3m n = 6 (even number) h = ?
y0 = 0.0 m y1 = 1.5 m y2 = 2.5 m y3 = 3.25 m
y4 = 4.0 m y5 = 4.5 m y6 = 5.0 m
AM
h
---------------(3.18)
solve the problem
First let us find the value of “h”. The draft (T) is given as 3 m. This has then been divided
into 6 strips, (see Figure 3.9). Therefore, h is obtained as,
T 3
h = 6 = 6 = 0.5 m
Figure 3.9
It is easier to carry out such calculations using a table as shown below. This reduces the risk
of making mistakes and makes it easy to follow the calculations. Note: S M stands for
Simpson’s Multipliers.
The table consists of four columns. The first is the station numbers. The next is the y values
(ie. the half ordinates in this case), followed by the Simpson’s multipliers (S M). The final
column is the product of the previous two columns.
Station y SM Product
(½ ordinates)
0 0 1 0

1 1.5 4 6.0
2 2.5 2 5.0
3 3.25 4 13.0
4 4.0 2 8.0
5 4.5 4 18.0
6 5.0 1 5.0
Sum (SS) 55.0
Looking at equation (3.18),
h
The sum (SS) obtained by adding column three is that within the square brackets. Thus, the
total area is obtained as,
h
Total Area = 3 [SS]
Thus, substituting, we obtain the area in Figure 3.9, which is half area of the midship cross-
sectional area, (½ AM). Thus,
h 0.5
½ AM = 3 [SS] = 3 x 55.0 = 9.167 m2
Thus, the total midship cross-sectional area is twice the above value,
AM = 2 x 9.1667 = 18.333 m2
Activity 3.2
Half breadth values of the loaded waterline of a ship is given as
Station 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
½ breadth (m) 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.45 1.1 0.9 0.4 0.
The vessel is 24 m in length and floats in seawater. Calculate the

waterplane area.
(Note: Repeat the with activity with the Trapezoidal Rule, explained in
sub-section 2.1).
It is also possible to use approximate integration methods to calculate the volumes. An

example is the calculation of the underwater volume of a vessel.
Example

The ordinates of the area curve for a vessel 150 m long are given below as a percentage of the
midship area. The midship area of the vessel is 153.6 m2. Calculate the displacement volume
of the ship.
Station AP 1/2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 91/2 FP
Area %
Ordinate 1.7 15.5 33.2 65.5 88.1 97.8 100 100 98.0 83.3 42.0 17.3 0
midship area (Am) = 153.6 m2

length (L) = 150 m n = 10 (even number) h = ?
cross-sectional ship area % - table above

Volume (V)
h
---------------(3.18)
solve the problem
The value of “h” is obtained by dividing the length into 10 strips,
L 150
h = 10 = 10 = 15 m
The table above gives the cross sectional ship area at each station as a percentage of the
midship area. Therefore, by using the Simpsons multipliers on the percentages, we will
obtain the volume as function of the midship area. Then the total volume is obtained by
multiplying the result by the midship area.
Therefore, first calculate the volume as a function of the midship area.
Station y (Area %) SM Product

0 1.7 ½ 0.85
½ 15.5 2 31.00
1 33.2 1½ 49.80
2 65.5 4 262.0
3 88.1 2 176.20
4 97.8 4 391.20
5 100 2 200.00
6 100 4 400.00
7 98 2 196.00
8 83.3 4 333.20
9 42 1½ 63.00
9½ 17.3 2 34.60
10 0 ½ 0.00
Sum (SS) 2137.85
h 15
Volume as a function of %Am = 3 [SS] = 3 x 2137.85
= 10689.25
153.6
Volume = 10689.25 x %Am = 10689.25 x 100 = 16418.7 m3
Graphs
 Draws axes for positive values
 Defines and labels axes
 From given data, determines suitable scales
 Plots points accurately, given co-ordinates
 Draws smooth graphs through plotted points
Graphs
2-D and 3-D Coordinates
Explain Axis of Reference, Scales, Coordinates
The coordinate plane is organized around two axes: the x-axis running horizontally, and the
y-axis running vertically. The position of a point on the plane is described by two numbers
that measure the distance from the point to these two reference lines. See Coordinates of a
point:

Determining Suitable Scales from Data Given
Plot a Smooth Curve Through Plotted Points
Sketch the graph of y = (x – 1)2 - 4.
Table of values for this equation:

x y
-2 5
-1 0
-
0
3
-
1
4
-
2
3
3 0
4 5

The graph of this equation:
Sketch Linear and Quadratic Graphs
It is convenient to find the points where a graph cuts the axes. The points where a graph cuts the x-
axis and y-axis are called the x-intercept and y-intercept respectively.
It is clear from the graph that:
The x-intercept occurs when y = 0.

The y-intercept occurs when x = 0.
Given any two points on the line say, (x1,y1) and (x2,y2), the slope of the line is given by,
y 2− y 1
m=
x 2−x 1

If the quadratic is written in the form y = a(x –h)2 + k, then the vertex is the point (h, k).
For a given quadratic y = ax2 + bx + c, the vertex (h, k) is found by computing h = –b/2a, and then

evaluating y at h to find k. k = (4ac – b2) / 4a.
Axis of symmetry is vertical line, right through the vertex, is called the axis of symmetry. If you're asked
for the axis, write down the line "x = h", where h is just the x-coordinate of the vertex
Example: Find the vertex of y = 3x2 + x – 2 and graph the parabola.
h = –b/2a = –(1)/2(3) = –1/6
k = 3( –1/6 )2 + ( –1/6 ) – 2
= 3/36 – 1/6 – 2
= 1/12 – 2/12 – 24/12
= –25/12
The axis would be the vertical line x = h = –1/6.

Sketching and Plotting
Explain Equation of a Straight Line
The equation of a straight line with gradient m and intercept c on the y-axis is y = mx + c.
Show on a graph the significance of m and c in the equation y = mx + c
Independent and Dependent Variables
Introduce Independent and Dependent Variables
The independent variable is the variable that is varied or manipulated by the researcher, and
the dependent variable is the response that is measured.

The Best Fit
Explain the least Squares Regression Line Method
If our data shows a linear relationship between X and Y, we want to find the line which best describes
this linear relationship:
 Called a Regression Line
• Equation of straight line: ŷ= a + b x – a is the intercept ( where it crosses the y-axis)
 b is the slope (rate)
• Idea:
 Find the line which best fits the data
 Use this line to predict what happens to Y for given values of X ( How does Y change as X
changes?)
The Least Squares method relies on taking partial derivatives with respect to the slope and intercept
which provides a solvable pair of equations called normal equations
• The solution gives:

b=
∑ (x 1−x )( y 1− y)
∑ ¿¿¿
a= y−b x
 Plots sine waves

 Plots cosine waves
 Determines the co-ordinates of intersecting curves or lines
 Draws graphs of values with positive, negative and mixed co-ordinates
Sketches Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions
Graph of y = sin x
The graph of y = cos x

States that the average value of a sine wave and a cosine wave is zero
That is, if an AC sine wave has a RMS value of 240 volts, it will provide the same energy to
a circuit as a DC supply of 240 volts. It can be shown that the RMS value of a sine wave
is 0.707 of the peak value. Also, the peak value of a sine wave is equal to 1.414 x the RMS
value.
 Indicates changing rates on graphs

 Explains the concept ofdy/dx
 Defines an elemental area

1.5 Explains the concept of integration

Calculus
Functions
Exponential Functions
a function whose value is a constant raised to the power of the argument, especially the function where the
constant is e.
Inverse Functions and Logarithms
Your textbook's coverage of inverse functions probably came in two parts. The first part had lots of
curly-braces and lists of points; the second part has lots of " y=" or "f(x)=" functions that you have to
find the inverses for, if possible. The first part will show up in your homework and maybe on a test; the
second part will definitely show up on your test, and you might even use it in later classes.
The inverse of a function has all the same points as the original function, except that the x's and y's

have been reversed. This is what they were trying to explain with their sets of points. For instance,
supposing your function is made up of these points: { (1, 0), (–3, 5), (0, 4) }. Then the inverse is
given by this set of point: { (0, 1), (5, –3), (4, 0) }. (Note that the order of the points doesn't matter;
you can rearrange the points so the x's are "in order", or not. It's your choice.)
Once you've found the inverse of a function, the question then becomes: "Is this inverse also a
function?" Using the set of points from above, the function above graphs like this:
You know that this is a function (and you can check quickly by using the Vertical Line Test): you don't
have two different points that share the same x-value. The inverse graph is the blue dots below:
Since the blue dots (the points of the inverse) don't have any two points sharing an x-value, this
inverse is also a function.
Finding the inverse from a graph
Your textbook probably went on at length about how the inverse is "a reflection in the line y = x".
What it was trying to say was that you could take your function, draw the line y = x (which is the
bottom-left to top-right diagonal), put a two-sided mirror on this line, and you could "see" the inverse
reflected in the mirror. Practically speaking, this "reflection" property can help you draw the inverse:

Draw the points and the reflection line:
Reflect the points across the line:
You can see on this last picture that there is a definite graphical relationship between the points of the
function and the points of the inverse. You can use this relationship if you're given a random graph
and are told to graph the inverse. Copyright © Elizabeth Stapel 2000-2011 All Rights Reserved
Suppose you are given this graph:
Note that I have NOT told you what

the function is!

Now draw the reflection line:
(It would be a good idea to use a

ruler for this; you'll want to be neat!).
Now eyeball the graph, and draw the

diagonals from known points on the
graph to their "reflections" on the
other side of the line:
Note that the points actually ON the

line y = x don't move; that is, where
the function crosses the diagonal,
the inverse will cross, too.
Now draw in some plot-points:

...and connect the dots:
Finding the Inverse of a Logarithmic Function
Finding the inverse of a log function is as easy as following the suggested steps below.
You will realize later after seeing some examples that most of the work boils down to
solving an equation. The key steps involved include isolating the log expression, and
then rewriting the log equation into an exponential equation. You will see what I mean
when you go over the worked examples below.
Steps to find the inverse of a logarithm
Step 1: Replace the function notation

f(x) by y.
Step 2: Switch the roles of x and y.
Step 3: Isolate the log expression on

one side (left or right) of the equation.
Step 4: Convert or transform the log

equation into its equivalent exponential
equation.
 Notice that the subscript "b" in

log form becomes the base with
exponent "N" in exponential
form.
 The variable "M" stays on the

same place.
Step 5: Solve the exponential equation

for "y" to get the inverse. Then replace
y by f -1(x) which is the inverse notation
to write the final answer.
Example 1: Find the inverse of the log equation .
Start by replacing the function notation f(x) by y. Then, interchange the roles of x and y.
Proceed by solving for "y" and replacing it by f -1(x) to get the inverse. Part of the
solution below includes rewriting the log equation into an exponential equation. Here's
the formula again that is used in the conversion process.
Notice how the base "2" of the log expression becomes the base with an exponent of "x".
The stuff inside the parenthesis remains in its original location.
Once the log expression is gone by converting it into an exponential expression, we can
finish this off by subtracting both sides by 3. Don't forget to replace the variable y by the
inverse notation f -1(x) in the end.

One way to check if we got the correct inverse is to graph both the log equation and
inverse function in a single xy-axis. If their graphs are symmetrical along the line y = x ,
then we can be confident that our answer is indeed correct.
Example 2: Find the inverse of the log function .
Let's add up some level of difficulty to this problem. The equation has a log expression
being subtracted by 7. I hope you can assess that this problem is extremely doable. The
solution will be a bit messy but definitely manageable.
So I begin by changing the f(x) into y, and swapping the x and y.
Now, we can solve for y. Add both sides of the equation by 7 to isolate the logarithmic
expression on the right side.

By successfully isolating the log expression on the right, we are ready to convert this
into an exponential equation. Observe that the base of log expression which is 5
becomes the base of the exponential expression on the left side. The expression 2y-
1 inside the parenthesis on the right is now by itself without the log operation.
After doing so, proceed by solving for "y" to obtain the required inverse function. Do that
by adding both sides by 1, followed by dividing both sides by the coefficient of y which is
2.
Let's sketch the graphs of the log and inverse functions in the same Cartesian plane to
verify that they are indeed symmetrical along the line y = x.


Example 3: Find the inverse of the log function .
So this is a little more interesting than the first two problems. Observe that the base of
log expression is missing. If you encounter something like this, the assumption is that
we are working with a logarithmic expression with base 10. Always remember this
concept to help you get around problems with the same setup.
I hope you are already more comfortable with the procedures. We start again by making
f(x) as y, then switching around the variables x and y in the equation.
Our next goal is to isolate the log expression. We can do that by subtracting both sides
by 1 followed by dividing both sides by −3.
The log expression is now by itself. Remember, the "missing" base in the log expression
implies a base of 10. Transform this into an exponential equation, and start solving for
y.
Notice that the entire expression on the left side of the equation becomes the exponent
of 10 which is the implied base as pointed out before.
Continue solving for y by subtracting both sides by 1 and dividing by − 4. After y is fully
isolated, replace that by the inverse notation f -1(x). Done!

Graphing the original function and its inverse on the same xy axis reveals that they are
symmetrical about the line y= x.

Limits and Derivatives
Limits are used to measure a function's rate of change accurately, instead of using intelligent guess
work. Limits conditions also permit us to explore the behaviour of functions that are discontinuous for
particular values of their independent variable. We continue to apply limiting conditions to identify a
function's derivative, which provides a powerful analytical tool for computing the derivative of function
sums, quotients and products.
Consider the following derivative graph of a function yy = f(x)f(x), and pick a

point P(x, f(x))P(x, f(x)) on it,
The following problems require the use of the limit definition of a derivative, which is given by
.
They range in difficulty from easy to somewhat challenging. If you are going to try these problems before
looking at the solutions, you can avoid common mistakes by making proper use of functional notation and
careful use of basic algebra. Keep in mind that the goal (in most cases) of these types of problems is to be able
to divide out the term so that the indeterminant form of the expression can be circumvented and the
limit can be calculated.
Show that f(x) = 2x2 + 1 is differentiable at x = 2
2
f (2+h) −f (2)
lim exit
h→ 0 h
2 2
lim f (2+h) −f (2 .2 +1) ¿
h→0
¿
h
lim ¿ ¿¿ ¿ 0
direct substitution gives
h→ 0 0

factorise
2 h(h+ 4)
lim =8
h→ 0 h
The Tangent and Velocity Problems
tangent
1. a straight line or plane that touches a curve or curved surface at a point, but if extended does not cross it at
that point.
2. a completely different line of thought or action.
"he quickly went off on a tangent about wrestling"
3. (of a line or plane) touching, but not intersecting, a curve or curved surface.
Physical Science :
Velocity
Velocity Practice Problems Quiz. ... Velocity is a measure of speed in a particular direction. Velocity is a
vector quantity. The formula is: speed = distance/time.
Velocity Problems
On this page I put together a collection of velocity problems to help you understand velocity better. The required
equations and background reading to solve these problems is given on the kinematics page.
Problem # 1
A car travels at uniform velocity a distance of 100 m in 4 seconds. What is the velocity of the car? (Answer: 25
m/s)
Problem # 2
A sailboat is traveling north at 10 km/h, relative to the water. The water is flowing north at 5 km/h. What is the
velocity of the boat relative to ground? (Answer: 15 km/h)
Problem # 3
A sailboat is traveling north at 10 km/h, relative to the water. The water is flowing west at 5 km/h, parallel to the
shore. What is the velocity of the sailboat relative to ground, and what is the angle of travel that the sailboat
makes with respect to the shore? (Answer: 11.18 km/h, 63.43 degrees or 26.57 degrees)
Problem # 4
In problem # 3, a woman is running at 4 km/h along the shore in the opposite direction to the water's flow. What
is the velocity of the sailboat relative to the woman and what angle of travel does the sailboat make with respect
to her? (Answer: 13.45 km/h, 48.01 degrees or 41.99 degrees)
Problem # 5
If a sprinter runs 100 m in 10 seconds, what is his average velocity? (Answer: 10 m/s)
Problem # 6
The world record for the men's marathon is 2:03:38. If the distance is 42.195 km, what is the average velocity
during the run? (Answer: 5.69 m/s)
Problem # 7

A plane needs to reach a velocity of 300 km/h relative to the air in order to take off. If there is a wind blowing at
80 km/h in the direction opposite to take off, what velocity must the plane reach relative to ground in order to
take off. (Answer: 220 km/h)
The Limit of a Function

In mathematics, the limit of a function is a fundamental concept in calculus and analysis concerning the
behavior of that function near a particular input. Formal definitions, first devised in the early 19th century, are
given below. Informally, a function f assigns an output f(x) to every input x.
Example 1 Compute the value of the following limit.
Solution
This first time through we will use only the properties above to compute the limit.

First we will use property 2 to break up the limit into three separate limits. We will then use property 1 to bring
the constants out of the first two limits. Doing this gives us,

We can now use properties 7 through 9 to actually compute the limit.
Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

LIMITS
Theorems on limits
Limits of polynomials
We will now prove that a certain limit exists, namely the limit

of f (x) = x as x approaches any value c. (That f(x) also
approaches c should be obvious.)

THEOREM. If f (x) = x, then for any value c that we might name:
For, if a sequence of values of the variable x approaches c as a

limit (Definition 2.1), then a sequence of values of the function f(x)
= x will also approach c as a limit (Definition 2.2).

For example,
Theorems on limits
To help us calculate limits, it is possible to prove the following.

Let f and g be functions of a variable x. Then, if the following

limits exist:
1) (f + g) = A + B.
2) (f g) = AB.
f A
3) = , if B is not 0.
g B
In other words:
1) The limit of a sum is equal to the sum of the limits.

2) The limit of a product is equal to the product of the
limits.
3) The limit of a quotient is equal to the quotient of the
limits,
3) provided the limit of the denominator is not 0.
Also, if c does not depend on x -- if c is a constant -- then
4)

To see that, let x approach 4: e.g. 1 1 1 1 1
4 2 4 4 4 8 4 16 4 32 . . . , then
the value of 5 -- or any constant -- does not change. It is constant
When c is a constant factor, but f depends on x, then
5)
A constant factor may pass through the limit sign. (This follows
from Theorems 2 and 4.) For example,
Example 1. Quote Theorems 1) through 5) to prove the following:
Solution. x2 = x· x. And we have proved that exists, and

is
equal to 4. Therefore, according
to Theorem 2.
That is,
It should be clear from this example that to evaluate the limit

of any power of x as x approaches any value, simply evaluate the power
at that value. Repeated application of Theorem 2 affirms that.
Problem 2.

Problem 3. Evaluate the following limits, and justify your answers by
quoting Theorems 1 through 5.
Limits of polynomials
The student might think that to evaluate a limit as x approaches a value,
all we do is evaluate the function at that value. And for the most part
that is true One of the most important classes of functions for which
that is true are the polynomials. (Topic 6 of Precalculus.) A polynomial
in x has this general form:
where n is a whole number, and an 0.

Therefore, according to the Theorems on limits, to name the limit
of a polynomial as x approaches any value c, simply evaluate the
polynomial at that value.
If P(x) is a polynomial, then
Compare Example 1 and Problem 2.

(In the following Topic we will see that is equivalent to saying that
polynomials are continuous functions. )
It is important to state again that when we write

the variable x is never equal to c, and therefore P(x) is
never equal to P(c) Both c and P(c) are approached as limits. The point
is, we can name the limit simply by evaluating the function at c.
Problem 4. Evaluate
Problem 5. Evaluate
Problem 6. Evaluate
[Hint: This is a polynomial in t.]

3(−1)2 −5(−1) + 1 = 3 + 5 + 1 = 9.
Problem 7. Evaluate
[Hint: This is a polynomial in h.]

Some of the most important limits, however, will not be
polynomials.
They will be limits of certain quotients -- and they will appear to 0

be 0
Dealing with that will be the challenge.
Example 2. Consider the function g(x) = x + 2, whose graph is a
simple straight line. And just to be perverse (and to illustrate a logical
point to which we shall return in Lesson 3), let the following
function f(x) not be defined for x = 2. That is, let
In other words, the point (2, 4) does not belong to the function; it is
not on the graph.
Yet the limit as x approaches 2 -- whether from the left or from the
right -- is 4
For, every sequence of values of x that approaches 2, can come

as close to 2 as we please. (The limit of a variable is never a member of
the sequence, in any case
Continuous Functions
CONTINUOUS MOTION is motion that continues without a break. Its

prototype is a straight line. There is no limit to the smallness of the
distances traversed.
Calculus wants to describe that motion mathematically, both the
distance traveled and the speed at any given time, particularly when the
speed is not constant. Solving that mathematical problem is one of the
first applications of calculus.
In any real problem of continuous motion, the distance traveled
will be represented by a "continuous function" of the time traveled
because we always treat time as continuous. Therefore, we must
investigate what we mean by a continuous function.
A continuous function
In the previous Lesson, we saw that the limit of a polynomial
as x approaches any value c, is simply the value of the polynomial
at x = c.
If P(x) is a polynomial, then
Compare Example 1 and Problem 2 of Lesson 2.

We are about to see that that is the definition of a function being
"continuous at the value c." But why?

A graph is an aid to seeing a relationship between numbers.
Therefore, consider the graph of a function f(x) on the left. That graph
is a continuous, unbroken line. Therefore we want to say that f(x) is a
continuous function. But a function is a relationship between numbers.
(Topic 3 of Precalculus.) Any definition of a continuous function
therefore must be expressed in terms of numbers only. To do that, we
must see what it is that makes a graph -- a line -- continuous, and try to
find that same property in the numbers.
(To avoid scrolling, the figure above is repeated .)
If we think of each graph, f(x) and g(x), as having two branches, two

parts -- one to the left of x = c, and the other to the right -- then the graph
of f(x) stays connected at x = c. The graph of g(x) on the right does not.
In the graph of f(x), there is no gap between the two parts. Those parts
share a common boundary, the point (c, f(c)). We saw in Lesson 1 that
that is what characterizes any continuous quantity. That is why the graph

of f(x) is continuous at x = c.
How can we mathematically define the sentence, "The function f(x)
is continuous at x = c."?
Let us think of the values of x being in two parts: one less than x = c,
and one greater. Then as x approaches c, both from the left and from the
right, if the corresponding values of f(x) -- those numbers
-- approach f(c), those values will share a common boundary, namely the
limit -- the number -- f(c). Upon borrowing the word "continuous" from
geometry then (Definition 1), we will say that the function is continuous
at x = c.
For example, if y = x2, and c = 4, then
(Lesson 2.)
The limit of x2 as x approaches 4 is equal to 42.
y = x2 is continuous at x = 4.
In the function g(x), however, the limit of g(x)

as x approaches c does not exist. If the left-hand limit were the

value g(c), the right-hand limit would not be g(c). That function is
discontinuous at x = c.
Here is the definition:

DEFINITION 3. A function continuous at a value of x.

We say that a function f(x) that is defined
at x = c is continuous at x = c
if the limit of f(x) as x approaches c
is equal to the value of f(x) at x = c.
In symbols, if
then f(x) is continuous at x = c.

And so for a function to be continuous at x = c, the limit must exist

as x approaches c, that is, the left- and right-hand limits must be equal.
(Definition 2.2)
If a function is continuous at every value in an interval, then we
say that the function is continuous in that interval. And if a function is
continuous in any interval, then we simply call it a continuous function.
By "every" value, we mean every one that we might
name. See Appendix 2.
Calculus is essentially about functions that are continuous at every

value in their domains. Prime examples of continuous functions
are polynomials (Lesson 2).
Problem 1.
a) Prove that this polynomial,
f(x) = 2x2 − 3x + 5,
a) is continuous at x = 1.
To see the answer, pass your mouse over the colored
area.
To cover the answer again, click "Refresh" ("Reload").
Do the problem yourself first!
Definition 3.
(According to the theorems on limits, that is true.)
f(x) therefore is continuous at x = 1.
b) Can you think of any value of x where that polynomial -- or any
b) polynomial -- would not be continuous?
(Lesson 2)
Problems 4, 5, 6 and 7 of Lesson 2 are examples of functions --
polynomials -- that are continuous at each given value.
These are the functions that one encounters throughout calculus.
Limits of continuous functions
Like any definition, the definition of a continuous function
is reversible. That means, if
then we may say that f(x) is continuous. And conversely, if we say

that f(x) is continuous, then
Therefore:
To evaluate the limit of any continuous function as x approaches a
value, simply evaluate the function at that value.
Definition 3.
Example 2. Evaluate
Solution.
The student should have a firm grasp of the basic values of the
trigonometric functions. In calculus, they are indispensable. See Topics
15 and 16 of Trigonometry.
Problem 2. Evaluate
sin 0 = 0.

Problem 3. Evaluate
Problem 4. Velocity, v(t), is a continuous function of time t. Let

v(t) = 2t 2 + 1.
If distance is measured in meters, and the function is defined at
t = 5 sec, then explain why
If a function is not continuous at a value, then it is discontinuous at

that value. Here is the graph of a function that is discontinuous at x = 0.
1 . At x = 0, the function is not

This is the graph of y =
x defined,
because division by 0 is an excluded operation. (Skill in Algebra,
Lesson 5.) x = 0 is a point of discontinuity. In fact, as x approaches 0 --
whether from the right or from the left -- y does not approach any
number.
Nevertheless, as x increases continuously in an interval that does
not include 0, then y will decrease continuously in that interval. We say,
1 is continuous for all values of x except x =
"The function y =
x 0."
Equivalently,
1 is continuous for all values of x in its
"The function y =
x domain."
Example 3. Consider this function:

x2 − 4
f(x)=
x − 2

This function is undefined at x = 2, and therefore it is discontinuous
there; however, we will come back to this below.
The function nevertheless is defined at all other values of x, and it
is continuous at all other values.
For example, as x approaches 8, then according to the Theorems of
Lesson 2, f(x) approaches f(8).
60
f(8) = 6 = 10.
f(x) therefore is continuous at x = 8. (Definition 3.)
In this same way, we could show that the function is continuous at
all values of x except x = 2.
This is an example of a perverse function, in which the function is

deliberately assigned a value different from the limit as x approaches 1.
That limit is 5. But the value of the function at x = 1 is −17. f(x) is not
continuous at x = 1.
In lessons on continuous functions, such problems (logical jokes?)
tend to be common. They are constructed to test the student's
understanding of the definition of continuity. Such functions have a
very brief lifetime however. After the lesson on continuous functions,
the student will never see their like again.
Removable discontinuity
For a function to be continuous at x = c, it must exist at x = c.
However, when a function does not exist at x = c, it is sometimes
possible to assign a value so that it will be continuous there.
This function
x2 − 4
f(x)=
x − 2
does not exist at x = 2. But for every value of x 2:
x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
= = x + 2.
x − 2 x − 2

Therefore, as x approaches 2,
(Compare Example 2 of Lesson 2.) That is,
Now, f(x) is not defined at x = 2 -- but we could define it. We
could define it to have the value of that limit We could say,
"At x = 2, let f(x) have the value 4."
If we do that, then f(x) will be continuous at x = 2 -- because the

limit at that value will be the value of the function.
(Definition 3.)
When we are able to do that -- define a function at a value where it
is undefined and therefore discontinuous -- we say that the function has
a removable discontinuity.
f(x) above is such a function.
Problem 5. Consider this function:
5x
y = .
x
a) For which value of x is this function discontinuous?

b) Define the function there so that it will be continuous.
For all values except x = 0, the function has the value 5.
Hence, if we define the function to have the value 5 at x = 0, then
we have successfully removed the discontinuity.
Derivatives and Rates of Change

In mathematics, the derivative is a way to represent rate of change, that is - the amount by which a function is
changing at one given point. For functions that act on the real numbers, it is the slope of the tangent line at a
point on a graph.
The Derivative of a Function
Differentiation Rules

Examples
Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions

Examples

Derivative of the Exponential Function
Let's now see if it is true at some other values of x.

We can see that at x = 4, the y-value is 54.6 and the slope of the tangent (in red) is also 54.6.
At x = 5, the y-value is 148.4, as is the value of the derivative and the slope of the tangent (in green).

Answeres
example 1
example 2
Example 3
Example 4

The Product and Quotient Rules

Differentiation – The Product Rule

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Example 1

Example 2
Example 3

Example 4

The Chain Rule
If f and g are both differentiable and F(x) is the composite function defined

by F(x) = f(g(x)) then F is differentiable and F ’ is given by the product
F ’(x) = f ‘(g(x)) g’(x)
In Leibniz notation, if y = f(u) and u = g(x) are both differentiable functions,

then
Note: In the Chain Rule, we work from the outside to the inside. We

differentiate the outer function and then we multiply with the derivative of
the inner function.
Example:
Find the derivatives of each of the following
Solution:
Example:
Differentiate y = (2x + 1)5(x3 – x +1)4
Solution:
In this example, we use the Product Rule before using the Chain Rule.

An introduction to Integration
Introduction to Integration - Calculus math review
What is integration? A definition of integration.
Integration is the process of finding the definite or indefinite integral of a function. Integration is

the inverse of differentiation and is often called antidifferentiation.

c is any fixed number and is called the constant of integration.

Note:
The result of integrating may be checked by differentiating your answer.
The integral of 4 = 4x + c

Integration problems for you to try.
Integrate each of the following:


Matrices
Define matrices
10.2 Various type of matrices such as Identity matrix, Diagonal matrices,

Scalar matrices, Symmetric/Skew-symmetric matrices, Row matrices, Null matrices,
Column matrices, Square matrices…….
Identity Matrix
An Identity Matrix is a square matrix that, when multiplied by another matrix, equals that same matrix.

Below, we have the 2 x 2 and 3 x 3 identity matrices:
Figure 1

Null matrices
Null matrices
In mathematics, particularly linear algebra, a zero matrix or null matrix is a matrixwith all its entries being
zero.

Square Matrices
a square matrix is a matrix with the same number of rows and columns. An n-by-n matrix is known as a
square matrix of order n. Any two square matrices of the same order can be added and multiplied.


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LECTURE NOTES

ENGINEER OFFICER CADET TRAINING PROGRAMME – STAGE 1

The entity of Fiji National University Managed by CINEC

Master electronic copy shall be in the possession of Quality Department.

STCW 1978, As Amended Reg. III/1, Sec. A III/1,Table A- III/1

IMO Model Course: 7.04 (2014 Edition)

Date of Revision Description of Revision HoD’s

Lecture Notes Page 1 of 9

Lecture Notes Page 1 of 9

Lecture Notes Page 1 of 9

Learning the Basics

The “x” sign and “.” have the same meaning.

4b is the coefficient of y2.

22 is called the 2nd power of 2

The power of a number or symbol is expressed as below:

Therefore, for symbol,

A group of numbers connected by the signs +, -, x and  is called an algebraic

Lecture Notes Page 1 of 9

consists of four terms. They are:

2a, 5c  5b, 2a  3b, and a  b.

Simple and Compound Expression

A simple expression consists of one term only. For example,

4d, 5c  5b, and 2a  3b.

A compound expression consists of two or more terms. For example,

5a, 2a, -3a are like terms and

5bx2, 2bx2, -3bx2 are like terms.

5cb, 2ab, 4xy2, 9b2c are unlike terms.

Like terms may have different numerical coefficients.

Simplify the algebraic expression given below,

8a + (4a - 2b) - (3b + 3a)

There are certain rules to be followed when removing brackets in an

Rule 2: If there is “ – ” sign before the bracket in an expression such as,

ac – (ad + (c – (d + x – (zy +cd) - bc – bd))).

This is simplified by removing the innermost brackets and working outwards.

= ac - (ad + (c - (d + x - zy - cd - bc - bd))) (innermost bracket removed)

= ac - (ad + (c - d - x + zy + cd + bc + bd)) (next set of bracket removed)

= ac – (ad + c - d + x + zy + cd + bc + bd) (next set of bracket removed)

Lecture Notes Page 1 of 9

Remember to apply the Rules 1 and 2 at each bracket removal step.

First group all the like terms:

It is now possible to express this using brackets as follows:

Now attempt the following activities.

Remove the brackets in the following expressions:

Lecture Notes Page 1 of 9

7ax – 4ax = 3ax and

9xy2 + 5xy2 = 14xy2.

Similarly, if we subtract “4x2y” from “6xy2” we get “6ay2 – 4x2y”.

Solve the following expressions:

2. 2ab + 9ab + 7ab = 18ab

4. (5xy + 3yz + 2zx) + (6yz + 5zx + 3xy) + (6zx + 9xy + 2yz)

5xy + 3yz + 2zx

Note: any term, number, or symbol without a sign is positive, e.g.,

Solve the following expressions:

2. 9ab + 2ab - 7ab = 4ab

4. Subtract “3ab - 5bc - 6ca” from “5ab - bc + 3ca” , i.e.,

(5ab - bc + 3ca) – (3ab - 5c - 6ca)

5ab - bc + 3ca first write the term to be subtracted from

Solve the following expression,

(8xy + 3yz - 2zx) + ( 6yz + 5zx + 3xy) - (6zx + 9xy + 2yz)

8xy + 3yz - 2zx

Simplify and solve the following expressions:

Lecture Notes Page 1 of 9

Simplify the following expressions by removing the brackets and collecting

a) 2x - 4y - (3x - 2y) + (4x - 5y) - (3x - 4y) + 5x