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Lab Experiments Finalee
Lab Experiments Finalee
Lab Experiments Finalee
Section: H
Maryam 192520004
Submitted to:
Muller-Lyer Illusion
Introduction
Definition
Materials:
Explanation:
The Muller Lyer Illusion experiment is also called optical illusion due to its
characteristic feature which is the identification of the length of two lines. The illusion
occurs due to the embezzlement of size constancy scaling. The difference between the
sticks is apparent due to the size constancy, in this the lines near our eyes form a bigger
image at the retina in comparison to the one placed at far
The arrow on the stitch which is pointing outwards is perceived to be near each
other, whereas the arrows pointing towards the line appears to be at a distance which
makes the middle line appear to be of a bigger size. The lines are placed in parallel to
each other with having three different combinations of the arrowheads.
Significance:
It is based upon the Gestalt principle of convergence and divergence.
Neuroscientific study
Apparel industry
Interestingly, there are major culture differences in the perception of line length in
the Muller-Lyer illusion. These differences were demonstrated by the English
anthropologist and neurologist W. H. R. Rivers in 1901. In his observation, he tested
different cultures, such as a population of native aboriginal people called the Melanesians
who live on Murray Island, a chain of volcanic islands just off Australia. In Rivers’
observations, these people were significantly less susceptible to the visual distortion
effect of the changing angles of the wings. They more accurately identified the midpoint
of the arrow, and were more likely to judge the two lines above as the same length
compared to European patients. Doctor John Berry published a study in the British
Journal of Psychology examining the Muller-Lyer response in a variety of populations,
including the Inuit people from the Northern Arctic countries, some Scots from the city,
and the Tenme people a West African people from Sierra Leone. A similar trend was
observed.
One of the major studies regarding the perception of the Muller-Lyer illusion was
published in 1966 (The influence of culture on visual perception). In this study, they
looked at a total of seventeen different populations of people including European and
American urban dwellers. In their experiment, they found that the urban Americans and
European are more vulnerable to the line-length modifying wings of the Muller-Lyer
illusion. In their explanation, the accuracy in perception for these people was due to their
environment. They lived in a less rectilinear world compared to their European
counterparts, whose right-angled buildings and streets made them more vulnerable to
perceptual tricks such as the Muller-Lyer illusion. The study first used the word
“carpentered,” which describes the type of squared atmosphere that the city-dwelling
Americans and Europeans experience on a regular basis.
Conduction: (procedure)
The subject is shown a line of a particular length with one fixed arrowhead and
the other two moveables. One of the moveable arrowheads (pointing outside) is used in
fixing a length with the fixed arrowhead. At the back of the apparatus, there is a scale that
is only visible to the experimenter and it helps in identifying if the subject has put the
moveable arrowhead at the correct distance or is there any difference between the length
of the line.
The subject is asked to move the other moveable arrowhead (pointing inwards) at
a length that is equal to the fixed length. The subject can adjust the arrow as per the
distance they observe/ assume.
The length fixed by the experimenter is considered as stimulus and the line to be
adjusted is considered as a response.
The difference between the calculated length and actual length is counted as an
error. The errors are calculated on both ends (right and left) being it less and more than
the actual length.
Literature review
The movement time hypothesis is suggested in some studies of the visual Müller-
Lyer illusion, though timing has not always been very precise. Visual Müller-Lyer figures
with divergent fins required a longer exposure time, and figures with convergent fins took
less time than expected (Erlebacher, 1969), suggesting that scanning time could also
explain the haptic illusion. Shorter eye movement saccades for convergent than divergent
figures) and correlations between eye movements and unseen arm (pointing) movements
have also been reported (Moses,DeSisto,1970).
Wong (1975) disputed the hypothesis that movement control mechanisms mediate
the similarity of the illusion in touch and vision, on the grounds that the degree of
excursive eye or hand movements had no effect on the visual or haptic Müller-Lyer
illusion. But latencies were not tested directly.
First, Rudel and Teuber (1963) found that the errors in the visual and haptic
illusions decreased similarly as the number of trials increased although the participants
received no feedback (Gentaz, E, 2004). Over (1967) confirmed this decrease in haptic.
This suggests that the perceptual learning occurring very generally in vision is also at
work in haptic. Second, Rudel and Teuber (1963) observed that this decrement in the
magnitude of the illusion was equally transferable from haptic to vision and from vision
to haptic. Third, the errors get stronger as the acute angles formed by the arrowheads and
the segment to be evaluated get smaller in both vision and haptic (Heller et al. 2002).
Finally, Millar and Al-Attar (2002) showed that the same experimental
manipulations reduced the Müller-Lyer illusion in vision and haptic to the same
percentage error level. More precisely, detailed explicit instructions to ignore the
arrowheads because they are confusing and to use body-centered cues for spatial
reference reduced the Müller-Lyer illusion in both modalities to near zero. This illusion
was not reduced in the absence of instructions to use body-centered cues, even when
external reference cues were present. The authors suggested that an explicit ego centric
reference may be the common factor underlying the Müller-Lyer illusion in both visual
and haptic modalities. If such a common factor exists, positive correlations between the
visual and haptic errors of the participants should be observed. Curiously, this question
has never been studied: Previous studies on the Müller-Lyer illusion in both modalities
were always performed on independent groups of participants and therefore could not
provide data on the intra-individual consistency of the illusion across modalities (Gentaz,
E, 2004). However, the fact that this illusion is present in both modalities does not
necessarily imply that the errors are correlated when they are measured in the same
participants. For example, although the “oblique effect” (lower precision of the
reproduction of oblique orientations by comparison to the reproduction of the vertical and
horizontal orientations) is observed both in vision and haptics, no significant correlation
between this visual and haptic oblique effect has been found when the same subjects were
tested(Gentaz,.2001).Therefore, to address this issue, Edouard Gentaz examined whether
the Müller-Lyerillusion was correlated in visual and haptic tasks when the same
blindfolded sighted adults performed exactly the same task in both modalities. Of course,
the presence of a correlation will not demonstrate unambiguously that the same factor is
responsible for the errors in the two modalities, but it could provide some support to this
hypothesis. The same participants were asked to perform visually and then haptically (or
in the reverse order) the task proposed by Rudel andTeuber (1963). The participants were
asked to explore the display made of two arrowheads fixed at the end of rod which
pointed to their left. Then, the participants were asked to give verbal instructions to the
experimenter who moved the “central and third arrowhead” until they thought that its
apex bisected the length of the rod. Thus, participants benefit from information only in
the relevant modality. The counterbalanced order of presentation of the visual and haptic
tasks raises a main question because half of the participants viewed the display before
performing the haptic task, and we know from a number of previous studies that
blindfolded sighted people tend to use their visual imagery when processing haptic tasks
(Gentaz, 2003). Therefore, in the analyses of results, this possible effect of order will be
specially examined.
Problem Statement
To find out how much error is involved in discriminating the length of the lines?
Methodology
Hypothesis
Participates will under-estimate the size of arrow headed figure and feather
headed arrow is over-estimated.
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Sample/subject
We took a participant and his age is 23 and he is in semester 8th with previous
knowledge was FSC.
Instrument/ Tools
Procedure
The person is given a card and is said to adjust the card in such a way when you
feel that both arrows are equal. Firstly, the person is said to move the dependent arrow
from inward to outward from the right hand in such a way when you feel that both arrows
are equal and then note the reading. Repeat this process 10 times. Then the person is said
to move the dependent arrow from outward to inward from the right hand in such a way
when you feel that both arrows are equal and then write down that reading. Repeat this
process 10 times. Then the person is said to move the dependent arrow from inward to
outward from the left hand in such a way when you feel that both arrows are equal and
then write down that reading. Repeat this process 10 times. Then the person is said to
move the dependent arrow from outward to inward from the left hand in such a way when
you feel that both arrows are equal and then write down that reading. Repeat this
process10 times. Note down all the readings.
Results
Table 1
46 30 39 37
41 30 38 38
45 32 38 30
41 32 37 41
40 34 39 34
46 42 39 34
39 39 38 32
42 33 37 31
44 32 42 36
44 32 37 34
Average: 1501
=1501/40
=37.52
Qualitative interpretation
This table shows the findings of the experiment done on the subject. The first 10
trials were carried out by right hand (inward to outward). The second 10 trials were done
again by right hand (outward to inward). The next 10 trials were carried out from left
hand (inward to outward) followed by the last 10 trials from left hand (outward to
inward). The table shows the average of all the 40 trials by adding all the trials which is
1501. Then the value was further divided by total trials (1501/40) and the average value
is 37.52. Magnitude of illusion was calculated by subtracting the average value by 60
(60- 37.52) and the total error (magnitude of illusion of subject) is 23.
Discussion
As our problem statement was to find out how much error is involved in
discriminating the length of the lines. So, our point of subjective equity was 60. As in the
above experiment, the magnitude of illusion was 23 and in the article from which we get
the literature review, the magnitude of illusion was 6.2.
This indicates that the people conducted more errors in the card’s movement from
outward to inward. Other suggested explanations of the Müller-Lyer illusion that have
received significant attention over the years are the eye-movement theory and the
assimilation theory (Gombrich et al., 1973). The eye- movement theory claimed that the
misperception of the central shaft arises from the different extents of eye movements
needed to view a figure adorned with arrow tails compared to a figure with arrowheads.
This older proposal has been generally dismissed because the illusion persists in the
absence of eye movements (Howe & Purves, 2005). The assimilation theory argues that
the length of the central shaft is misperceived because the visual system cannot
successfully isolate parts from wholes. In this scenario, the central shaft of the figure with
arrow tails is seen as longer because the stimulus is, in its totality, longer. This supports
the hypothesis, as we perceived the arrow headed as longer and we underestimated the
feather headed (Qiu et al., 2008). The results of other researchers summarized here
further support the hypothesis that visual perception is a fundamentally probabilistic
process that has evolved to contend with the inherent ambiguity of information in retinal
stimuli (Kornmeier & Bach, 2012). The otherwise puzzling perceptual effects of the
standard Müller-Lyer stimulus and several variants that have been especially difficult to
explain evidently arise because visual percepts are generated in a way that reflects the
statistical relationship between retinal images and their real-world sources (Todorović,
2010).
Limitations
Recommendations:
This experiment must be performed different age group of people and also
different sex because the widely generalized the results of this experiment. Create the
noise prove environment to enhance the interest of participants.
References
Gentaz, E, Camos,V, Hatwell,Y , Jacquet,A,Y, (2004). The Visual and the Haptic Müller-
Lyer
Gombrich, E. H., Hochberg, J., & Black, M. (1973). Art, perception, and reality (Vol.
1970). JHU Press.
Howe, C. Q., & Purves, D. (2005). The Müller-Lyer illusion explained by the statistics of
image–source relationships. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102(4),
1234- 1239.
Qiu, J., Li, H., Zhang, Q., Liu, Q., & Zhang, F. (2008). The Müller–Lyer illusion seen by
the brain: An event-related brain potentials study. Biological psychology, 77(2), 150-
158.
Kornmeier, J., & Bach, M. (2012). Ambiguous figures–what happens in the brain when
perception changes but not the stimulus. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 6, 51.
Todorović, D. (2010). Context effects in visual perception and their explanations. Review
of psychology, 17(1), 17-32.
Experiment no.2
Blind spot
Problem Statement
To observe the subject will make a simple prop and use it to find their blind spot.
To locate and identify the blind spot
Introduction
At the back of your eye is the retina. Your retina is made up of light-sensitive cells which
send messages to your brain about what you see. Everyone has a spot in their retina
where the optic nerve connects. In this area there are no light-sensitive cells so this part
of your retina can’t see. We call this the blind spot.
Mostly you don’t notice your blind spot because the spot in one eye doesn’t match
the spot in the other eye. Each eye supplies information to the brain, filling in what’s
missing. Also, sometimes the brain will fill in the missing information with what it thinks
should be there. That causes one kind of optical illusion.
One of the most dramatic experiments to perform is the demonstration of the
blind spot. The blind spot is the area on the retina without receptors that respond to light.
Therefore, an image that falls on this region will NOT be seen. It is in this region that the
optic nerve exits the eye on its way to the brain. To find your blind spot, look at the
image below or draw it on a piece of paper:
To draw the blind spot tester on a piece of paper, make a small dot on the left side
separated by about 6-8 inches from a small + on the right side.
Close your right eye. Hold the image (or place your head from the
computer monitor) about 20 inches away. With your left eye, look
at the +. Slowly bring the image (or move your head) closer while
looking at the +. At a certain distance, the dot will disappear from
sight...this is when the dot falls on the blind spot of your retina.
Reverse the process. Close your left eye and look at the dot with
your right eye. Move the image slowly closer to you and the + should disappear.
Literature review
This report introduces blind spot warming of vehicles that uses cameras mounted
to reduce traffic accidents. In recent years, there have been many new blind spot warning
systems designed for vehicles which mainly use radar technology. This report will firstly
describe the reason why intelligent surveillance systems need to be used so as to observe
blind spots of vehicles through several cameras. These will be followed by the definition
and importance of blind spot detection and its technical background. Next, an example
will be used to explain based on histogram and SIFT algorithms in blind spot monitoring
and HMM is employed to calculate the probability of accidents occurring in the blind
spots. After that, RNN will be used as a model of deep learning to predict the cars that
will turn up in the blind spots. Finally, the limitations of this technology will be explored
and future work will be briefed (Yiting Shen, 2018)
The pupil can be used as an objective measure for testing sensitivities across the
visual field (pupil perimetry; PP). The recently developed gaze-contingent flicker PP
(gcFPP) is a promising novel form of PP, with improved sensitivity due to retina
topically stable and repeated flickering stimulations, in a short time span. As a diagnostic
tool gcFPP has not yet been benchmarked in healthy individuals. The main aims of the
current study were to investigate whether gcFPP has the sensitivity to detect the blind
spot, and upper versus lower visual field differences that were found before in previous
studies. The physiological blind spot typically has a width of 8- and height of 10 degrees
in visual angle (Armaly, 1969, Safran et al., 1993). Experiment consisted of 130 trials (65
stimulus location; one block for pupil measurements, another block for visibility ratings).
Trials were randomized and each trial consisted of one stimulus presentation for 6 s. In
the subjective part of the experiment we asked the participants to rate the visibility of
each flickering disk on a 11-point Likert scale (0 = fully invisible, 10 = fully visible),
whereas in the objective part of the experiment we asked the participants to fixate the
bull’s eye. A total of thirty individuals were tested with gcFPP across two separate
experiments. The results showed that pupil oscillation amplitudes were smaller for
stimuli presented inside as compared to outside the blind spot. Amplitudes also decreased
as a function of eccentricity (i.e., distance to fixation) and were larger for upper as
compared to lower visual fields. We measured the strongest and most sensitive pupil
responses to stimuli presented on dark- and mid-gray backgrounds, and when observers
covertly focused their attention to the flickering stimulus. GcFPP thus evokes pupil
responses that are sensitive enough to detect local, and global differences in pupil
sensitivity. The findings further encourage (1) the use of a gray background to prevent
straylight without affecting gcFPPs sensitivity (BrendanL. Portengen,CarlienRoelofzen et
al., 2021)
Due to a lack of photoreceptors where the optic nerve exits the eye during
monocular viewing, a portion of the peripheral visual field is blind. Like several other
blind spots, this one still seems to be filled up. Recently, there have been several unique
reports of filling in at the blind spot. Here, many of these effects' consequences are
reexamined critically. It is specifically claimed that many blind-spot phenomena (such as
pop-out and changes in apparent motion) that are thought to support early filling in are
actually consistent with the idea that the visual blind spot is treated by early perceptual
processing as a region of reduced or absent information. To prove this point, it is
demonstrated that many perceptual effects seen in blind-spot completion are similar in
detail to the completion of partially obscured objects seen from a distance. The objectives
were to highlight the striking parallels between amodal completion of occluded portions
of surfaces and blind-spot completion, and to offer a shared theoretical framework for
comprehending these phenomena in the context of surface segregation and perceptual
interpolation (Srimant P. Tripathy, Dennis M. Levi, Frank H Durgin, 2016).
Methodology
Hypothesis:
Independent Variable:
Movement of chit
Dependent Variable:
Sample/subject:
Black markers.
Procedure
In this experiment the person taking the experiment and closed the right eye. Hold
the image about 20 inches away. With the left eye, look at the +. Slowly bring the image
closer while looking at the +. At a certain distance, the dot will disappear from sight after
11 seconds. This is when the dot falls on the blind spot of subject retina. Reverse this
process and close the left eye and look at the dot with your right eye. Move the image
slowly closer and the + disappear after 13 seconds. Then we take a black chit and chit
holder and said the person to close your left eye and we start moving the black chit from
left to right side we continuously moving the chit and where the black chit disappear we
mark that and we start moving the chit in upward direction and note the area where blind
spot appear same thing we done in the downward side, left and right side when this
process is complete a circle is formed and then we note the circle diameter in
centimeter(cm) and also note the circle outside distance of right, left, upward and
downward side from the paper end in centimeter.
Results
Table 1
Qualitative Interpretation
After doing this experiment our results are the scale we draw is 14cm long and
moving from left to right side where our blind spot appear is in distance of 4.9cm or the
diameter of the circle we get is 9.5cm and the distance we get from the paper end to circle
corner in upward side is 0.6cm, downward is 15cm, left side we get 3.8cm and from right
side 6.5cm when this process is complete a circle is formed and the we note the circle
diameter in centimeter(cm) and also note the circle outside distance from the paper end in
centimeter and hence proved the hypothesis Blind spot is a part on retina where there are
no photoreceptors.
Discussion
The experiment measured the blind spot of the object with the help of blind spot
experiment. The results from the test revealed that the object will disappear after some
distance that mean at the back of your eye is the retina where the optic nerve connects
(Ramachandran, 1992). In that area there is no light-sensitive cells so this part of your
retina can’t see and the blind spot appears (Kawabata, 1984). Through this experiment we
proved the hypothesis that Blind spot is a part on retina where there are no
photoreceptors. And hence proved the hypothesis Blind spot is a part on retina where
there are no photoreceptors.
Limitations
Recommendations
References
Shen, Y., & Yan, W. Q. (2018, November). Blind spot monitoring using deep learning.
In 2018 International Conference on Image and Vision Computing New Zealand
(IVCNZ) (pp. 1-5). IEEE.
Tripathy, S. P., Levi, D. M., & Ogmen, H. (1996). Two-dot alignment across the
physiological blind spot. Vision research, 36(11), 1585-1596.
Durgin, F. H., Tripathy, S. P., & Levi, D. M. (1995). On the filling in of the visual blind
spot: Some rules of thumb. Perception, 24(7), 827-840.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2020.10.005
Kawabata, N. (1984). Perception at the blind spot and similarity grouping. Perception &
Psychophysics, 36, 151-158.
Appendix
Experiment no.3
Problem Statement
Introduction
Transfer of Learning is used to describe the effects of past learning upon present
acquisition. In the laboratory and in the outside world, how well and how rapidly we
learn anything depends to a large extent upon the kinds and number of things we have
learned previously. Transfer may be defined as “the partial or total application or
carryover of knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes from one situation to another situation”.
Hence, carryover of skills of one learning to other learning is transfer of training or
learning. Such transfer occurs when learning of one set of material influences the learning
of another set of material later. For example, a person who knows to drive a moped can
easily learn to drive a scooter. Transfer of Learning has three type’s Positive transfer of
learning and Negative transfer of Learning and Neutral transfer of learning.
This transfer of learning is made possible by the two-way information traffic that
exists through the corpus callosum, the band of fibers in the brain that allows the two
hemispheres to communicate and transfer information. William M Land (2016),
conducted a study on bilateral transfer suggests that imagery training can facilitate the
transfer of motor skill from a trained limb to that of an untrained limb above and beyond
that of physical practice.
E.H. Weber had begun the process of transferring science. He noticed that some
kids who had been taught to write with the right hand were able to create extremely
effective mirror writing with the left hand without any additional instruction. The
cerebral hemisphere appears to be the location of practice effect practically without a
doubt. The brain structure or state changes as a result of practice. According to the
Callosal Access Model, regardless of the hand used for training, motor programmers are
stored in the dominant hemisphere. The transfer of motor learning between hemispheres
is mostly mediated by the Supplementary Motor Area.
Literature Review
Methodology
Hypothesis
Practice by preferred hand will help performing the task by other hand
Independent Variable
Preferred hand
Dependent Variable
Mistake or Error
Sample/subject:
Instruments/Tools
Sheet
Mirror
Black markers.
Stop Watch
Procedure
This experiment constitutes two group; control group and experimental group.
One participant was in control group and was drew the star by looking in the mirror and
performed three trails. This participant drew star with hand other than preferred hand the
no of error in each trail were recorded in seconds which indicated the efficiency or
transfer of training in content of motor learning.
Experimental group
In this group participant drew star by looking in mirror with preferred hand. That
participant had performed three trails. Every trail was recorded number of errors in time
which was in seconds. After this, that same participant drew the star with hand other than
preferred hand. There were three trails for this which were recorded in terms of number
of errors in seconds. The number of errors in each trails indicates transfer of training in
the content of motor learning.
Control group
The instructions were clearly given and the experiment was conducted with ease.
Initially, I found it difficult to draw the star with left hand (not preferred hand) but
participant managed it well. That participant had performed three trails. Every trail was
recorded number of errors in time which was in seconds.
Results
Table 1
Experimental group
Control group
Qualitative interpretation
After doing this experiment our results show that bilateral transference of learning
enhances the skills and function of speed and accuracy of other hand. According to our
experiment result show the experimental group first trail of preferred hand (right hand)
perform in 160 seconds and did 8 errors and we see in 3rd trail time and errors less than
first trail and the same thing see in left hand of experimental group perform first trail in
80 second and did 9 errors. In third trail of left hand both time and errors are reduced.
The other hand control group did perform first trail with left hand in 250 seconds and did
14 errors. When the participant reaches in third trail both the time and errors reduced.
Our result shows that bilateral transform of training help to performing the task in other
hand.
Discussion
After doing this experiment our results show that bilateral transference of learning
enhances the skills and function of speed and accuracy of other hand. Through this
experiment we proved the hypothesis that Practice by preferred hand will help
performing the task by other hand. Also the literature research, a study on a test requiring
eye-hand synchronization, (Munn, N. L, 1932) in which the results revealed that practice
with untrained limb has an improvement of 61% on average after trials so this also
supports our hypothesis that learning is transferred from trained to untrained limb. And
hence proved the hypothesis Practice by preferred hand will help performing the task by
other hand.
Limitations
Environmental distractions
Time limitations
Lack of instruments
Psychological conditions also made the experiment lack of interest like the
motivation level of each participant's matter
Participants biases towards instructions of instructor
Recommendations
References
Land, W. M., Liu, B., Cordova, A., Fang, M., Huang, Y., & Yao, W. X. (2016). Effects
of physical
Kumar, S., & Mandal, M. (2005). Bilateral transfer of skill in left-and right-
handers. Laterality:
Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition, 10(4), 337-344.
Appendix
Experiment no. 4
Introduction
The last decade has seen a resurgence of theoretical and empirical activity related
to certain types of visual illusion. This is most commonly called a reversible geometry
(Long et al., 1983). Reversible figures such as the Necker Cube, Rubin's Face/Vase, and
Bowling Girl/Old Woman are ambiguous visual patterns that support at least two distinct
perceptual organizations or interpretations. During continuous viewing, the observer
experiences a perception that alternates between possible interpretations of the characters,
although the stimulus patterns themselves do not change. Interest in this class of illusions
can be traced at least to a paper published by Necker (1832, cited in Long et al., 1983).
Our continued interest in these numbers stems from the belief that understanding their
multi-stability provides insight into how the underlying perceptual mechanisms work
(Toppino, 2003). Reversible numbers have attracted much research interest because they
are said to offer insights into how perceptual systems work due to their curious multi-
stability. Unfortunately, the longstanding popularity of the inversion diagram in the
literature reflects the lack of consensus among researchers as to the exact nature of what
this mode of operation is. There are researchers in favor of cognitive processes such as
learning and problem-solving. This can affect illusion reversal in a top-down fashion
(Long et al., 1992). Some researchers prefer a more passive or 'bottom-up' process of
neural fatigue and recovery between cortical structures as a determinant of shape reversal
(Long et al., 1992).
Literature Review
Methodology
Hypothesis
H1; The perception shifts easily when the image is reversed from its original view.
H2; if we focus deeply on one part of the image, the other things in the image are
considered as the background of the image.
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Procedure
Table 1
Laws of perception
Law of contrast 0 0
Total 11 77 seconds
Formula:
Average response time = total time of response / total number of response word
ART= 77/11 = 7
In first figure the participant took her personal experience in which she said that
it’s look like ball and in reserves its look like umbrella. The law of similarity is having
been used. In figure two the participant again from her personal experience state that its
looks like stairs and in reverse looks like double sided or 3d pencil. There's again law of
similarity has been used.
For the first figure when it was non-reversed first participant reported the upper
two white and black triangles to be same in shape and size and the lower white and black
triangle to be same in shape and size. The second participant reported the same results but
she reported that the black triangles on the right and left side seem to be same in shape
and size too. In reversed condition the figures were reported by the participant as to be
similar in shape and size from the upper white and black triangles and the lower black
and white triangles whereas in the non-reversed condition the triangles on the right and
left sides were also reported to be same in size and shape from both the participants.
For the second figure in the non-reversed condition the first participant reported
all the stairs to be same in shape and size and to be similarly attached to the upper and
bottom part of the figure. Same results were reported by the other participant. In the
reversed condition same results were reported by both the participants and in non-
reversed condition.
Discussion
The figures were presented two the participants in the non-reversed and reversed
conditions. In some conditions the participants reported similar results to each other in
both of the conditions and in a few conditions the results were different to each other in
case for both the figures and in non-reversed and reversed presentation. The results of the
experiment are not according to or aligned to the results reported by the experiments
conducted by Girgus et al. (1997) and Toppino (2003) as they depict different results in
terms of the variables used and the purpose of their studies.
Limitations
Environmental distractions
Psychological conditions also made the experiment lack of interest like the
motivation level of each participant's matter
Participants biases towards instructions of instructor
Recommendations
Wubbels, G. G., & Girgus, J. S. (1997). The natural sciences and mathematics. Gaff, JG,
Ratcliff, JL.
Code learning
Problem Statement
Experimentally demonstrate about the progress of code learning with the help of
code learning substitution sheets.
Introduction
The concept of coding, which refers to what is stored in memory during learning,
is defended as an important and necessary conceptual advance in learning-memory theory
during the last decade. It is maintained that the concept covers a wide variety of
functionally different coding operations, with many specifics of its operation still to be
experimentally determined, and that attempts to restrict its meaning to arbitrary
transformational coding, as suggested by Rustle, should be rejected (Melton. A.W, 1973).
Morse code chart is a method to encode all the 26 English letters from A to Z. The
English letters are transformed into standardized sequences of dots and dashes. They are
the same for uppercase as well as lowercase letters. Invented by Samuel Morse in the
1830s, Morse codes were used in World War II for radiotelegraphy. This means the codes
were used to transmit messages between naval bases and warships. The Morse code chart
comprises code symbols with lengths approximately inverse to corresponding character
occurrences. It is this arrangement that makes Morse code more efficient than most other
encoding systems. It was developed from transliteration as the Latin alphabet includes 26
letters. Encoding with Morse code can be more efficient as it does not specify durations
for the code elements. The codes are transmitted at the highest rate. The standard speed
of transmission as of 2011 is 34 words per minute.
Literature review
Methodology
Hypothesis
Independent Variable
Number of trials
Dependent Variable
Accuracy of response
Sample/subject
We took 1 participant of age 22 and her semester is 8th. Her previous degree was
FSC premedical
Instruments/Tools
Code sheet, Paper, Pencil and Stop Watch
Procedure
Results
Table 1
Scoring of sheet
1 11 4 min
2 8 2:50 sec
3 6 2:11
4 5 2:11
5 5 2:01
Qualitative interpretation
The participant's trial scores, error totals, and trial times are displayed in the table.
The first trial took 4 minutes and included 15 correct answers compared to 11 mistakes.
The participant completed the second trial in 2 minutes and 50 seconds, answering 18 of
the 26 alphabet-related questions correctly while making a total of 8 mistakes. The person
finished the third trial in 2 minutes and 11 seconds, giving 20 correct answers and 6
incorrect ones. The fourth trial was completed in 2 minutes and 11 seconds, with 5 errors
and 21 correctly answered questions, which was a significant improvement. The fifth and
final trial was finished in 2 minutes and 1 second with 21 correct answers, the same as the
fourth trial, and 5 mistakes. As a result, our hypothesis that as the number of trials rises,
response accuracy will follow is confirmed.
Discussion
The results of the experiment are matching with the hypothesis hence it is proved
that if the practice of an individual increases his learning get improved and error get
reduced. Jordan (1995) proposed the notion of dynamical optimization, with an increased
amount of practice a response becomes increasingly effect or specific due to the specific
effect or information that is being coded along with and perhaps linked to sequence
information. Previous studies have less focused on both practice and error in code
learning. Previous studies like banduras have researched how learning can be improved
using coding and bandura showed how practice and coding together improve the
retention of memory (Janelle et al., 2003)
Limitations
Recommendations
Cognition. Shea, C.H, Kovacs, A .J, Panzer, S. (2011).The Coding and Inter-
Manual Transfer of Movement Sequences.
Bandura, A., & Jeffrey, R. W. (1973). Role of symbolic coding and rehearsal processes
Mattle, K., Weinfurter, H., Kwiat, P. G., & Zeilinger, A. (1996). Dense coding in
Saldaña, J. (2014). Coding and analysis strategies. The Oxford handbook of qualitative
research, 581-605.
Siegel, J. A. (1974). Sensory and verbal coding strategies in subjects with absolute pitch.
Appendix
Experiment no: 6
Human Maze Learning
Introduction
Methodology
Hypothesis
• Increasing the number of trials, resulting in decreasing the number of errors.
Table 1
Experimental Group
1 III 3 210
2 I 1 190
3 0 0 120
Control Group
1 II 2 120
Qualitative interpretation
In the experimental group, the number of errors was reduced in each trial
as illustrated above and the time taken was also reduced by each trial. So, the
hypothesis is proved that increasing the number of trials, results in decreasing the
number of errors and increasing the number of trials results in a decrease in the
time taken.
Discussion
The experiment is to navigate through the maze. It was seen in the experiment
that as the effort increased, his wasted activities became less and the time also
decreased. After several attempts, it was observed that when a hungry cat was put
in a cage, it would press the lever and when the door was opened, it came out to get
its favorite food. So, the cat learned based on the stimulus-response relationship.
(Thorndike, 1913). Hence, proved the hypothesis increasing the number of trials
results in decreasing the number of errors, and increasing the number of trials
results in a decrease in the time taken.
Limitations
Recommendations
References
Trowbridge,M.H.,&Cason,H.(1932).An experimentalstudyofThorndike'stheoryof
learning.TheJournalofGeneralPsychology,7(2),245-260.
Tolman,E.C.,& Honzik,C. H.
(1930).Introductionandremovalofreward,andmazeperformancein
rats.UniversityofCaliforniapublicationsin psychology.
Scott,T. C.(1955).Timerecordsinhumanmazelearningandtheircomparisonwithmaze
records.TheJournalofGeneticPsychology,87(2),265-275.
Experiment 7:
Digit Span
Introduction
The Digit Span test is one of the most commonly used measures of immediate
verbal recall, intentional capacity, and working memory in neuropsychological research
and clinical evaluations. (Feggy Ostrosky-Solis, 2006). This test comprises two
modalities, digits forward and digits backward. It has been established that age,
education, and culture are important variables that affect performance on this test. (Feggy
Ostrosky-Solis, 2006).
Digit Span measures verbal short-term memory, defined as the system that allows
for the temporary storage of information, and is crucial in everyday tasks such as
remembering a telephone number or understanding long sentences. Digit Span involves
numbers, but performance is indicative of verbal short-term memory because it requires
dealing with items in a specific order, as opposed to spatial short-term memory. Often
included in traditional IQ tests, Digit Span has a long history in neuropsychological
assessments. Early theories of memory identified the “phonological loop” as a verbal
storage and rehearsal system underlying properly functioning verbal short-term memory.
More recent research has identified regions of the brain, such as the mid-ventrolateral
frontal cortex, that must be recruited to perform well in Digit Span.
Measures of forward and backward digit span (DS) are among the oldest and most
widely used neuropsychological tests of short-term verbal memory (Richardson, 2007).
For decades they have been a component of the widely used Wechsler memory scales
(WMS) and Wechsler intelligence scales for adults and children (Wechsler, 1997a,
1997b). In each case, digit span is measured for forward and reverse-order (backward)
recall of digit sequences. Digit sequences are presented beginning with a length of two
digits and two trials are presented at each increasing list length. Testing ceases when
the subject fails to accurately report either trial at one sequence length or when the
maximal list length is reached (9 digits forward, 8 backward). The total number of lists
reported correctly is combined across forward span (FS) and backward span (BS) to
produce a Wechsler total correct score.
Literature Review
Digit Span (RDS) is a heavily researched symptom validity test with a recent
literature review yielding more than 20 studies ranging in dates from 1994 to 2011.
(Schroeder, 2012). Unfortunately, limitations within some of the research minimize
clinical generalizability. This systematic review and cross-validation study was
conducted to address these limitations, thus increasing the measure’s clinical utility.
Sensitivity and specificity rates were calculated for the ≤6 and ≤7 cutoffs when data were
globally combined and divided by clinical groups. The cross-validation of specific
diagnostic groups was consistent with the data reported in the literature. Overall, caution
should be used when utilizing the ≤7 cutoffs in all clinical groups and when utilizing the
≤6 cutoff in the following groups: cerebrovascular accident, severe memory disorders,
mental retardation, borderline intellectual functioning, and English as a second language.
Additional limitations and cautions are provided. (Schroeder, 2012)
Leung 2011 studied digit span tasks in his study when there was no valid
instrument currently in use at acute-care hospitals in Hong Kong to aid in the detection of
cognitive impairment. The objectives of this study were to (1) validate the Digit Span
Test (DST) in the identification and differentiation of dementia and delirium; and (2)
determine the prevalence of major cognitive impairment in elderly people in an acute
medical unit (Leung, 2011). During the study period from January to February 2010, 144
patients aged 75 years or more who had had unplanned medical admissions were assessed
by nurses, using the Digit Span Forwards (DSF) and the Digit Span Backwards (DSB)
tests. The DST scores were compared with the psychiatrists’ DSM-IV-based diagnoses.
The Receiver Operating Characteristics curve (ROC) was used in conjunction with
sensitivity and specificity measures to assess the performance of DST (Leung, 2011). The
prevalence rates of dementia alone, delirium alone, and delirium superimposed on
dementia were 21.5%, 9%, and 9% respectively. The prior case-note documentation rate
was 13.2% for dementia and 2.8% for delirium. Regarding the detection of major
cognitive impairment, the ROC curve of DSB showed a sensitivity of 0.77 and specificity
of 0.78 at the optimal cutoff of <3. A significant association between scores on the DST
and the Cantonese version of the Mini-Mental State Examination (CMMSE) was found in
this study (p < 0.05 for DSF, p = 0.00 for DSB). Dementia and delirium were prevalent,
yet under-recognized, in acute medical geriatric inpatients. The DSB is an effective tool
in identifying patients with major cognitive impairment. (Leung, 2011)
Ramsay and Reynolds (in press) reviewed 76 studies of performance on digit span
tasks and concluded that forward and backward digit span had some similarities, but the
differences in the two tasks were greater than their similarities; and, the differences
appear to have important diagnostic and neurologic implications (Reynolds, 1997). This
possibility has been suggested for some time and has prompted the publisher of the
Wechsler scales to provide some limited information, for the first time, on how the two
tasks might differ (Wechsler, 1991). Wechsler (1991) provides tables (B.6 and B.7) that
provide information on cumulative percentages of longest digit span, separately for
forward and backward span, and the cumulative percentage of the difference between
longest digits forward and digits backward span. As many as 3% of children, at some
ages, actually have a longer backward than forward span. The fact that children show a
forward span greater than a backward span at a 33:1 ratio (in raw score form) suggests in
itself that the two tasks are far from equivalent, but these tables provide little information
of any clinical utility. A table of scaled score comparisons would be more useful.
(Reynolds, 1997)
Jensen has suggested that the two tasks (Forward Digit Span, FD, and Backward
Digit Span, BD) differ in the requirement of an element of transformation on BD that is
not present on FD (Reynolds, 1997). Jensen and Figueroa (1975) found the two tasks to
behave rather differently across ethnic groups as well. The Black-White difference in
their study was twice as large on BD as FD. BD was also found to be correlated with IQ
at a much higher level than FD. Several studies suggest that FD may have a verbal
element and BD a visuospatial element. The two tasks may also be differentially impaired
by damage to different cortical and subcortical structures (Reynolds, 1997).
Problem Statement
Methodology
Hypothesis
The memory span is larger for forward digits than the memory span for backward
digits.
Independent Variable
Sequence of retrieval
Dependent Variable
Memory Span
Sample/subject
We took 1 participant of age 22 and her semester is 8th. Her previous degree was
FSC premedical.
Instruments/Tools
Procedure
In this experiment, two groups were formed. The one group is called the control
group and did one trial of this experiment. The experiment was divided into two phases.
In the control group, the subject was a female aged 22. In the first phase of the control
group, the subject completed a trial for forward memory span and the score was recorded
depending on the number of digits recalled. In the second phase, the subject completed
her trial for backward memory span and the number of scores was recorded in terms of
digits recalled.
In the experimental group, the same experiment was performed with another
subject who was also female aged 24 years. This subject performed the experiment twice
(2 trials). In the first phase, the subject completed her forward memory span and the
scores were recorded in terms of the digits she recalled.
The second phase comprised of backward memory span in which the subject
completed it and the scores were recorded in terms of the number of digits recalled. The
same experiment for the experimental group was performed again with the same subject
and the scores for forward and backward me span was recorded in term of the number of
digits recalled.
Results
Control group
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Total Memory Recall for Forward and Backward Span for Control Group
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Total Memory Recall for Forward and Backward Span for experiment Group without
rehearsal
( 2nd trial )
Table 7
Table 8
Table 9
Total Memory Recall for Forward and Backward Span for experiment Group with
rehearsal
The experiment measured the short-term memory span of the subject with help of
a digit span memory test. The results of our experiment proved that our hypothesis is
rejected. As in the above experiment, the forward memory span was 7 and the backward
memory span was 9. The literature review was cross-validated and they find that a
normal human can memorize and the cutoff score is 7 or less than 7 (Greiffenstein et al.,
1994). So, in this way, our experiment is not completely supported by previous research
and experiments. As in our experiment, the participant could memorize more than 7
digits and she recall more backward as compared to forward. The highest scores for
backward recalls were 9. The results of this experiment were not in line with previous
literature as both forward and backward recall have some similarities according to the
result of my study for example Ramsay and Reynolds (2011) claim both forward and
backward have more differences. Previous studies conducted mostly by Reynolds (1997)
were performed on large samples of children and dementia patients by Leung (2011) but
this experiment was conducted on a single and healthy subject. Jensen and Figueroa in
1975 also say two tasks are different across ethnic groups.
Limitation
Recommendations
This experiment should be on different gender and sex and also different age
group of people the validity and reliability of this experiment. Must be providing the lab
to perform the experiment and also overcome the environmental distractions.
References
Ostrosky‐ Solís, F., & Lozano, A. (2006). Digit span: Effect of education and
F., & Reed, B. (2011). Improving digit span assessment of short-term verbal
memory. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 33(1), 101–111.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2010.493149
Schroeder, R. W., Twumasi-Ankrah, P., Baade, L. E., & Marshall, P. S. (2012). Reliable
digit
Leung, J. L., Lee, G. T., Lam, Y. H., Chan, R. C., & Wu, J. Y. (2011). The use of the
Digit Span
Reynolds, C.R. (1997). Forward and Backward Memory Span Should Not Be Combined
for
Greiffenstein, M. F., Baker, W. J., & Gola, T. (1994). Validation of malingered amnesia
measures with a large clinical sample. Psychological assessment, 6(3), 218.
4
Experiment no 8
Proactive Inhibition
Problem Statement
Introduction
Older adults are more likely than young adults to experience proactive
interference. It makes sense – they’ve got a lot more memories stored away that can
interfere with new memories. Maybe when the phrase “you can’t teach an old dog
new trick” was created, the old dog was just unable to learn the tricks due to proactive
interference!
4
For example, learning multiple languages can be hard. The oldest information
– the language you are fluent in – may frequently interfere with the new information
that you are trying to learn. But if you are learning a third or fourth language, that
second language may also try and interfere.
Let’s say you are learning Spanish, but you’re already fluent in English and
have spent many years learning Italian. If you accidentally let an English or Italian
word slip while trying to speak Spanish, you can blame proactive interference for the
flub. Hanley and Scheirer were the first scientists to look at proactive interference
back in 1975.
Literature Review
Methodology
Hypothesis
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Subject recall
Sample/subject
Instruments/Tools
Procedure
Experimental group
This experiment is done in 2 rounds. There are two groups which completed
two rounds, one is control group and the second is experimental group.
Round one
In the experimental group, the subject was of 22 years old and completed 7
trails. In each trial the subject was shown with list A which constituted nonsense
words and retrieve the words and the number of words which were retrieved in each
trail were recorded. And then in errors and time was recorded.
After that, the subject was shown with list B which constituted again new non
sense words and done 7 trials. Each trial was recorded in terms of words retrieved by
the subject. Then errors and time in the seconds were recorded.
Control group
The control group constituted a subject of age 22 and shown with the list B
and did 7 trials and the words retrieved were recorded on the sheet and times in the
second were also noted by the experimenter.
The Round 2
After the Completion of Round 1, the experimental subject and control group
subject were asked to tell the nonsense words again in single trial which is
remembered in list B and the words were recorded. The errors and the time in the
second were recorded by the experimenter of both subjects.
Results
4
Round 1
Table 1
1- MEZ
2- XOW
3- FIV
4- PEQ
5- RAV
6- NUZ
7- GIR
8- SOF
9- WEP
10- CIB
11- XAY
12- VUF
Table 2
Table 3
Syllables 3 6
1- ZEH
2- PEK
3- FID
4- DIT
5- LOM
4
6- AUD
7- CEN
8- GAK
9- PIK
10- PUG
11- KIF
12- NUB
4
Table 4
Syllables 3 6
1- ZEH
2- PEK
3- FID
4- DIT
5- LOM
6- AUD
7- CEN
8- GAK
9- PIK
10- PUG
11- KIF
12- NUB
4
Table 5
Round 2
4
Table 6
Words Recall
Group
ZEH
PEK
FIV
DIT
LOM
AUD
CEN
GAK
PIK
PUG
KIF
NUB
Table 7
4
Discussion
The study consisted of two groups one was experimental and the other was the
control group who performed a recalling experiment with the help of non-sense
syllables words list A and B which they had to recall after they were shown them.
Results were shown that the experimental group has more visible errors in recalling
the non-sense syllables words list B then A list hence proved that Retrieval of newly
learned material is hindered due to previously learned material list A. Control group
perform better in recalling the nonsense words list B. In round two the experimental
group did more errors than control group of recalling the nonsense syllables list B.
The experiment produced same results compared to the experiments conducted by one
of the studies on proactive inhibition was conducted by Anderson and Neely (1996).
The researchers investigated the role of proactive inhibition in word recognition by
presenting participants with a series of words and asking them to respond as quickly
as possible to a target word. They found that response times were slower when the
target word was preceded by a semantically related word, indicating that proactive
inhibition was occurring.
Limitations:
In this experiment we perform the new learning inhibits the pervious learning.
Limitations in this experiment we perform only same age group people and same
gender and sex. And also perform meaningful word list or non-meaningful word list
experimental group perform both list but control group perform only one list.
4
Recommendations:
This experiment should be on different gender and sex and also different age
group of people. And also perform both lists which are meaningful word and non-
meaningful word list perform control group.
References
4
Lustig, C., May, C. P., & Hasher, L. (2001). Working memory span and the role of
proactive interference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130(2), 199.
Mayr, U., Kliegl, R., & Krampe, R. T. (1996). Sequential and coordinative processing
dynamics in figural transformations across the life span. Cognition, 59(1), 61-90.
Experiment no 9
Retroactive Inhibition
Problem Statement
Introduction
that "not time in itself, but the impressions received in the course of time lead quite
naturally to the forgetting of old impressions (Smirnov, 1973).
Literature Review
4
Methodology
Hypothesis
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Subject recall
Sample/subject
Instruments/Tools
Procedure
The experiment was conducted from two groups experimental group and
control group. First the subject of experimental group was showing the list of non-
syllables which he had to recall and then the meaningful words were shown which he
had to recall. Then the control group was called and same procedure was conducted
by them. Results were noted in the form of responses and errors by both the groups
and comparison were made.
4
Results
Round 1
Table 1
Experimental Group non-sense Syllables List (A)
MEZ √ √ √ √ √ √
XOW √ √ √ √
FIV √ √ √
PEQ √
RAV √ √ √
NUZ
GIR
SOF
WEP
CIB √ √ √ √
XAY √ √ √ √ √
VUF √ √ √ √ √ √
Qualitative interpretation
4
List B
Table 2
Experimental Group Meaningful Words List (B)
CAT √ √ √ √ √ √ √
FUR √ √ √ √
MAN √ √ √ √ √
SUN √ √ √ √
RAM √ √ √ √ √
BOY √ √ √ √ √
FAT √ √ √ √ √ √
TOY √ √ √ √ √ √
GOD √ √ √ √
MAT √ √ √ √
FAN √ √ √ √ √
SIT √ √ √ √ √
4
Qualitative interpretation
Table 2 of experimental group meaningful word list B indicates that subject
was more able to recall all the words. As in trail 1 the subject responded meaning full
words by missing some of them. In trial 2, 3 and 4 the subject missed only 2 and 3
items. In trial 7 the subject accurately responded all the meaning full words. The
number of errors reduces by the number of trials.
List B
Table 3
Control Group Meaningful List (A)
CAT √ √ √
FUR √ √ √ √ √
MAN √ √ √ √ √ √
SUN √ √ √ √ √ √
RAM √ √ √ √ √ √
BOY √ √ √ √ √ √
FAT √ √ √ √ √ √ √
TOY √ √ √ √ √ √
GOD √ √ √ √ √ √
MAT √ √ √ √ √ √
FAN √ √ √ √ √ √
4
SIT
Qualitative interpretation
Table 2 of experimental group meaningful word list B indicates that subject
was more able to recall all the words. As in trail 1 and 2 the subject responded
meaning full words by missing some of them. In 3 the subject missed more items. In
last trial the subject accurately responded all the meaning full words.
Qualitative interpretations
This table shows the comparison between the experimental group’s non-sense
syllables list (A, B) and experimental group meaningful words list (A, B). Seven trails
were taken in each experiment. Experimental group non-sense syllables List A shows
that 1st trail recorded 2 responses and 10 errors while the 7 th trail shows 6 responses
and 6 errors. Experimental group non-sense syllables List B shows that 1 st trail
recorded 6 responses and 6 errors while 7th trail reported 12 responses and 0 errors.
On the other hand, the experimental group meaning words list A shows that 1 st trail
recorded 7 responses and 5 errors while 7th trail shows 8 responses with 4 errors.
Experimental group meaningful words List B shows that 1 st trail recorded 9 responses
and 3 errors while 7th trial reported 11 responses with 1 error.
4
Round 2
Table 1
Non-sense Trail 1
Syllables
MEZ √
XOW
FIV √
PEQ √
RAV
NUZ
GIR
SOF
WEP
CIB
XAY
VUF
Qualitative interpretation
Table 1 of experimental group non-sense syllables list A indicates that subject
was unable to recall all the words accurately. As in trail 1 the subject responded 3
non-sense words.
4
Table 2
Trail 1
CAT √
FUR
MAN √
SUN √
RAM
BOY √
FAT
TOY
GOD
MAT
FAN
SIT √
Qualitative interpretation
Table 2 of the control group’s meaningful words indicates that the subject was
more able to recall all the words.
Qualitative interpretation
The results indicate that the subjects of the experimental group and control
group were more able to respond to meaningful words than the non-sense words.
Discussion
The study consisted of two groups one was experimental and the other was the
control group who performed a recalling experiment with the help of non-sense
syllables and meaningful words which they had to recall after they were shown to
them after intervals. Results were shown that both the experimental group and control
4
group perform better in recalling meaningful words than the nonsense words. Both
groups have more visible errors in recalling both the meaningful words and the non-
sense syllables as well. The experiment produced different results as compared to the
experiments conducted by Postman (1960, as cited in McLeod, 2018) and McKinney
(1935) as they conducted experiments on interference by providing their experimental
groups with interfering information on a recall list they were advised to learn earlier,
this experiment thus only checked subject’s errors in memory recall for meaningful
and non-sense words. So, the research hypothesis is accepted.
Limitations
In this experiment we perform the previous learning inhibits the new learning.
Limitations in this experiment we perform only same age group people and same
gender and sex. And also perform non meaningful word list experimental group
perform seven trail but control group perform only one trail. Environmental noises
cause distractions in experiment. In this experiment our control group participant
extra ordinary IQ level but experimental group participant has normal IQ level.
Recommendations
This experiment should be on different gender and sex and also different age
group of people. And also perform 7 trails which is non-meaningful word list perform
control group. This experiment should be on different IQ level people like high and
low IQ level.
References
Experiment no. 10
Free association
Problem Statement
Introduction
emotionally charged memories and ideas provoked by certain of the test stimuli may
produce atypical or revealing associations or, more often, unusually long or short
reaction times.
Literature Review
revealing each to himself in random order, then recording the first ideas to arise in
association to each word, Galton sought to investigate the nature of his associations.
Galton’s analyses of his associations convinced him that associations formed earlier
in life were more likely to arise repeatedly, in comparison to those linked to more
recent events. Associations from childhood were particularly prominent. He also
noted the variety of material that was aroused: single words, phrases, sensorial images
and re-experiences of past events. Furthermore, he claimed it would be “absurd” to
reveal all of his associations to the reader, so truthfully and vividly did they convey
the nature of his inner thoughts (Galton, 1879). In addition, Galton was clearly
impressed by what he saw as the unconscious and automatic mental operations
prompted by the stimuli, to which consciousness seemed merely a helpless spectator.
In the closing passages of his 1879 papers, he stressed that free association revealed
unconscious mental content, an idea Freud would later emphasize. Indeed, it seems
reasonable to suggest that Freud would have read these papers, as he subscribed to
Brain at the time that Galton published such ideas there and read later papers that
referred to Galton’s work (Eysenck, 1985). Wilhelm Wundt and his collaborators
were quick to develop Galton’s work in a more systematic manner.
Methodology
Hypothesis
Responses for law or similarly would be higher than other forms of laws
Independent Variable
Stimulus words
Dependent Variable
Subject/ sample
Tools
Procedure
Here we have asked our subject to tell whatever comes to her mind as she
heard a stimulus word. This technique is intended to learn more about what a
person thinks and feels, in an atmosphere of non-judgmental curiosity and
acceptance. The subject who participated in this experiment is of 22 years of age.
The experimenter gave the instructions to do this experiment to the subject.
The subject’s response time is also recorded. First, the experimenter asks
about the stimulus word and at the same time measures the response time of the
participant. And the subject has to say a word that comes in mind instantly upon
hearing that particular word. The reaction time taken to say the word was also
noted. After completion of list of words, the words was viewed in context of 7
laws of free association and they are recorded according to these laws and the
time is also noted in the table. The experiment is quite easy to conduct and
interesting.
Results
Table 1
Daylight Sun 1
Pretty Me 1
4
Sunflower Sun 1
Wedding Friend 1
Red Love 1
Space Moon 1
Pigeon Letter 1
Tree Apple 1
Man Dishansed 1
Ghost Black 1
Girl Pretty 1
Baby Minha 1
Flag Pakistan 1
Summer Hot 1
Dra Line 1
4
Good Nice 1
Rose Love 1
Table 2
Scoring Sheet
2 Law of Contiguity 0 0
Interest
ART= 72/ 20
ART= 3.6
4
Qualitative interpretation
Discussion
The results of this experiment approve our hypothesis that said free
association refers to a person’s unconscious thoughts and ideas about himself and
his surroundings. It means that our results are in line with the literature review
given by (Kelly, 1991, p. 91). According to him, man perceives reality according
to one own self and also associates himself and his surrounding on the basis of his
unconscious and the mental schemas already present in his mind. The person’s
responses in this task depict her personality and the more the response time has
taken the more responses are closer to her unconscious and personality aspects.
Limitations
Environmental distractions
4
Psychological conditions also made the experiment lack of interest like the
motivation level of each participant's matter
Participants biases towards instructions of instructor
Recommendations
References
Joffe, H, Elsey, Jamie. (2014). Free Association in Psychology and the Grid
Elaboration Method.
Gombrich, E. H., Hochberg, J., & Black, M. (1973). Art, perception, and reality (Vol. 1970).
JHU Press.
Greiffenstein, M. F., Baker, W. J., & Gola, T. (1994). Validation of malingered amnesia
measures with a large clinical sample. Psychological assessment, 6(3), 218.
Howe, C. Q., & Purves, D. (2005). The Müller-Lyer illusion explained by the statistics of
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