1 Atomic structure

and the periodic table

Atomic structure
The structure of atoms
l Atoms are the smallest part of an element that can exist.
l Atoms are very small. Typical atoms have a radius of about 0.1 nm 1 nm = 1 × 10 –9 m
(1 × 10 –10 m).
l Atoms are made from smaller particles called protons, neutrons and
electrons.

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Table 1.1

proton neutron electron

where it is in the  in the  outside the nucleus in 
nucleus nucleus energy levels (shells)

l
l
relative charge
relative mass
+1
1
0
1
PL –1
very small

The protons and neutrons are contained in a tiny central nucleus.

The nucleus is about 10 000 times smaller than the atom.
l The electrons move around the nucleus in energy levels (also called shells).
nucleus containing
protons and neutrons
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Key
proton
neutron
electron
electrons move
around the
nucleus in energy
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levels (shells)

Figure 1.1

Atomic number and mass number

l The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom is found
from the mass number and atomic number. Atomic number number of 
l Atoms are neutral and so the number of protons equals the number of protons
electrons. Mass number number 
of protons + number of 
Mass number
(protons + neutrons) 23 neutrons

Atomic number
(protons) 11
Na
Figure 1.2

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 Table 1.2
1 Atomic structure and the periodic table 

protons neutrons electrons

atomic mass = atomic = mass number – = atomic number (only for
atom number number number atomic number atoms but not ions)
23
11 Na 11 23 11 12 11
40
18 Ar 18 40 18 22 18
35
Cl these two 
17 17 35 17 18 17 
 atoms are 
37
17 Cl 17 37 17 20 17  isotopes

Isotopes and relative atomic mass

l Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have a different mass
number (e.g. 1735 Cl and 37
17 Cl
). Isotopes atoms with the 
l This means that isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons same number of protons 

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but a different number of neutrons. but a different number of 
l Isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties neutrons
because they have the same electron structure.
l The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the average mass of all
the isotopes of an element.

Example
PL
relative atomic mass (Ar ) = total mass of all the atoms of an element
total number of atoms of an element

Find the relative atomic mass of chlorine which consists of 75% 35
Exam tip
The relative atomic mass 
must have a value between 
the mass of the heaviest 
and the lightest isotopes. 
17 Cl 
For example, for chlorine 
and 25% 37
17 Cl
 atoms.
the value must be between 
35 and 37. If your answer is 
(75 × 35) + (25 × 37)
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relative atomic mass (Ar ) = = 35.5 outside this range, you have 
75 + 25 made a mistake.

Electron structure
The electrons orbit the nucleus in energy levels (shells).
SA

l
l Electrons are in the lowest possible energy level (the energy levels
closest to the nucleus).
l The 1st energy level holds a maximum of 2 electrons and the 2nd energy
level holds a maximum of 8 electrons. The next 8 electrons go into the 3rd
energy level, with the next 2 electrons going into the 4th energy level.
Table 1.3

atom aluminium potassium

number of electrons 13 electrons 19 electrons
diagram of electron
structure

written electron structure 2,8,3 2,8,8,1

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 Ions

1 Atomic structure and the periodic table 
l Ions are particles with an electric charge because they contain a
different number of protons and electrons. Ion charged particle with a 
l Positive ions have more protons than electrons. different number of protons 
l Negative ions have more electrons than protons. and electrons
l Common ions have the same electron structure as the Group 0
elements (the noble gases). These are very stable electron structures. Typical mistake
(The only common ion that is an is exception is H + which has no Many candidates struggle 
electrons at all.) to work out the number of 
Table 1.4 electrons in an ion. Remember 
that protons are positive and 
atomic mass electron electrons are negative. 
ion number number protons neutrons electrons structure An ion with a 1+ charge 
7
3 Li+ 3 7 3 4 2 2 has more positive protons 
27
than negative electrons, 
Al 3+ 13 27 13 14 10 2,8 7 +

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13 for example, the  3 Li  ion 
35
Cl − 17 35 17 18 18 2,8,8 has 3 protons (charge = 3+) 
17
and therefore must have 2 
16
8 O2− 8 16 8 8 10 2,8 electrons (charge = 2–).

Development of ideas about atomic structure

l

l
changed or completely replaced.
PL
As scientists make new discoveries, scientific models have to be

For many years, scientists thought that atoms were the smallest possible
particle that could not be divided.
l This theory was replaced by the plum-pudding model of the atom
when electrons were discovered. In this model, the atom is a ball of
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positive charge with negative electrons embedded in it.
l The plum-pudding model was replaced a few years later when the results of
an alpha particle scattering experiment showed that it could not be correct.
l In the experiment, alpha particles were fired at a very thin piece of
gold foil. If the plum-pudding model was correct, the alpha particles
would have passed straight through the gold foil. However, a few alpha
SA

particles were def lected or bounced back.

l Rutherford worked out from these results that atoms have a tiny,
positive nucleus surrounded by electrons. Most of the mass of the atom is
concentrated in this nucleus. This is known as the nuclear model.
plum-pudding model (1897) nuclear model (1911, but revised since)

The alpha particles would all be expected to travel straight A tiny fraction of alpha particles were deflected or bounced back.
through the gold foil according to the plum-pudding model Rutherford worked out that there must be a tiny, positive nucleus to explain this

Figure 1.3 The alpha scattering experiment

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 l Bohr revised the nuclear model when he showed that the electrons
1 Atomic structure and the periodic table 

moved in energy levels.

l Later experiments showed that the positive nucleus is made of particles
called protons.
l A few years later, the nuclear model was revised again when Chadwick
discovered that neutrons are in the nucleus as well as the protons.

Now test yourself

1  What is the atomic number and mass number of an atom with 26 protons, 30 neutrons 
and 26 electrons?
2  How many protons, neutrons and electrons are there in each of these atoms and ions? 
(a) 49 Be (b) 39
19 K (c) 24
12 Mg
2+
(d) 199 F −
3  What is the electron structure of each of the atoms and ions in question 2?
4  What is the charge on an ion containing 16 protons and 18 electrons?
5  What is special about the electron structure of ions?
6  Explain why 126 C and 136 C are isotopes.

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71
7  Calculate the relative atomic mass of gallium which contains 60%  6931 Ga  atoms and 40%  31 Ga atoms. 
Give your answer to 3 significant figures.
8  The radius of a calcium atom is 0.18 nm. State this in standard form in metres.

Answers on p. 114

Reactions of elements
Elements in the periodic table
PL
l An element is a substance containing one type of atom. For example,
Typical mistake
all the atoms in the element carbon are carbon atoms.
l Elements cannot be broken down into simpler substances. It is very important to show 
M
l There are just over 100 elements. the capital letters and small 
l Each element has its own symbol (the first letter of which is always a letters clearly when writing 
capital). symbols. Some students 
can lose marks by mixing up 
l The elements are listed in order of atomic number in the periodic
capital or small letters or 
table. not writing them clearly.
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Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0

H He
1 2 Element a substance that 
Li Be B C N O F Ne cannot be broken down into 
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
simpler substances
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Compound a substance 
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
made from two or more 
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe different elements bonded 
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 together
Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Fr Ra Ac** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

* Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Metal
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Non-metal
** Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 Difficult to classify

Figure 1.4 Elements are listed in order of atomic number in the periodic
table

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 l Over three quarters of the elements are metals. Most of the other

1 Atomic structure and the periodic table 
elements are non-metals, but a few are hard to classify.

Table 1.5 Physical properties of metals and non-metals

metals non-metals
melting and boiling points high (usually) low
conductivity thermal and electrical conductor thermal and electrical insulator
density high density (usually) low density
appearance shiny when polished  dull
malleability can be hammered into shape brittle as solids

Reactions between elements

l Compounds are formed when elements react with each other.

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l When elements react, electrons are transferred or shared so that
atoms obtain the stable electron structure of the noble gases (Group 0
elements).
Table 1.6 Reactions between metals and non-metals

Is there a reaction?
What happens with
electrons
PL
metal + non-metal
reacts 
electrons are transferred from 
metal to non-metal
metal + metal non-metal + non-metal
no reaction reacts
electrons are shared

Type of compound formed ionic molecular 

Balancing equations
M
l Word equations show the names of the reactants (the chemicals at the
start) and the products (the chemicals made in the reaction). Reactants the chemicals at 
l A balanced equation shows the formula of each substance and how the start of a reaction 
many particles of each are involved in the reaction. Products the chemicals 
made in a reaction
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Table 1.7

what the equation

reactants products tells us
word hydrogen + oxygen → water hydrogen reacts with 
equation oxygen to form water
balanced 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O 2 molecules of H2 
equation react with 1 molecule 
of O2 to form 2 
molecules of H2O

l In a balanced equation, the total number of atoms of each element

in the reactants and products must be the same. This is because atoms
cannot be created or destroyed.

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 l How to balance an equation:
1 Atomic structure and the periodic table

1 Write a word equation (you may be given this). e.g methane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

2 Re-write the equation with the formula of each

CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O
substance in place of the name (you may be given
the equation at this stage and be asked to balance it).
C=1 C=1
H=4 H=2 this is not balanced as the
3 Count the number of each atom in the reactants O=2 O=3 number of H and O atoms
and products to see if it is balanced. is different on each side

4 If the equation is not balanced, then add in extra CH4 + O2 CO2 + 2H2O
add another H2O molecule
molecules. NEVER change the formula of a C=1 C=1 on the right so that there are
substance.
H=4 H=4 4 H atoms on both sides –
O=2 O=4 but the O atoms are still not
balanced
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
add another O2 molecule on
the left so that there are 4 O C=1 C=1
atoms on both sides – the H=4 H=4

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equation is now BALANCED O=4 O=4

l Sometimes balanced equations include state symbols which are shown:

(s) = solid
(l) = liquid


(g) = gas
(aq) = aqueous (i.e. dissolved in water)

Now test yourself

PL
  9 What type of compound, if any, will be formed when the following
Typical mistake
Students are sometimes
tempted to change the
elements react with each other? formula of a substance
(a) sodium + bromine to balance an equation.
(b) oxygen + sulfur You should never do this
because it changes what the
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(c) magnesium + aluminium
(d) chlorine + iron substances actually are.
10 Balance the following equations.
(a) Mg + O2 → MgO
(b) Na + H2O → NaOH + H2
(c) Fe2O3 + C → Fe + CO
11 Write in words what the following equation tells us:  
SA

P4(s) + 5O2(g) → P4O10(s)

Answers on p. 114

The periodic table

Electron structure and the periodic table
l All the elements in the same group in the periodic table have the same
number of electrons in their outer shell. For example, all the elements
in group 7 have 7 electrons in their outer shell.
l Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties because
they have the same number of electrons in their outer shell.

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 My revision planner
Paper 1 topics
1 Atomic structure and the periodic table
  1 Atomic structure
  4 Reactions of elements
  6 The periodic table
12 Mixtures
2 Bonding, structure and the properties of matter

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15 Types of bond
15 Ionic substances
18 Molecular substances
21 Giant covalent substances

22 States of matter
23 Nanoscience
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21 Metallic substances

25 Different forms of carbon

3 Quantitative chemistry
28 Conservation of mass
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28 Relative formula mass
30 Molar ratios in equations
30 Reacting mass calculations
31 Percentage yield
32 Atom economy
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33 Using moles to balance equations

34 Limiting reagents
35 Volume of gases
36 Concentration of solutions
4 Chemical changes
41 Reactions of metals
44 Acids and alkalis
49 Electrolysis
5 Energy changes
55 Exothermic and endothermic reactions
59 Chemical cells and fuel cells

iv Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes

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 Paper 2 topics
  6 The rate and extent of chemical reactions
63 Rate of reaction
69 Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium
  7 Organic chemistry
73 Naming organic molecules
73 Crude oil

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74 Alkanes
75 Alkenes
77 Alcohols
78 Carboxylic acids
79 Polymers
81 Biochemistry
  8 Chemical analysis
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85 Pure substances and mixtures

85 Formulations
85 Chromatography
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88 Tests for common ions
89 Testing for common gases
90 Instrumental methods
  9 Chemistry of the atmosphere
93 The Earth’s atmosphere
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10 Using the Earth’s resources

100 The Earth’s resources
105 Metals
107 Other materials
109 Making fertilisers

114 Now test yourself answers

Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at

www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotesdownloads

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