Chapter 5 Aquaculture (Common Competencies)

Intended Learning Outcomes: At the end of this chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Define and describe the key terms related to aquaculture (common competencies)
2. Enumerate the tools, materials, equipment, wastes, inventory inputs, production
activities, and production costs in an aquaculture farm.
3. Identify work tasks, time, place, tools, materials and outfit when performing safety
measures in an aquaculture farm.
4. Analyze the hazards and waste treatment portrayed in real-life examples.
5. Determine the farm tools and equipment used in aquaculture.
6. Determine the important considerations and activities involved in applying safety
measures in farm operations, using of farm tools and equipment, performing
estimation and basic calculation, and processing of farm wastes.
7. Evaluate the correct sequence of activities when applying safety measures in farm
operations, using of farm tools and equipment, performing estimation and basic
calculation, and processing of farm wastes.

Aquaculture is the farming and husbandry of aquatic organisms under controlled

or semi-controlled conditions. These organisms may be aquatic plants, fish, mollusks, or
crustaceans/shellfish (oysters, mussels, clams, shrimp, crabs and crawfish). Aquaculture
is employed for a variety of ends:
- fish may be raised to stock public waters for sportfishing and for commercial
fishing;
- it may be to save an endangered species; or
- it may be to harvest a commercially viable crop in ponds or coastal waters.
In simple terms, aquaculture is agriculture: the farmer farms the water instead of the
land. Moreover, aquaculture is a generic term that generally refers to the culture of plants
and animals in freshwater. While culture in saltwater is commonly known as mariculture
(Harrell, n.d.).

5.1 Apply Safety Measures in Farm Operations

Applying safety measures in farm operations requires the following steps:

1) DETERMINE AREAS OF CONCERN FOR SAFETY MEASURES

Work tasks – the following are some of the work tasks practiced in aquaculture:
1. hatching
2. fish feed manufacturing
3. nursing
4. farming (or raising fish)
a. shellfish farming – mussels and oysters
b. fish farming
5. feeding
6. harvesting (e.g. fish capture, handling, transporting)
 7. processing (e.g. storing, freezing, curing, salting, canning, packaging
etc.) (“Processing of fish”, n.d.)
8. marketing

Place refers to the location or area on which farm operations must take place. In
aquaculture, the water may be fresh or brackish or salty depending on the species.
Thus, a farmer may opt to farm in ponds, lakes, river or ocean.

fish ponds (left), fish cages (right)

Time is essential in aquaculture as some activities require proper timing. This includes
the following:
1. Cleaning, sanitizing and disinfecting area
2. Feed mixing and feeding
3. Harvesting and hauling
4. Seafood processing (e.g. storing, freezing, curing, salting, canning)

Tools – the tools used in aquaculture must be identified. Tools and equipment are
discussed in the next section.

Materials – the following are the materials used in aquaculture:

a. fish stock (fingerlings)
b. feeds
c. fertilizers, lime, pesticides (for pond maintenance) (Food and Agriculture
Organization, n.d.)
d. medicine
e. landing net
f. filtering material
g. plastic net
h. suction hose
i. aluminum frame
Outfit – the following are outfits required in aquaculture:
a. gloves – waterproof gloves, lined gloves, handling gloves, bleeding gloves
b. footwear that handles moisture
c. work clothes
d. floatation vest/suit
e. helmet (Rabben, 2019)

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2) APPLY APPROPRIATE SAFETY MEASURES
a. Tools and materials are used according to specifications and procedures.
b. Outfits are worn according to farm requirements
c. Effectivity/shelf life/expiration of materials are strictly observed
d. Emergency procedures are known and followed to ensure a safework
requirement
e. Hazards in the workplace are identified and reported in line with farm
guidelines

Emergency procedures
1. location of first aid kit
2. evacuation
3. agencies contract
4. farm emergency procedures

3) SAFEKEEP/DISPOSE TOOLS, MATERIALS AND OUTFIT

Activities include:
✓ Used tools and outfit are cleaned after use and stored in designated areas
✓ Unused materials are properly labeled and stored according to manufacturers
recommendation and farm requirements.
✓ Waste materials are disposed according to manufacturers, government and farm
requirements. Waste materials are any materials unused and rejected as
worthless or unwanted. Examples are:
• aquafeed
• chemicals (medications, disinfectants, antifoulants)
• pathogens
• solid wastes – suspended solids (fine particles suspended in the water) or
settled solids (larger particles that settle within a short period of time and
can be easily removed) (Dauda, et al., 2020)
• animal manure
• waste water
• dead fishes

❖ Hazards
• Chemical hazards – Aquaculture practitioners are exposed to chemical
hazards through the following routes (Erondu & Anyanwu, 2005):
o Constant use of chemicals: This includes inorganic fertilizers which are
used extensively in enriching fish ponds. Others are lime, pesticides,
formaldehyde, etc. Some of these are caustic and can cause severe
burns or skin irritation resulting in severe cases of occupational
dermatitis. Some laboratory chemicals are hazardous and. Inhalation
may lead to development of respiratory ailments such as bronchitis,
rhinitis and asthma.
o Acute and chronic pollution of water ways: Pesticides, oil spills, and
other xenobiotics can pollute ponds and water sources which can also
pose risks for workers that work in such farms.

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 o Flocculants: These are applied to ponds to precipitate suspended clay
particles. Examples are aluminium sulfate (alum), calcium suilhate
(gypsum).
o Disinfectants: these are used to disinfect equipment and holding units
– e.g. formalin hypochlorite, etc.
o Fumes, smoke and soot: Fumes from water pumping machines
feedmill and other machines; and smoke inhaled by workers smoking
fish or drying feed are considered serious health risks. These are
associated with asthma, cancer and other serious ailments.

• Biological hazards – These include parasitic infestation (e.g. leeches,

nematode, cestode, etc.) and pathogenic infections (e.g. Vibrio vulnificus).

• Physical hazards - Farm hands and other workers in aquafarms are susceptible
to many injuries in the course of their work. Examples of physical hazards in
aquaculture are:
o Noise: Feedmill workers are exposed to excessive noise. Exposure to
constant noise may cause hearing defects, hearing loss and mental
fatigue.
o Injuries: Farmers are exposed to diverse injuries such as:
▪ Sting from fish spines: This arises during fish handling without
appropriate safety devices. It may cause severe pains and can
result to tetanus infection or witlow.
▪ Cuts, sprain, fracture, etc: sharp implements/objects such as
knives, oyster shells, falls and other predisposing factors can
cause these injuries. Hatchery workers are also exposed to the
risk of needle stick injury which can open a gateway to many
viruses and other diseases.
▪ Occupational asthma and rhinitis: Feedmill workers are at risk
of contracting these diseases. Dust released from flour and
animal feed mill as the second most common cause of asthma.
▪ Snake bites, crab clawing and bites from fish (such as tiger fish,
snapper, etc) are hazards workers in earthen pond fish farms
are exposed to, especially when they are not using appropriate
protective gear. This is prevalent in rural fish farming.
▪ Mechanical injuries: These are associated with laboratories and
processing plants.

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5.2 Use of Farm Tools and Equipment

This section will discuss how to use farm tools and equipment.

1) SELECT AND USE FARM TOOLS

The farm tools usually used in aquaculture are:
1. digging tools – for maintenance and repair works in fish farms particularly
of dikes.

2. levelling tools – for levelling fishpond bottoms. Examples are mud rake,
levelling board

From left to right: mud rake, levelling board, dip net

3. nets and traps – fingerling seine, fingerling suspension net, gill net seine,
screens on water control structures, harvesting bagnet on gates, cast net,
bamboo screen trap, bamboo trap, dip net
4. crab hook, eel hook (FAO, n.d.)

From left to right: cast net, bamboo screen trap, bamboo trap

2) SELECT AND OPERATE FARM EQUIPMENT

a. Identify appropriate farm equipment
• pumps (water pump, self-suction resin pump, pump fish pump)
• water tank
• artificial incubator
• filtration equipment
• automatic feeder/fisheries feed
• oxygen generator (air blower, oxygen generator)
 From left to right: water pump, water tank, air blower

• ultraviolet sterilization equipment

• water temperature adjuster (heater and cooler system, plate heat
exchanger)
• French style oyster culture
• cleaning equipment (high pressure washer, full automatic fishing net
washer)
• equipment for investigation and measurement (electro-fishing boat,
Micro-ROV DTG2 System, bottom set plaster hemisphere for flow
measurement) (Matsui Corporation, n.d.)
• fish graders – used to grade and separate fish according to their
individual size. Could be manual or mechanical.
• fish elevator - This system lifts the water and the fish together.

From left to right: ultraviolet sterilization equipment, fish grader, fish elevator

b. Instructional manual of the farm tools and equipment are carefully read prior
to operation
c. Pre-operation check-up is conducted in line with manufacturers manual
d. Faults in farm equipment are identified and reported in line with farm
procedures
e. Farm equipment used according to its function
f. Followed safety procedures

3) PERFORM PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

✓ Tools and equipment are cleaned immediately after use in line with farm
procedures
✓ Routine check-up and maintenance are performed
✓ Tools and equipment are stored in designated areas in line with farm
procedures

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5.3 Perform Estimation and Basic Calculation

1) PERFORM ESTIMATION – the steps in performing estimation are as follows:

✓ Job requirements are identified from written or oral communications.

Constructions of aquaculture facilities involve many procedures and

activities, with specific job requirements depending on the type of aquaculture
facility that will be established. Each aquaculture facility has its own materials,
resources and labor requirements which is the basis of estimating costs and time
needed to its construction. In addition, each type of aquaculture facilities has its
own procedures in its establishment which become the reference for the job
requirements involved in the construction.
For instance, in constructing fishpond and fish cage we have the following
procedures to follow:

Fish Pond Construction Fish Cage Construction

1. Considering the characteristics of
pond dikes
2. Compacting earthen dikes
3. Preparing the foundations of the
dike
4. Calculating dike and excavation
volumes
5. Constructing dug-out ponds
6. Constructing barrage ponds
7. Constructing paddy ponds
8. Constructing cut-and-fill ponds
9. Protecting dikes against erosion
by rain
10. Pond-bottom drains
11. First filling of the pond
1. Determining the shape of the cage
2. Preparation of the materials
needed for cage construction
3. Constructing the frame of cage
4. Installing the mesh or netting
5. Constructing feeding ring
6. Installing lid to prevent fish from
escaping and protecting from
predators
7. Insttalling floatation (Styrofoam,
plastic bottles, PVC pipes) for the
cage

✓ Quantities of materials and resources required to complete a work task are

estimated.

To do this, there is a need to prepare a bill of materials and cost

estimates. Remember that prices of materials change depending on the locality
and supply of materials. See the table below for example of bill of materials and
cost estimates in constructing a 5 m. X 1.5 m X 1.0 m rectangular fish tank.

Materials Quantity Unit Cost Total

1. Gravel 1 ELF load 1,400.00 1,400.00
2. Sand 1 ELF load 1,000.00 1,000.00
3. CHB 4‖ x 8‖ x 16 160 pcs 5.50 800.00
4. Portland cement 23 bags 182.00 4,186.00
5. Steel Bar (10 mm) 16 pcs 175.00 2,800.00
6. Sahara cement 9 bags 30.00 270.00

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 7. PVC ¾‖ 5 pcs 100.00 500.00
8. PVC Elbow ¾‖ 6 pcs 15.00 90.00
9. PVC 4‖ 1 pc 220.00 220.00
10. PVC Solvent cement 1 small can 35.00 35.00
11. Faucet 1 pc. 130.00 130.00
12. G.I. Wire # 16 1 kg. 65.00 65.00
13. Hose 5 mm. 10 m. 8.00 80.00,
Grand Total: Php 11,656.00

✓ The time needed to complete a work activity is estimated.

Time is a very important element to consider in a work activity. To facilitate

completion of a certain job, work schedule or a program of work should be
prepared. Project programming is a listing of work activities in relation to
manpower requirement versus the volume or piece of required at a certain time
of development. It is undertaken to determine how and when a project will start
and be completed within a given period based on daily output, or by determining
the number of days wherein a work will be finished.
The program of work is the basis of the implementation of the project.
Each item should be evaluated and calculated realistically so that each job will be
properly developed and implemented economically. The table below shows an
example of the proposed program of work for a one-hectare pond and schedule
of development of a one hectare fish pond.

ACTIVITIES NATURE OF DAILY LABOR DURATION SUPPORT

APPOINTMENT REQUIREMENT (DAYS) FACILITIES
(8 hr/day) AND
EQUIPMENT
1. Clearing and Daily 5 laborers 14 Plastic hose
marking the park (1cm. dis. 50 m.
of dikes long)
2. Earthwork
a. Construction of Contract labor 20 laborers 45 Digging blades,
dikes tractor,
b. Construction of Contract labor 10 laborers 20 rotavator,
dikes bulldozer
c. Leveling Contract labor 5 laborers 10
3. Construction and Carpentry tools,
installation of digging blades,
gates and pipes solved:
a. construction Daily 5 laborers 10
b. installation Daily 5 laborers 10
4. Finishing touches Daily 5 laborers 10

ACTIVITIES MONTHS
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY
1. Clearing and marking the path of the dike
2. Earth Work
a. constructing the dike

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 b. constructing the canals
c. leveling
3.Constructing gates and installing pipes
a. construction
b. installation
4.Finishing Touches

✓ Accurate estimate for work completion are made.

✓ Estimate of materials and resources are reported to appropriate person.

2) PERFORM BASIC WORKPLACE CALCULATION – the steps in performing basic

calculation are as follows:
✓ Calculations to be made are identified according to job requirement. These are
some activities in fish culture that needs calculation:

a. Feed formulation
Feed formulation is the process of mixing together various ingredients
in right proportion to produce a nutritionally balanced diet. Calculating the
right proportion of ingredients is emphasized by using the Pearson Square
method.

Diet with two ingredients. (Note: diet composition is given as g/100g or as %.)
Balance a 30% protein diet with the following ingredients:
fish meal (60% crude protein)
rice bran (8% crude protein)

How to perform Pearson Square method?

1) Draw a square and place desired protein level of the diet at the
middle.
2) Place the two ingredients and their protein content at the left side of
the square.
3) Subtract the protein content of each ingredient from the desired
protein level of the feed. Place the difference at the corner of the
square diagonally opposite the ingredient. Take absolute value only,
that is, ignore positive and negative signs.
4) Take the sum of the numbers at the right of the square.

Fish meal 60% 22 parts

30

Rice bran 8% 30 parts

52 parts

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 Fish meal: (22 ÷ 52 ) ×100 = 42.31%
Rice bran: (30 ÷ 52) × 100 = 57.69 %

The diet formula is:

Fish meal = 42.31 g
Rice bran = 57.69 g
100 gram diet

To check if the desired level of protein was met, multiply the weight by
protein content of each feed ingredient and sum up.

Fish meal 42.31 g × 0.60 = 25.39

Rice bran 57.69 g × 0.08 = 4.61
30.00 g protein

Therefore, a 100g diet with 30% protein needs 57.69g rice bran and
42.31g of the fish meal.

b. Lime computation

Liming is a preventive measure or remedial process to increase

alkalinity of the ponds and improve aquatic organism survival, optimize
growth and ensure desirable water quality. Lime is commonly applied on
pond bottom. To achieve maximum efficiency, lime should be raked and
plowed in the soil. Waters that need liming are those that do not turn
green when fertilizer is added to the pond water.

How to calculate amount of lime to be used?

Use the formula below after the soil or water is analyzed for pH:
0.5𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
(𝐷𝑝𝐻 − 𝐴𝑝𝐻) 𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑄𝐿 =
0.1 𝑥 𝑁𝑉𝐿

where:
QL = quantity of required lime
DpH = desired pH
ApH = actual average pH reading of the pond soil
A = Area of the pond (in hectare)
NVL = neutralizing value of lime
For agriculture lime = 1
For quicklime = 1.73
For hydrated lime = 1.35

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 Example:

Use agriculture lime for a 1-ha pond.

DpH = 6.8
ApH = 6.5
A=1
NVL = 1

0.5𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
(𝐷𝑝𝐻 − 𝐴𝑝𝐻) 𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑄𝐿 =
0.1 𝑥 𝑁𝑉𝐿
0.5𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
(6.8 − 6.5)𝑥 𝑥 1ℎ𝑎
ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑒
𝑄𝐿 =
0.1 𝑥 1
0.3 𝑥 0.5 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑥 1
𝑄𝐿 =
0.1
0.15 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑄𝐿 =
0.1
𝑸𝑳 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒈𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒆

c. Stock sampling
Stock sampling is important for estimating average fish weights and
standing crop weight. It is also needed to adjust daily feed ration for the
fish. The formula to compute the average body weight (ABW) is:

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑔)

𝐴𝐵𝑊 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠

Example:
Sample No. of fish Total wt (g)
1 30 900
2 40 1,200
3 50 1,050

Sample 1:
900𝑔
𝐴𝐵𝑊 = = 30𝑔
30
Sample 2:
1,200𝑔
𝐴𝐵𝑊 = = 30𝑔
40
Sample 3:
1,050𝑔
𝐴𝐵𝑊 = = 21𝑔
50

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 ✓ System and units of measurement (e.g. area, volume and weight) to be followed
are ascertained. There are two kinds of system of measurement: metric (e.g.
kilogram, meter, liter) and English (e.g. pound, foot, quart).

Units of measurement and conversion

To convert Into Metric unit Multiply by

English
LENGTH
Inches Centimeters 2.54
Inches Millimeters 25.4
Feet Centimeter 30.48
Feet Millimeters 304.0
Yard Meters 0.914
VOLUME
Pint Liter 0.473
Quarts Liter 0.946
Gallons Liter 3.787
MASS (Weight)
Ounces Grams 28.35
Pounds Kilograms 0.4536

Other units of measurements and conversions

Length
English units
1 foot 12 inches
1 yard 3 feet
1 mile 5280 feet
1 nautical mile 1.1516 statute mile
1 acre 208.71 feet
Metric units
10 millimeter (mm) 1 centimeter (cm.)
10 cm 1 decimeter (dm.)
10 dm 1 meter (m.)
1000 m 1 kilometer (km.)
Equivalents
1 foot 0.3048 meters
1 statute mi 1.60935 kilometers
1 nautical mi 1.853 kilometers
1 centimeter 0.3937 inches
1 meter 3.28 feet
1 kilometer 3.280.83 feet
Volume/capacity
Metric unit
1 centiliter (cl.) 10 milliliters (ml)
1deciliter (dl.) 10 centiliters
1 liter (L) 16 deciliters

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 1 dekaliter (dkl.) 10 liters
1hectoliter (hl.) 10 dekaliters
1 kiloliter 10hectoleters
Weight
Metric units
1 centigram (cg) 10 milligram (mg.)
1 decigram (dg.) 10 centigrams
1 gram (g.) 10 decigram
1 dekagram (dkg.) 10 grams
1 hectogram (hg.) 10 dekagrams
1 kilogram (kg) 10 hectogram
1 metric ton 1000 kilograms

5.4 Process Farm Wastes

1) COLLECT FARM WASTES
✓ Tools and materials are prepared for collection of farm wastes. The following are
tools and materials that are sued to collect farm wastes.
1. Tools
• wheel barrow
• pressurized pump

2. Materials
• sacks
• containers
• disinfectants
• chemical spill kit
• personal protective equipment (PPE)
o goggles
o disposal gloves
o face mask
o rubber boots
o overalls

✓ Wastes are collected following OSHS and waste collection requirements and plan.
✓ Dangerous and hazardous wastes are collected following the HAZMAT(hazardous
material) protocol.
✓ Appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) are worn as prescribed by
Occupational Safety and Health Standards (OSHS).

2) IDENTIFY AND SEGREGATE WASTES

✓ Wastes are identified by categories according to industry standards and
environmental legislation.
✓ Wastes are segregated according to organizational requirements and relevant
legislation.

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 ✓ Sorted waste is placed into labelled container to avoid littering and prevent cross-
contamination.
✓ Information on waste is obtained by asking authority to ensure correct
identification.

3) TREAT AND PROCESS FARM WASTES

✓ Some of the dangerous wastes found in aquaculture are:
• infectious carcasses
• expired biologics
• expired veterinary drugs
• empty veterinary bottles/syringes

✓ Processing of farm wastes – some of the methods for waste removal are:
• raceway and tank design
▪ Round tanks – the high volume-low solids flow, can exit the tank
from the upper perimeter while a low volume-high solids pipe, in the
center of the tank, will remove most settleable material.
▪ Circular tanks with properly designed inlets, drains, and filters can
remove the majority of solids with minimum labor.
▪ In raceways, if the flow is less than 3 cm/sec. non-fragmented trout
feces will settle out if fish cannot stir the bottom.
• transformation – nutrients are transformed or removed from the discharge
with the help of common plants and bacteria. This can be done through the
use of plants (vegetables and herbs) and artificial wetlands.
• filtration – Drum, disk, bead, and sand filters are commonly used to trap and
remove particles as small as 60 microns from the water.
• radiation – Ultraviolet radiation is used for disinfection of water. Many
pathogens, including viruses can be killed with relatively low levels of
radiation.
• Ozone – Low levels of ozone dissolved in the water will also remove most
pathogens. Ozone will improve particulate filtration and reduce the
dissolved organic waste in the water (Miller & Semmens, 2002).

From left to right: raceways, transformation, radiation

✓ Principles of 3Rs (reduce, reuse and recycle) are applied accordingly.

• Re-usable
• Recyclable
• Solid
• Liquid

✓ Farm wastes are disposed of according to environmental legislation and codes.

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4) PERFORM HOUSEKEEPING
✓ Appropriate warning signs and labels are displayed in conspicuous places around
the workplace.
✓ Work area is cleaned according to 5S principles.
✓ Tools are checked, cleaned and stowed according to established industry
procedures and following user’s manual.
✓ Materials are stored following industry standard procedures and manufacturer’s
specifications.
✓ PPE is checked for damage prior to ensuring that clean and undamaged equipment
is stored.
✓ Storage facility is checked to ensure no contamination in the area according to
organizational requirements and legislation and codes.
✓ Record keeping is done according to industry requirements. The following are
things that are recorded during housekeeping.
• Record of farm wastes generated and disposed
• Record of incidence of infection and accidents
• Record of chemical spillage
• Record of destroyed carcasses
• Inventory of tools, materials and equipment

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