Pre-RMO 2013

Narasimhan R. Chari

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With a literature much vaster than those of algebra and arithmetic combined, and at least as extensive as that
of analysis, geometry is a richer treasure house of more interesting and half-forgotten things, which a hurried
generation has no leisure to enjoy, than any other division of mathematics.

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Euclid wrote for mature persons preparing for the study of philosophy. Geometry was the best introduction to
deductive reasoning.

H. S. M. Coxeter

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References:
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I. F. Sharygin, Problems in Plane Geometry, Mir Publishers, 1988

H. S. M. Coxeter and S. L. Greitzer, Geometry Revisited, Mathematical Association of America, 1967

Roger A. Johnson, Advanced Euclidean Geometry, Dover, 1929

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Christopher J. Bradley, Challenges in Geometry, Oxford University Press, 2005

S. L. Loney, Plane Trigonometry, Cambridge, 1915

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Arthur Engel, Problem Solving Strategies, Springer Verlag, 1998

R. Graham, D. Knuth, O. Patashnik, Concrete Mathematics, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley, 1994

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www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk, (Mactutor History of Mathematics, Univ. of St. Andrews, Scotland)

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1. Find the smallest positive integer k such that k(33 + 43 + 53 ) = an for some positive integers
a, n where, n > 1.
Ans: 33 + 43 + 53 = 27 + 64 + 125 = 216 = 63 ; hence a = 6, n = 3, k = 1

n 99
1 1
2. Define Sn = ∑ √ √ . Find ∑ .
k=0 k+1 + k n=1 Sn + Sn−1

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n
1
Ans: Sn = ∑ √ √ ; rationalise;
k=0 k+1 + k

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n
√ √
1 k+1 − k
Sn = ∑ √ √ .√ √

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k=0 k+1 + k k+1 − k
n √ √
= ∑ k + 1 − k, (telescoping sum);
k=0

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√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
= 1− 0+ 2− 1+ 3− 2+...+ n+1− n
√ gm
= n+1
√ √
Hence, Sn + Sn−1 = n + 1 + n
99
1
Consider ∑ .
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n=1 Sn + Sn−1
99
1
= ∑ √ √ ; rationalise ;
n=1 n+1+ n
99 √ √
= ∑ n+1− n
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n=1
√ √ √ √ √ √
= 2 − 1 + 3 − 2 + . . . + 100 − 99
√ √
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= − 1 + 100
= 10 − 1 = 9
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3. It is given that the equation x2 + ax + 20 = 0 has integer roots. Find the sum of all possible
values of a.
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b
Ans: The roots α and β of any quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 satisfy α + β = − and
a
c
α .β = .
a
Hence, for the given equation x2 + ax + 20 = 0, we get

α + β = −a; α .β = 20 = ±1 × ±20 = ±2 × ±10 = ±4 × ±5;

α + β = 1 + 20 = 21, or − 1 − 20 = −21, or 10 + 2 = 12, or − 10 − 2 = 12

or 4 + 5 = 9, or − 4 − 5 = −9
Hence the sum of all the possible values of a is zero.

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4. Three points X, Y, Z are on a line. XY = 10, XZ = 3. Find the product of all the possible values
of Y Z.
Ans: If X is between Y and Z we get Y Z = Y X + XZ = 10 + 3 = 13
If Y is in between the other two points, we get XZ > XY , i.e., 3 > 10, which is impossible.
If Z is in between the other two points, we get Y Z = XY − XZ = 10 − 3 = 7

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The product of these values is 13 × 7 = 91.

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5. There are n − 1 red balls, n green balls and n + 1 blue balls in a bag. The number of ways of
choosing 2 balls from the bag that have different colours is 299. Find the value of n.

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Ans: The number of ways of selecting 1 green and 1 red ball is n(n − 1) = n2 − n.
The number of ways of selecting 1 blue and 1 red ball is (n + 1)(n − 1) = n2 − 1.

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The number of ways of selecting 1 green and 1 blue ball is n(n + 1) = n2 + n.
Total number of ways is n2 − 1 + n2 + n2 + 1 = 3n2 − 1 = 299, (given)
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Hence 3n2 = 300 ⇒ n = 10

6. Let S(m) denote the sum of the digits of a positive integer m written in base 10. Let N be the
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smallest positive integer such that S(N) = 2013. Find the value of S(5N + 2013).
Ans: 2013 = 9 × 223 + 6; hence the last 223 digits of N must be 9 and the first digit must be 6.
Multiplying by 5 we get 5N = 3499 . . . 995, where there are 225 digits with 222 nines.
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5N + 2013 = 3500 . . . 002008 ; hence S(5N + 2013) = 3 + 5 + 2 + 8 = 18

7. Akbar and Birbal together have n marbles, where n is a positive integer. Akbar says to Birbal,
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“If I give you some marbles, you will have twice as many marbles as I will have”. Birbal says to
Akbar, “If I give you some marbles, you will have thrice as many marbles as I will have”.
Find the minimum value of n for which the above statements are true.
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Ans: Let the individual number of marbles with Akbar and Birbal be x and y respectively.
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x + y = n, 2(x − k) = y + k, 3(y − l) = x + l

2x − y = 3k, 3y − x = 4l. Solving these two equations we get

9k + 4l 3k + 8l 12(k + l)
x= , y= ; n = x+y = , which must be an integer.
5 5 5
The least value of n is obtained by taking k + l = 5. Then n = 12.
We can check that k = 2, l = 3, x = 6, y = 6 gives a solution.

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8. ABCD is a trapezium with AD k BC. P and Q are the midpoints of the diagonals AC and BD
respectively. AD = 16, BC = 20. Find PQ.
Ans: We label A, B, C, D in the anticlockwise direction. Let PQ extended, intersect AB and
CD at X and Y respectively.
1
P is the midpoint of BD and PX k AD . Hence X is the midpoint of AB and XP = AD = 8.
2
1

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X is the midpoint of AB and Q is the midpoint of AC. Hence XQ = BC = 10.
2
PQ = XQ − XP = 10 − 8 = 2

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9. In ∆ ABC, the orthocentre is H and the incentre is I . If B, H, I, C lie on a circle, find ∠ BOC
in degrees.
Ans: The incentre is the point of intersection of the internal angle bisectors of the triangle.

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B C
In ∆ BIC, ∠ IBC = ; ∠ ICB = ;
2 2

hence ∠ BIC = 180 −

B C
− = 180 −
2 2
B +C
2
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= 180 −
180 − A
2
A
= 180 − 90 + = 90 +
2
A
2
(1)

The orthocentre is the point of intersection of the three altitudes of the triangle.
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Suppose AD, BE and CF are the altitudes intersecting at H.

From ∆ BCF, we get ∠ BCH = 90 − B
From ∆ BCE, we get ∠CBH = 90 −C
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From ∆ BCH, we get ∠ BHC = 180 − (90 −C + 90 − B) = B +C = 180 − A (2)

Given BIHC is a cyclic quadrilateral. Hence ∠ BIC = ∠ BHC
A 3A
= 90 ⇒ A = 60◦
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Equating (1) and (2), we get 90 + = 180 − A ⇒

2 2

10. Carol was given three positive integers and asked to add the largest to the product of the other
two. Instead she multiplied the largest with the sum of the other two and got the same answer.
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What is the sum of the three numbers?

Ans: Suppose x is the largest of the three numbers; x ≥ y; x ≥ z.
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x + yz = x(y + z) ⇒ x = xy + xz − yz ⇒ x − x2 = xy − x2 + xz − yz = (x − y)(z − x)

If x = 1, we get (x, y, z) = (1, 1, z) and (1, y, 1) as solutions. But x ≥ y; x ≥ z; this forces

(x, y, z) = (1, 1, 1). This is the the only solution.

If x > 1 and y and z are positive integers, then

x(x − 1) = (x − y)(x − z) < (x − 1)(x − 1) < x(x − 1), contradiction.

Hence either y = 0 or z = 0. Then (x, 1, 0) and (x, 0, 1) are infinitely many solutions.
Taking the only solution in positive integers, the sum of the three numbers is 1 + 1 + 1 = 3

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11. If three real numbers x, y, z satisfy the equations x2 + 6y = −17, y2 + 4z = 1, z2 + 2x = 2, find

x2 + y2 + z2
Ans: Adding the three equations, we get, x2 + 2x + y2 + 6y + z2 + 4z = −14; complete the
squares,

(x2 + 2x + 1) + (y2 + 6y + 9) + (z2 + 4z + 4) = −14 + 1 + 9 + 4 = 0

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(x + 1)2 + (y + 3)2 + (z + 2)2 = 0 ⇒ x + 1 = 0, y + 3 = 0, z + 2 = 0
x = −1, y = −3, z = −2 ⇒ x2 + y2 + z2 = 1 + 9 + 4 = 14

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12. ∆ ABC is an equilateral triangle. P√is a point on AB, Q and R are on BC and S is
√on AC such
that PQRS is a rectangle. PQ = 3 PS and the area of PQRS is [PQRS] = 28 3. Find the
length of PC.
√ √ √ √

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Ans: Let PS = a . Then PQ = a 3; area (PQRS) = [PQRS] = a2 3 = 28 3 ⇒ a = 2 7.
√ √
√ PQ gm3 a 3 √
QR = PS = 2 7 ; sin B = sin 60 = ⇒ = ⇒ BP = 2a = 4 7
BP 2 BP
1 √ √ √
∼
BQ = BP = 2 7; ∆ BPQ = ∆CSR (AAS) ⇒ BP = CS = 4 7; BQ = CR = QR = 2 7;
2
√ √ √ √
BC = 3(2 7) = 6 7; AB = 6 7; AP = AB − PB = 2 7
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We use Stewart’s theorem for the length of a Cevian.

In triangle ∆ ABC, AB = c, BC = a, CA = b, D is a point on BC. Then AD is called a Cevian;

suppose BD = m, DC = n, AD = d. Then
mb2 + nc2 = a(d 2 + mn)
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Apply Stewart’s theorem in ∆ ABC with CP as the Cevian; let CP = d.

√ √
2 √ √
2 √  √
√

Hence, 2 7 6 7 + 4 7 6 7 = 6 7 d 2 + 2 7 4 7
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d 2 = 84 + 168 − 56 = 196 ⇒ d = CP = 14

13. (Pre-RMO, 2013) To each element of the set S = {1, 2, . . . , 1000}, a colour is assigned. If a, b
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belong to S and 15 divides a + b, then a and b have the same colour. What is the maximum
possible number of distinct colours used?
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Ans: The question is wrong. 1, 14 have the same colour; 1, 29 have the same colour. But
14, 29 do not have the same colour. The relation is not an equivalence relation, (neither reflexive
nor transitive). The relation should be aRb ⇐⇒ 15|(a − b). This congruence mod 15 relation
has 15 equivalence classes; hence 15 colours are needed.

14. m is the smallest odd positive integer such that 1 + 2 + . . . + m is a perfect square; n is the
smallest even positive integer such that 1 + 2 + . . . + n is a perfect square. Find m + n.
n(n + 1)
Ans: Obviously, m = 1. By trial and error we get n = 2, 4, 6, 8 ⇒ = 3, 10, 21, 36.
2
Hence n = 8 . Hence m + n = 9.

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15. ABCD is a convex quadrilateral. A1 , B1 , C1 , D1 are the midpoints of the sides of ABCD.
A2 , B2 , C2 D2 are the midpoints of the sides of A1 B1C1 D1 . If A2 , B2 , C2 , D2 is a rectangle,
find the product of the lengths of the diagonals of ABCD.
First we show that, if A2 B2C2 D2 is a rectangle, then A1 B1C1 D1 is a rhombus.
Let A1 , B1 , C1 , D1 be the midpoints of the sides AB, BC, CD, DA respectively.
Let A2 , B2 , C2 , D2 be the midpoints of the sides A1 B1 , B1C1 , C1 D1 , D1 A1 respectively.

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1 1
Then A1 D1 k BD k B1C1 and A1 D1 = BD = B1C1 and A1 B1 = C1 D1 = AC.
2 2

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Similarly, A2C2 = A1 D1 = B1C1 . Let A2 D2 = B2C2 = 4; A2 B2 = C2 D2 = 6.
√ √

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A2C2 = B2 D2 = 42 + 62 = 2 13. (The diagonals of a rectangle are equal).

A2 D2 k B1 D1 k B2C2 ; let A1C1 intersect B1 D1 at O .

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Note: O is the midpoint of A1C1 and B1 D1 . OD2 k C1 D1 k A1 B1 ; similarly, OB2 k A1 B1 ;
hence D2 OB2 is a straight line; similarly, A2 OC2 is a also a straight line. Hence O is the point
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of intersection of the diagonals of A1 B1C1 D1 and also the diagonals of A2 B2C2 D2 .

B1 D1 = 2 B2C2 = 8, A1C1 = 2 A2 B2 = 12, A1 B1 = B1C1 = C1 D1 = D1 A1 = 2 13.

√

Hence A1 B1C1 D1 is a rhombus.

√ √
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BD = 2 A1 D1 = 4 13, AC = 2 A1 B1 = 4 13
√
2
(AC)(BD) = 4 13 = 16 × 13 = 208

16. f (x) = x3 − 3x + b, g(x) = x2 + bx − 3, where b is a real number. Find the sum of all possible
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values of b such that the equations f (x) = 0 and g(x) = 0 have a common root.
Ans: Let a be a common root. f (a) = a3 − 3a + b = 0 ⇒ a3 = 3a − b (1)
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g(a) = a2 + ba − 3 = 0 ⇒ a2 = 3 − ab; (multiply by a) ⇒ a3 + ba2 − 3a = 0 (2)

Use (1) and (2); 3a − b + b(3 − ab) − 3a = 0 ⇒ 2b − ab2 = 0 ⇒ b(2 − ab) = 0
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⇒ b = 0 or ab = 2
√
Case 1: If b = 0 then a2 = 3 ⇒ a = ± 3 are common solutions.
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2
Case 2: If ab = 2 then equation (2) gives a2 = 1 ⇒ a = ±1 ⇒ b = = ±2
a
a = 1, b = 2 gives x3 − 3x + 2 = 0 and x2 + 2x − 3 = 0

(x − 1)2 (x + 2) = 0 and (x + 3)(x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = 1 is the common root.

a = −1, b = −2 gives x3 − 3x − 2 = 0 and x2 − 2x − 3 = 0

(x + 1)2 (x − 2) = 0 and (x − 3)(x + 1) = 0 ⇒ x = −1 is the common root.

The sum of the possible values of b is 0 + 2 + (−2) = 0

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Second method: In general, two quadratic equations ax2 + bx + c = 0, dx2 + ex + f = 0 have a

common root if and only if the resultant of these two equations is zero, i.e.,
a b b c  a c 2
    
d e e f  = d f 
    

In this problem, f (x) = x3 − 3x + b = 0, g(x) = x2 + bx − 3 = 0, gives

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x.g(x) − f (x) = 0 ⇒ h(x) = bx2 − b = 0. The resultant of g and h gives
1 b b −3 1 −32
    
4 2 2
b 0 0 −b = b −b ⇒ b − 4b = 0 ⇒ b (b + 2)(b − 2) = 0 ⇒ b = 0, 2, −2

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The sum of the possible values of b is 0 + 2 + (−2) = 0

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17. S is a circle with centre O. AB is a chord, not a diameter, which divides S into two regions
R1 , and R2 such that O is in R2 . S1 is a circle with centre in R1 , touching AB at X and S
internally. S2 is a circle with centre in R2 , touching AB at Y and S internally and passing
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through the centre of S. X lies on a diameter of S, through the centre of S2 . ∠Y XO = 30◦ ; the
radius of S2 is 100. Find the radius of S1 .
Ans: Let the centres of S, S1 , S2 be O, O1 , O2 and the radii be r, r1 , r2 respectively.
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O1 X = O1 X 0 = r1 ⇒ XX 0 = 2r1 ; O1 X ⊥ XY, O2Y ⊥ XY ⇒ O1 X k O2Y

Let X 0 and Y 0 be the points where S touches S1 and S2 respectively.
Given XOO2 is a straight line; ∠Y XO = 30◦ ;
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1
∆Y XO2 ⇒ ∠ XY O2 = 90◦ ; Y O2 = OO2 = r2 = 100; hence Y O2 = XO2 ; XO2 = 200;
2
OX = OX − O2 O = 200 − 100 = 100 (1)
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OY 0 = r ; ∠Y O1 O = 90 − ∠Y XO = 60◦ ; O2Y = O2 O = 100

⇒ ∆ OO2Y is equilateral; OY = 100

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∆ OYY 0 gives ∠Y OO2 = 90◦ ; YY 0 = 2 r2 = 200; OY 0 = r

√ √
Hence YY 02 = OY 2 + OY 02 ⇒ 2002 = 1002 + r2 ⇒ r = 100 3; hence OX 0 = r = 100 3 (2)
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In ∆ OXX 0 we have XX 0 = 2r1 , ∠ OXX 0 = X 0 OY +Y OX = 90 + 30 = 120◦

The cosine rule gives OX 02 = OX 2 + XX 02 − 2 OX. XX 0 cos 120; use (1) and (2)

3(100)2 = 1002 + 4r12 + 200r1 ⇒ 2r12 + 100r1 − (100)2 = 0

(r1 + 100)(2r1 − 100) = 0 ⇒ r1 = 50

Note that X 0 XO2Y turns out to be a parallelogram.

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18. Find the maximum possible value of k for which 2018 can be written as a sum of k consecutive
integers.
Ans: Let the sum of n − m = k consecutive numbers be

(m + 1) + (m + 2) + · · · + n = 2013 ⇒ (1 + 2 + · · · + n) − (1 + 2 + · · · + m) = 2018
n(n + 1) m(m + 1)
− = 2018 ⇒ n2 − m2 + n − m = 4036
2 2

m
(n + m)(n − m) + (n − m) = 4036 ⇒ (n − m)(n + m + 1) = 4036 = 4 × 1009 = 1 × 4036
The possible values are n − m = k = 1, 4; the maximum value is k = 4.

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19. In ∆ ABC, ∠ BCA = 90◦ . The perpendicular bisector of AB intersects the segments AB and
AC at X and Y respectively. The ratio of the area of the quadrilateral BXYC to the area of the
triangle ABC is 13 : 18 and BC = 12. Find the length of AC.

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Ans: The perpendicular bisector of AB intersects AC internally, (this is the meaning of
‘segment AC’). Hence AC > BC.
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Let the area of ∆ ABC be [ABC] = 18k. Then [BXYC] = 13k. Join BY . ∆ AXY ∼
= ∆ BXY .

[ABC] = 2[BXY ] + [BCY ] = 18k (1)

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[BXYC] = [BXY ] + [BCY ] = 13k (2)

Solving (1) and (2), we get [BXY ] = 5k; [BCY ] = 8k
1
[ABC] = BC. AC = 18k ⇒ 12(AC) = 36k ⇒ AC = 3k (3)
2
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1 4k 4k 5k
[BCY ] = BC.CY = 8k ⇒ 12(CY ) = 16k ⇒ CY = ; AY = AC −CY = 3k − = ;
2 3 3 3
AY = BY , since ∆ AXY ∼ = ∆ BXY .
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5k
Hence, BY =
3
25k2 16k2
In ∆ BCY , we get, BY 2 = BC2 +CY 2 ⇒ = 144 + ⇒ k = 12
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Eq (3) gives AC = 3k = 36.

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20. Find the sum (in base 10) of all natural numbers less than 64 which have exactly three ones in
their binary representation.
Ans: The base 10 representation is the usual decimal expansion, e.g.,

(314)10 = 4 + 1(10) + 3(10)2 .

The base 2 (binary) expansion is similar, e.g., (1011)2 = 1 + 1(2) + 0(2)2 + 1(2)3 = 11;

(100)2 = 0 + 0(2) + 1(2)2 = 4; (1000)2 = 8; (1000000)2 = 64

A number which is less than 64 has at most 6 digits in its binary expansion.
We must select any 3 places out of 6 places for placing the ones. This can be done in

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6 6.5.4
= = 20 ways. The remaining 3 places will contain zeroes.
3 1.2.3
Every number in binary has a unique complement obtained by changing the ones to zeroes and
zeroes to ones. For example, (101110) and (010001) are complements of each other.
The sum of any binary 6-digit number and its complement is given by

(111111)2 = 1 + 1(2) + 1(2)2 + 1(2)3 + 1(2)4 + 1(2)5 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 = 63

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Hence the twenty 6-digit numbers (having three ones) can be split into two parts of ten elements
each; and the total sum will be 10 × 63 = 630.

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√
21. Solve the equation 5 − x2 = 5 − x over the real numbers.
Ans: Squaring both sides, we get 25 − 10x2 + x4 = 5 − x i.e., x4 − 10x2 + x + 20 = 0. The factors

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of 20 are ±1, ±2, ±4, ±5, ±10, ±20. None of these is a root of the equation; hence there is no
linear factor. We can try quadratic factors.
gm
Let x4 − 10x2 + x + 20 = (x2 + ax + b)(x2 + cx + d)
x4 − 10x2 + x + 20 = x4 + (a + c)3 + (ac + b + d)x2 + (ad + bc)x + bd.
Equate coefficients on both sides.
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a + c = 0 ⇒ c = −a; −a2 + b + d = −10; a(d − b) = 1; bd = 20

To guess integer roots, try a = 1, d = b + 1; b(b + 1) = 20

⇒ b2 + b − 20 = 0 ⇒ (b + 5)(b − 4) = 0 ⇒ (b, d) = (−5, −4) or (b, d) = (4, 5)

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One possible solution is (a, b, c, d) = (1, 5, −1, −4) ;

( √ √ )
−1 ± 21 1 ± 17
x4 − 10x2 + x + 20 = (x2 + x − 5)(x2 − x − 4) = 0 ⇒ x = ,
2 2
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3 4 2018 1 1
22. Find a + b if + +...+ = −
1! + 2! + 3! 2! + 3! + 4! 2016! + 2017! + 2018! a! b!
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n+2 n+2 1 1 1
Ans: = 2
= = − ;
n! + (n + 1)! + (n + 2)! n!(n + 2) n!(n + 2) (n + 1)! (n + 2)!
1 1
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hence we get a telescoping series which gives − ⇒ a + b = 2020

2! (2018)!

23. Find the remainder when N = 111 . . . 1 with 124 digits is divided by 271.
Ans: We must calculate 11, 111, 1111, etc. mod 271. The 5-digit number 11111 = 41 × 271.
Hence 105 − 1 = 99999 is divisible by 271.

10125 − 1 is divisible by 271; 111 . . . 1 with 125 digits is divisible by 271.

10(111 . . . 1) (124 digits) = −1 = 270 mod 271 ⇒ N = 27 mod 271

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24. If F1 = 1, F2 = 1, Fn+1 = Fn + Fn−1 , for n ≥ 2 evaluate

∞
1
∑ Fn−1 Fn+1
n=2
 
1 1 Fn+1 − Fn−1 1 1
Ans: ∑ =∑ . =∑ − ;
n≥2 Fn−1 Fn+1 n≥2 Fn Fn−1 Fn+1 n≥2 Fn Fn−1 Fn Fn+1
1 1 1 1 1

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this is a telescoping series which sums to − + − +... = = 1.
F1 F2 F2 F3 F2 F3 F3 F4 F1 F2

25. If x0 = 2018 and n xn = (n − 2) xn−1 + 1 for n ≥ 1, find x2018

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1
Ans: n = 2 gives 2 x2 = 1 ⇒ x2 = ; n(xn − xn−1 ) = −2 xn−1 + 1 ⇒ x3 − x2 = 0 ⇒ x3 = x2 ; by

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2
1
induction we get, xn = , for all n ≥ 2.
2
1 1 1 p

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26. (IMO, 1979) If 1 − + − · · · + = where p and q are coprime positive integers,
2 3 1319 q
show that p is divisible by 1979. gm
   
1 1 1 1 1 1
Ans: 1 + + + · · · + − + +···+ ; add and subtract the even terms;
3 5 1319 2 4 1318
   
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1+ + +···+ −2 + +···+
2 3 1319 2 4 1318
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1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1+ + +···+ + +...+ − 1+ + +···+
2 3 659 660 1319 2 3 659
1 1 1
= + +···+ ; combine the first and last, the second and second-last terms, etc.
660 661 1319
1979 1979 1979 p m
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= + +···+ ⇒ = (1979) , where n is a product

(660)(1319) (661)(1318) (989)(990) q n
of integers less than 1979. But 1979 is prime; hence p must be a multiple of 1979.
sic

n
1 1
27. Show that ∑ 2
< 2−
r=1 r n
1
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Ans: Draw the graph of the decreasing convex function y = for x > 0
x2
Consider the Riemann sum, i.e.,the sum of the areas of the lower rectangles with bases
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2 3 n
[1, 2], [2, 3], . . . , [n − 1, n] and heights
2
, 2 , . . . , 2 respectively.
n n n
This sum is less than the area under the curve i.e., the definite integral.
n Z n
1 1
Hence, ∑ 2 < 1 + 2
dx
r=1 r 1 x
−1 n

1
LHS < 1 + = 2−
n 1  n 
1 1 1 1 1 1
Second method: 1 + 2 + 2 + . . . + 2 < 1 + + +...+
2 3 n 2. 3 3. 4 n(n + 1)
1 1 1 1 1 1
< 1+ − + − +...+ −
2 3 3 4 n n+1
1 1 3 1 3 1 1 1
< 1+ − = − < + − = 2 − , for n ≥ 2
2 n+1 2 n+1 2 2 n n
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1 1 1
28. Infinite series: The harmonic series ∑ = 1 + + . . . + + . . . is divergent.
   n  2 n 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Proof: 1 + + + + + + + + +...+ +...
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 16
   
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
> 1+ + + + + + + +...
2 4 4 8 8 8 8
   

m
1 1 1
> 1+ +2 +4 +...
2 4 8  
n 1 1

o
Hence the partial sum upto N = 2 terms gives SN > 1 + + + . . . , (N times); hence
2 2
N

l.c
SN > 1 + ⇒ SN → ∞ as N → ∞, i.e., the series is divergent.
2
∞  
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Obviously, the series of even terms, ∑ = + + +... = 1 + + + . . . is diver-
2n 2 4 6 2 2 3

ai
n=1
∞
1 1 1 1 1 1
gent; the series of odd terms, ∑ = 1 + + + . . . > + + + . . . is also divergent;
n=1 2n − 1 gm 3 5 2 4 6
∞
(−1)n−1 1 1
But the corresponding alternating series ∑ = 1 − + − . . . is convergent.
n=1 n 2 3
This a particular case of Abel’s test, (Norwegian, 1822) for conditional convergence:
ri@

A series of alternating terms (of real numbers) is convergent if the terms are numerically strictly
(monotonically) decreasing and tending to zero.
The value (i.e., limit) of this series is given by the general Maclaurin (Scottish) / Taylor (English,
1715) series expansion:
f 0 (0) x f 00 (0) x2
ha

f (x) = f (0) + + +...

1! 2!
x2 x3
In particular, loge (1 + x) = x − + − . . .
2 3
sic

1 1 1
⇒ ln(2) = log 2 = 1 − + − + . . .
2 3 4
Other classical alternating series were first discovered by Kerala, (Indian) mathematicians in the
ra

calculation of the circumference of a circle:

Madhava (Kerala, 1340-1425), recorded in Nilkantha’s ‘Tantra Sangraha’ (1501), found a for-
na

mula (i.e., series expansion) for π :

π 1 1 1
= 1− + − +...
4 3 5 7
This series is called Gregory’s series, (Scotland, 1668). It also follows from the Maclaurin series
for tan−1 x :
x3 x5 x7
tan−1 x = x − + − −...
3 5 7
The convergence of the Gregory-Nilkantha series can be accelerated as follows:
       
π 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1− + + − − + − + + − −...
4 4 4 8 3 8 12 5 12 16 7
1 1 2 2 π 3 1 1
but + − = 3 ⇒ = + 3 − 3 +...
n−1 n+1 n n −n 4 4 3 −3 5 −5
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29. Divergent series: A divergent series should not be re-arranged in evaluating the sum.
In fact, a conditionally convergent alternating series can be re-arranged to sum to any pre-
assigned number.
1 1
Example: The series 1 − + − . . . is conditionally convergent.
2 3
Given any real number k, take n1 terms of the divergent series of odd positive terms

m
1 1
S1 = 1 + + ... + such that this sum is just greater than k ; then take n2 terms of the
3 2n1 − 1
1 1 1

o
divergent series of even positive terms S2 = + + . . . + such that the sum S1 − S2 is just
2 4 2n2

l.c
less than k .
Repeat this process to get the sum arbitrarily close to k.
Example: It is easy to get contradictions and pure nonsense by re-arranging divergent series.

ai
S = 1−1+1−1+1−...

S= 1−1+1−1+1−...
gm 1
Adding, we get, 2S = 1 + (−1 + 1) + (−1 + 1) + . . . = 1 ⇒ S = (1)
2
Similarly, T = 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + 5 − . . .
ri@

T= 1−2+3−4+5−...
1 1
Adding, we get, 2T = 1 − (2 − 1) + (3 − 2) + . . . = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + . . . = S = ⇒T = (2)
2 4
X = 1+2+3+4+...
ha

T = 1−2+3−4+5−...
1
Subtracting, we get, X − T = 4 + 8 + 12 + . . . = 4X ⇒ −3X = T =
sic

4
1
⇒ X = 1+2+3+... = − ; but a sum of positive numbers cannot be negative.
12
1 1 1
Similarly, 1 + + + + . . . is divergent. The terms cannot be arranged and added or sub-
ra

2 3 4
tracted arbitrarily.
   
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
na

1+ + +... = 1+ + +... + + + + . . . ; add and subtract the even terms

2 3 3 5 2 4 6
        
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ 1+ + +... = 1− + − + − +... +2 + + +...
2 3 2 3 4 5 6 2 4 6
   
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ 1+ + +... = + + +... +2 + + +...
2 3 1. 2 3. 4 5. 6 2 4 6
   
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ 1+ + +... = + + +... + 1+ + +...
2 3 1. 2 3. 4 5. 6 2 3
1 1 1
⇒ + + + . . . = 0 ; but a sum of positive real numbers cannot be zero.
1. 2 3. 4 5. 6
Conclusion: Never manipulate a divergent or conditionally convergent series.

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1
30. Region of convergence: The infinite geometric series 1 − x + x2 − x3 + . . . = , is conver-
1+x
gent for −1 < x < 1, (or in the open unit disc |x| < 1 for complex numbers).
We get wrong conclusions by using this series at points outside this region of convergence. For
example,
1
x = 1 ⇒ 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + . . . = , which is nonsense.
2

m
Such contradictions and erroneous conclusions emphasise the fact that algebraic operations with
infinite series should be undertaken only at points inside the established region of convergence.

o
Standard series expansions:

l.c
1
= 1 − x + x2 − x3 + . . . for |x| < 1
1+x

ai
Integrating term-by-term, we get
x2 x3
log(1 + x) = x − + − . . . for |x| < 1 gm
2 3
Changing x to x2 on both sides of the geometric series, we get
1
= 1 − x2 + x4 − x6 + . . . for |x| < 1
1 + x2
ri@

Integrating this series term-by-term, we get

x3 x5
tan−1 x = x − + − . . . for −1 < x ≤ 1
3 5
This series is convergent at x = 1, by the alternating series test. This gives
ha

1 1 π
1− + −... = (Madhava-Gregory formula)
3 5 4
sic

(Madhava, (1400), Gregory, (1668) and Leibniz, German, 1671)

The Kerala school also discovered the standard expansions of sin x and cos x:

x3 x5 x7
ra

sin x = x − + − + . . . for all real / complex numbers.

3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
na

cos x = 1 − + − + . . . for all real / complex numbers.

2! 4! 6!
x x2 x3
e = 1 + x + + + . . . for all real / complex numbers.
2! 3!
Changing x to ix we get Euler’s identity, (Swiss, 1748): eix = cos x + i sin x ; eiπ + 1 = 0
The binomial theorem, (Newton, 1665, for rational exponents), can be proved by induction for
positive integral powers with binomial coefficients nk :

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

(1 + x)n = 1 + n x + x + x + . . . , for |x| < 1
2! 3!
n
n
n+1

The Pascal triangle, (French, 1653), (al-Karaji, Arabic, 1000 CE) satisfies r + r−1 = r

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31. The base e of the natural logarithm: (Jakob Bernoulli, Swiss, 1683), (Euler, Swiss, 1727)
1 n
 
Consider the binomial expansion of 1 + , for any natural number n ≥ 1 :
n
1 n
 
xn = 1 +
n
 n
1 n(n − 1) 1 1
= 1+n + + . . . +
n 2! n2 n

m
         
1 n−1 1 n−1 n−2 1 n−1 n−2 1
= 1+1+ + +...+ ...
2! n 3! n n n! n n n

o
         
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1
= 2+ 1− + 1− 1− +...+ 1− 1− ... (1)

l.c
2! n 3! n n n! n n n
Change n to n + 1. This gives
    
1 1 1 1 2

ai
xn+1 = 2 + 1− + 1− 1− +...
2! n+1 3! n+1 n+1
    
1 1 2 1
+ 1− gm 1− ... (2)
n! n+1 n+1 n+1
k
For 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 1, we have < 1;
n
1 1 1 1 1 1
n < n+1 ⇒ > ⇒− <− ; add 1 on both sides; 1 − < 1 −
ri@

n n+1 n n+1 n n+1

hence each bracket in (1) is positive and is less than the corresponding bracket in (2); also (1)
contains n + 1 positive terms and (2) contains n + 2 positive terms.
Hence xn < xn+1 , for all n ≥ 1, i.e., the sequence {xn } is monotone (strictly) increasing.
ha

k
Further, each bracket in (1) lies between 0 and 1, since 0 < < 1 for 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 1
n
Equation (1) gives xn > 2, for n ≥ 2
sic

Also, from equation (1), we get

         
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1
xn = 2 + 1− + 1− 1− +...+ 1− 1− ...
2! n 3! n n n! n n n
ra

1 1 1
< 2 + (1) + (1) + . . . + (1), (since each bracket is less than 1)
2! 3! n!
1 1 1
na

⇒ xn < 2 + + + . . . +
2! 3! n!
But 3! = 1.2.3 > 1.2.2 = 22 ; 4! = 1.2.3.4 > 1.2.2.2 = 23 , etc., n! > 2n−1 for n ≥ 3
1 1 1
⇒ xn < 2 + + 2 + . . . + n−1 ; this gives a geometric progression;
2 2 2
"  n−1 #
1
⇒ xn < 2 + 1 − < 2+1 = 3
2
⇒ 2 < xn < 3 , for n ≥ 2; hence the sequence {xn } is bounded.

{xn } is monotone increasing and bounded above; hence the sequence is convergent.
1 n
 
1 1 1
The limit is denoted by e, i.e., lim 1 + = e = 1+ + + +...
n→∞ n 1! 2! 3!
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32. Show that there are infinitely many primes of the form 4n + 1 .
Ans: Method 1, Quadratic Residues: Proof by contradiction. Suppose, if possible, there are
only finitely many prime numbers, {p1 , p2 , . . . , pk }, of the form 4n + 1.
Let N = 4p21 p22 . . . p2k + 1 = (2p1 p2 . . . pk )2 + 1 (1)

N is odd; so it must have only odd primes factors; these are of the form 4n + 1 or 4n + 3. But
equation (1) shows that N leaves the remainder 1 when divided by any prime of the form 4n + 1;

m
hence it must have a prime factor p of the form 4n + 3.

⇒ (2p1 p2 . . . pk )2 + 1 ≡ 0 mod p ⇒ x = 2p1 p2 . . . pk , x2 ≡ −1( mod p)

o
This says that −1 is a quadratic residue mod p; hence p must be of the form 4n + 1 , contra-

l.c
diction.
Method 2: Given a natural number n, let p be a prime factor of (n!)2 + 1. Then p > n; hence

ai
p must be odd.

(n!)2 + 1 ≡ 0 (mod p) ⇒ (n!)2 ≡ −1 (mod p) gm

h ip−1 p−1
2 2 ≡ (−1) 2 (mod p)
⇒ (n!)
p−1
ri@

p−1
⇒ (n!) ≡ (−1) 2 a (mod p)

But, by Fermat’s little theorem, a p−1 ≡ 1(mod p), for all a coprime to p
We have n! coprime to p ; hence (n!) p−1 ≡ 1(mod p)
ha

p−1
⇒ (−1) 2 ≡ 1(mod p) and p is odd;
p−1 p−1
⇒ is even ⇒ = 2m ⇒ p = 4m + 1
sic

2 2
This proves that, for every n > 1, there exists a prime p, p > n and p ≡ 1 (mod 4)
Hence, when n → ∞, we get p → ∞.
ra

Hence there exist infinitely many primes of the form 4n + 1.

na

15