1) CONVERSATIONAL RULES AND STRUCTURES (how conversation is organized and

what prevents it from breaking down)

1.1 Openings (ways of starting a conversation)

FOCUS
OPENING STRATEGIES
 Greetings and introductions
How are you?/Fine, thanks, and you?/
 Questions
Excuse me, do you know…?
 Comments
That’s a nice little dog……/At least some sunshine!
 General complaints
The traffic in this city is simply incredible!
 Social lines
Great party, isn’t it?
(add your own)………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….

1.2 Turn-takings1 (how people know when to speak in a conversation)

FOCUS
TURN-TAKINGS:BACK CHANNEL (the way you help someone who is talking to you by
making supportive or critical noises while you are listening)2
 Set phrases
Uhhuh/hum/aha
Good good/Well I don’t know about that
Yeah/no/right/sure
Nodding your head/body posture/smiling/hand gestures

1
McCarthy, Michael (2000) Discourse Analysis for language teachers, Cambridge, CUP.
2
Smith, Craig (1995) “College conversation classes: beyond survival”, The Internet TESL Journal, vol.1, N°2. Online at
http://www.iteslj.org/
1.3 Interrupting

FOCUS
INTERRUPTING
 Set phrases
Sorry to interrupt you, but……..
Sorry, but did I hear you say……?
Excuse me, but could you say that again?

I’m sorry but the line is very bad, do you mind repeating that?
(add your own)…………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………….

1.4 Topic-shift (the speaker wants to change the subject either because he wants to introduce a new
subject or he doesn’t want to talk about something any longer)

FOCUS :
TOPIC-SHIFT
 Conversational routines
Oh, by the way…….
That reminds me of……………
To return to a particular subject when skimming over a considerable number of topics
in a short span of time
Going back to………
As I was saying………
Yes, well, anyway……
(add your own)………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………
1.5 Adjacency pairs (utterances which require an immediate response or reaction form the
communication partner. Two different responses are usually possible: expected or unexpected)

FOCUS
ADJACENCY-PAIRS
 Questions
 Invitations
-What about…?/Are you doing anything tomorrow…?/Would you like to…?
How would you like to come for supper…?/
-I’d love to/That is kind of you/That’s very kind of you but I’m afraid…
I’ve already arranged/promised to…
 Requests
-Will you pass the salt, please?/Can you possibly give me a lift?/Would you please pass the salt?/I
don’t mind a drink if you have one/I wonder if you’d mind giving me his address

-Yes, certainly/Sure/No, I’m afraid not because..

 Apologies
-I’m sorry/I beg your pardon/Excuse me/I’m extremely sorry
-That’s alright/Please don’t worry
Your own………………………………………………………………………….
 Compliments
-What an amazing flat you’ve got! / Congratulations on your new place!
-Thanks a lot/thanks very much/thank you very much

1.6 Closings (a series of closing and pre-closing formulae to prepare the grounds for ending a
conversation)

FOCUS
CLOSING STRATEGIES
 Ending conversations
Well, I suppose I ought to get on
 Listen I really have tolought to be going now
It´s been nice knowing you
 Giving a reason for ending a conversation
I must get back to work
I´ve got some work to do
It´s getting late
 Making arrangements to make contact again
(Look), we must get together some time
(Listen), why don´t we meet for lunch?
(Look), I´ll give you a ring
 Leave-taking phrases
See you (soon/next……….)
Good luck on/with…….

Give my regards to……….

Have a good evening/weekend/time on Monday
Take care/Bye (for) now/so long/cheers/cheerio
Your own…………………………………………………………………………

2. CONVERSATIONAL STRATEGIES (they deal with communication ‘trouble spots’, enhance

fluency and add to the efficiency of communication)

2.1 Message adjustment or avoidance (tailoring the massage to your competence)

FOCUS
MESSAGE ADJUSTMENT OR AVOIDANCE
 Altering or reducing the message
-Could you please define “allophone”?
-A “phoneme” is the minimal contrastive unit which can make a difference in meaning.
 Going off the point
-Can you please define “falling diphthongs”?
-In English most diphthongs are falling.
 Avoid the message completely
 -
 Evade answers
Making a question instead
 Steer the conversation away from a topic
As I was saying before…/Now going back to…
Your own………………………………………….

2.2 Paraphrasing (describing or exemplifying the action or object whose name you don’t know)
FOCUS:
PARAPHRASING
Something you can…with/a kind of……
Your own…………………………………………………………………………………

2.3 Approximation (using an alternative term which expresses the meaning of the target word as
closely as possible)

FOCUS: APPROXIMATION
 All-purpose words
Stuff, thing, thingie, what-do-you-call-it
Your own…………………………………………………………………………

2.4 Appeal for help (eliciting the word you are looking for from your communication partner)

FOCUS:APPEAL FOR HELP

 Questions
What´s the word for…?/What do you call…?
Your own…………………………………………
2.5 Asking for repetition (You have not heard or understood something)

FOCUS. ASKING FOR REPETITION

Pardon?/Sorry, what was the last word?/Parmis?/Pardon me?/
Your own……………………………………………………………….

2.6 Asking for clarification (when something is not clear)

FOCUS: CLARIFICATION
Set phrases
-What do you mean?/What are you saying?/What are you trying to say?
Your own………………………………………………………………………….

2.7 Interpretative summary (reformulating the speaker’s message to check that you understood
correctly)

FOCUS: INTERPRETATIVE SUMMARY

 Sentence beginnings
-You mean…?/If I´ve understood correctly……/So are you saying that…?

2.8 Checking (whether the other person has understood what you have said or is paying attention to
what you are saying)

FOCUS: CHECKING
 Set phrases
-OK?/Is that clear?/Are you with me?/
-Are you listening?/Did you hear what I said?/Are you still there?
Your own…………………………………………………………………
2.9 Use of fillers/hesitation devices (to fill pauses, to stall and to gain time to think when in difficulty)

FOCUS: FILLERS/HESITATION DEVICES

 Set phrases

-Well, now let me see/The thing is…

-Basically…/In fact…/As a matter of fact…
-Er…/ um…
Your own……………………………………………………