Failure of Flawed Utility Poles in

Wind Gusts
James F. Wilson
PE
Professor Emeritus
Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering,
Duke University,
6319 Mimosa Drive,
Chapel Hill, NC 27514
e-mail: jwilson@duke.edu
The purpose of this study is to account for failures of wood utility poles in wind storms
based on dynamic analysis and pole imperfections. The utility pole supporting multiple
overhead transmission lines is modeled as a uniform Bernoulli–Euler cantilevered beam
fixed at the base and subjected to three types of suddenly applied transverse loads that
simulate a wind gust: a uniform pole pressure, a point load at the tip accounting for line
and transformer drag, and another point load near midlength, accounting for drag on
lines strung from that location. The dynamic pole moments are based on normal mode
calculations rather than static calculations with a dynamic impact factor, and the critical
flexural stresses include stress concentrations arising from pole imperfections such as
holes, knots, and surface gouges. A case study illustrates the results for one of about 400
failed wood poles downed in a single New Jersey storm in 2003 with 107 km/h (67 m/h)
wind gusts. Here, the critical pole stress based on the dynamic model and a hole imper-
fection exceeded the proportional limit stress of the wood. The predicted dynamic stresses
are higher than those based on the National Electrical Safety Code.
关DOI: 10.1115/1.4002763兴

Keywords: beam dynamics, normal mode analysis, stress concentrations, utility poles,
wind loading, wood pole failure

1 Introduction
In countries with ample forests, chemically treated wood utility
poles continue to be the most economical structure to support
overhead electric distribution lines, telephone wires, and TV
cables. Properly designed and periodically inspected 共generally
once every 10 years兲, a 15.2 m 共50 ft兲 pole with a 0.305 m 共1 ft兲
mean diameter may have a lifetime of 60 or more years. As dis-
cussed by Pellicane and Franco 关1兴, who include about 20 histori-
cal citations on the subject, the load-carrying capacity of wood
utility poles for a given transverse loading is mainly affected by
ground-induced decay and loose knots and holes, whereas grain
orientation, taper, and moisture content have minor effect on pole
material failure. These factors are tempered by the species of
wood 共Eastern cedar, Douglas fir, southern pine, etc.兲 and their
mechanical properties. Sometimes radial holes are bored near the
ground-line holes created as pathways to induce chemical preser-
vatives, which slow decay. Elkins et al. 关2兴 suggested patterns of
such through-boring in experiments using 1.27 cm holes and de-
duced particular staggered hole patterns near the pole base that do
not reduce the bending strength by more than 5%. In general, the
designer of wood utility poles relies on data from several sources:
for the mechanical properties, the American National Standards
Institute 共ANSI兲 关3兴 and the U.S. Department of Agriculture
关4–6兴; for estimates of local increases in bending stress 共stress
concentrations兲 near holes and imperfections such as surface
gouges, the results summarized by Pilkey and Pilkey 关7兴; for es-
timates of extreme wind speeds occurring throughout the United
States, the maps of the National Electrical Safety Code 关8兴.
The present study addresses the dynamic analysis of a uniform
cantilevered pole without guy wires, subjected to suddenly ap-
plied uniform and point transverse loads simulating a wind gust.
The critical dynamic bending stress, calculated by solving the
partial differential equation for the transverse response of the pole,
is modified with possible stress risers due to holes and surface
groves. A case study is then used to illustrate the theory of failure.
Contributed by the Reliability, Stress Analysis, and Failure Prevention Committee
of ASME for publication in the JOURNAL OF MECHANICAL DESIGN. Manuscript received
December 31, 2009; final manuscript received July 30, 2010; published online
November 12, 2010. Assoc. Editor: Steven J. Skerlos.
The general intent is to use this study to check similar pole de-
signs based on the design codes alone. In this way, perhaps the
2006 western Kansas disaster could have been avoided, an event
in which a 196 km/h 共122 m/h兲 wind gust accounted for ground-
line breaks of the 21 m 共69 ft兲 tall Douglas fur poles along a 3.2
km 共2 mi兲 straight stretch 关9兴. Just one pole, weakened with a
ground-line stress concentration, could have precipitated this
domino-type event.
2 Mathematical Model
An example of a cantilevered wood utility pole unsupported by
guy wires and subjected to a wind gust perpendicular to the over-
head distribution lines is shown in Fig. 1. A planar model of this
pole, its coordinate system, and its component wind gust loads P,
Q, and q0, are depicted in Fig. 2共a兲. The tip point load P accounts
for the wind drag on both the transformer and on the distribution
lines at the tip and facing the wind; the point load Q represents the
wind drag load on lines facing the wind and located at a distance
x = b from the base; and q0 represents a uniform transverse load
over the whole exposed pole of length ᐉ. These three loads are
modeled as step loads as shown in Fig. 2共b兲, conservatively as-
sumed to be in phase and applied at time t = 0. That is P共t兲
= Q共t兲 = q共t兲 = 0 for t ⬍ 0 and
P共t兲 = P0 ; Q共t兲 = Q0 ; q共t兲 = q0 for t⬎0 共1兲
The pole is assumed to be uniform and linear elastic with a bend-
ing stiffness EI and a transverse dynamic displacement coordinate
of v = v共x , t兲. The transverse motion of the pole is represented by
the Bernoulli–Euler beam equation, as derived from classical
beam theory 关10兴. That is,
⳵ 4v ⳵ 2v
EI 4 + m̄ 2 = q̄共x,t兲 共2兲
⳵x ⳵t
Here, m̄ is the mass per unit length of the pole and may include
the mass of the pole attachments such as a transformer and hang-
ing wires uniformly distributed along the pole length. The loading
q̄共x , t兲 includes all three types of wind loads. At the fixed base, the
respective end conditions for zero displacement and zero slope are

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 XIV − ␣4X = 0 共6兲
where the pole frequency ␻, written in terms of the parameter ␣ᐉ
is given by

␻ = 共␣ᐉ兲2 冑 EI
m̄ᐉ4
共7兲

The boundary conditions of Eqs. 共3兲 and 共4兲 as they apply to Eq.
共6兲 is now reduce to

X共0兲 = X⬘共0兲 = 0; X⬙共ᐉ兲 = X⵮共ᐉ兲 = 0 共8兲

The four independent solutions of Eq. 共6兲 are given by

X = D1 sin ␣x + D2 cos ␣x + D3 sinh ␣x + D4 cosh ␣x 共9兲

in which D1, D2, D3, and D4 are constants. When each condition
共8兲 is applied to Eq. 共9兲, four homogeneous algebraic equations
give a nonzero solution for X only for discrete roots ␣nᐉ, which
Fig. 1 Utility poles with a wind gust perpendicular to the over- satisfy
head lines
cos ␣nᐉ cosh ␣nᐉ = − 1 共10兲
The roots 共␣nᐉ兲 of Eq. 共10兲 are given by
⳵ v共0,t兲 ␣1ᐉ = 1.875, ␣2ᐉ = 4.694, ␣3ᐉ = 7.855, ␣nl = ␲共2n
v共0,t兲 = 0, =0 共3兲
⳵ x2 − 1兲/2, n = 3,4,5, . . . 共11兲
The respective conditions for zero moment and zero transverse
shear at the tip are With Eq. 共11兲, the n frequencies ␻ = ␻n can be calculated from Eq.
共7兲 and its corresponding free vibration normal modes are solu-
⳵2v共ᐉ,t兲 ⳵3v共ᐉ,t兲 tions 共9兲 that satisfy Eq. 共8兲, or
EI = 0, EI =0 共4兲
⳵ x2 ⳵ x3
cos ␣nᐉ + cosh ␣nᐉ
The solution of Eq. 共2兲 for the stated loadings and end condi- Xn共x兲 = cos ␣nx − cosh ␣nx − 共sin ␣nx
sin ␣nᐉ + sinh ␣nᐉ
tions is derived using the normal mode method, which is well
documented 关10,11兴. First, the discrete free vibration frequencies − sinh ␣nx兲 共12兲
␻ = ␻n and the accompanying modal displacements X = Xn共x兲 are Return now to the problem of wind gust loading. Assume a
computed. Thus, assume that transverse harmonic motion has the solution to Eq. 共4兲 as a product of the normal modes 共12兲 and a
form generalized coordinate y n 共t兲 yet to be determined. That is, let
v = X sin ␻t 共5兲 ⬁
When Eqs. 共5兲 and 共2兲 are combined, the result is v共x,t兲 = 兺 X 共x兲y 共t兲
n=1
n n 共13兲

When Eq. 共13兲 is combined with Eq. 共2兲 and the conditions for
orthogonality of Xn共x兲 are applied, then the result is

d2y n共t兲
+ ␻n2y n共t兲 = pn共t兲 共14兲
dt2
where

冕 冕
ᐉ ᐉ
1
pn共t兲 = Xn共x兲q̄共x,t兲dx; Cn = X2n共x兲dx 共15兲
m̄Cn 0 0

If the pole is initially at rest just before the wind gust, then
v共x , 0兲 = ⳵v共x , 0兲 / ⳵t = 0. These two initial conditions imply that
y n共0兲 = dy n共0兲 / dt = 0 so that the solution to Eq. 共14兲 takes the fol-
lowing form of the Duhamel integral

冕
t
1
y n共t兲 = pn共␶兲sin ␻n共t − ␶兲d␶ 共16兲
␻n 0

When the three components of q̄共x , t兲 defined by Eq. 共1兲 are

combined with Eq. 共15兲, pn共t兲 is computed

pn共t兲 =
1
m̄Cn 冋 P0Xn共ᐉ兲 + Q0Xn共b兲 + q0 冕
ᐉ

0
Xn共x兲dx 册 共17兲

Fig. 2 „a… Planar model of the failed utility pole 60103 and „b… When Eq. 共17兲 is combined with Eq. 共16兲 and integrations are
step approximations to the pole wind gust loads performed, the generalized coordinate becomes

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 冕 冉 冊 冕冉 冊 冕冉 冊
ᐉ b ᐉ
P0 Q0 1 ⳵ 2v 2
1 ⳵v 2
1 ⳵v 2
y n共x兲 = Xn共ᐉ兲共1 − cos ␻nt兲 + Xn共b兲共1 − cos ␻nt兲 V= EI dx − mbg dx − mtg dx
m̄␻n Cn 2
m̄␻n Cn2
2 ⳵ x2 2 ⳵x 2 ⳵x

冕
0 0 0
ᐉ
q0 共26兲
+ 共1 − cos ␻nt兲 Xn共x兲dx 共18兲
m̄␻n2Cn 0 The terms on the right in Eq. 共26兲 represent, respectively, the
pole’s bending energy, the loss in potential energy due to the
These results are summarized. The chosen number n of pole
vertical drop of mbg of the wires attached at x = b, and the coun-
free vibration frequencies are computed from Eq. 共7兲 for the con-
terpart energy loss for mtg at x = ᐉ. The maximum values of the
secutive roots given by Eq. 共11兲. The pole’s transverse displace-
integrands in Eq. 共26兲, computed from Eq. 共22兲, are
ment distribution v共x , t兲, starting at time zero when the wind gust
begins, is computed from Eq. 共13兲 using the normal modes of Eq.
共12兲 and the generalized coordinate solution of Eq. 共18兲. Further, 冉 冊
⳵v
⳵x MAX
= v0
␲
2ᐉ
sin
␲x
2ᐉ
; 冉 冊 ⳵ 2v
⳵ x2 MAX
= v0 冉 冊
␲
2ᐉ
2
cos
␲x
2ᐉ
the pole’s transverse bending moment distribution M共x , t兲 is com-
puted using Eq. 共18兲 and the second derivative of Eq. 共12兲. That 共27兲
is, With Eq. 共27兲, the maximum potential energy is computed from
n n Eq. 共26兲 as

冉 冊
⳵2Xn共x兲
M共x,t兲 = EI 兺 ⳵ x2 兺
y n共t兲 = EI Xn⬙共x兲y n共t兲 共19兲
VMAX =
␲4
3 − m bg
␲2 b ᐉ
− sin
␲b
− m tg
␲2
共28兲
n=1 n=1
32ᐉ 4ᐉ 2 2␲
2
2ᐉ 8ᐉ
in which According to the Rayleigh method, ␻0 is determined by equating
Xn⬙共x兲 = ␣n 2
冋 − cos ␣nx − cosh ␣nx −
cos ␣nᐉ + cosh ␣nᐉ
sin ␣nᐉ + sinh ␣nᐉ
共− sin ␣nx
the maximum kinetic energy 共25兲 to the maximum potential en-
ergy 共28兲. The result is as follows:

− sinh ␣nx兲 册 共20兲 8ᐉ 4ᐉ

冋
␲2 ␲2EI
2 − m bg
b 1 ␲b
− sin
ᐉ ␲ 2ᐉ
冉 − m tg 冊 册
冉 冊 冉 冊
␻ 02 = 共29兲
3 4 ␲b 2
m̄ᐉ − + mb 1 − cos + mt
2 ␲ 2ᐉ
3 Alternative Pole Frequency Analysis
Consider the Rayleigh frequency for the particular case of a
The above modal analysis that leads to the pole bending fre- uniform pole without attachments or mb = mt = 0. Then Eq. 共29兲
quencies given by Eqs. 共7兲 and 共11兲 does not include the effects of reduces to

冑
several direct longitudinal pole compressive loads: the combined
load mtg of the transformer and its wires at the tip and the load EI
mbg of the hanging wires at x = b. How these compressive load- ␻0 = 3.6638 共30兲
m̄ᐉ4
ings affect the fundamental bending frequency ␻1 predicted by
Eqs. 共7兲 and 共11兲 is now investigated using the Rayleigh method. This frequency is 4.2% higher than the “exact” fundamental fre-
Numerous examples of the Rayleigh method, which predict the quency given by Eqs. 共7兲 and 共11兲 or
frequencies ␻0 as an upper bounds for ␻1, are illustrated by Wil-
son 关10兴 in Chap. 2 in the context of offshore pilings.
In the Rayleigh method, one chooses a simple mode shape ␺共x兲
␻1 = 3.5156 冑 EI
m̄ᐉ4
共31兲

of amplitude v0 that satisfies the geometric boundary conditions of Further, Eq. 共29兲 shows that the fundamental frequency decreases
deflection and slope. For the cantilevered pole, such a shape is as the discrete loads at x = b and/or at x = ᐉ increase. In the limiting

冉
␺共x兲 = v0 1 − cos
␲x
冊 共21兲
case, ␻0 = 0 where the numerator of Eq. 共29兲 is zero and the pole
buckles under the critical load given by

冉 冊
2ᐉ
␲2EI b 1 ␲b
which satisfies the base fixity ␺共0兲 = ␺⬘共0兲 = 0 and also the tip Pcr = = mbg − sin + m tg 共32兲
conditions ␺共ᐉ兲 ⫽ 0 , ␺⬘共ᐉ兲 ⫽ 0. Using Eq. 共21兲, harmonic motion 4ᐉ2 ᐉ ␲ 2ᐉ
in the first frequency is characterized by It is observed that ␲2EI / 共4ᐉ2兲 is precisely the well-known Euler

冉
v共x兲 = v0 1 − cos
␲x
2ᐉ
冊sin ␻0t 共22兲
column buckling load for an end-loaded cantilevered beam, de-
rived from statics. See Timoshenko and Gere 关12兴.
These results complement the modal analysis. In the case study
The kinetic energy K for the pole based on the separate mass that follows, it will be shown that the discrete loads at x = b and
components and their respective velocities ⳵v / ⳵t is x = ᐉ are well below the Euler buckling load, adding to the cred-

冕 冉 冊 冉 冊 冉 冊
ᐉ
ibility that the modal analysis gives reasonably accurate dynamic
1 ⳵v 2
1 ⳵v 2
1 ⳵v 2
pole moment and bending stress responses if longitudinal effects
K= m̄ dx + mb + mt 共23兲 of the transformer and wire loads are ignored.
2 0
⳵t 2 ⳵t x=b 2 ⳵t x=ᐉ

From Eq. 共22兲, the maximum velocity at location x becomes 4 Typical Pole Flaws and Critical Stresses

冉 冊 ⳵v
⳵t MAX
冉
= v0␻0 1 − cos
␲x
2ᐉ
冊 共24兲
The dynamic flexural stress at the outer surface of a solid, uni-
form pole of diameter D can be computed from classical beam
theory and the moment given by Eq. 共19兲, with Eq. 共20兲. That is,
With Eq. 共24兲 the maximum kinetic energy is computed from Eq.
32M共x,t兲
共23兲 as ␴共x,t兲 = Ktg 共33兲

冋 冉 冊 冉 冊 册
␲D3
3 4 ␲b 2
KMAX = ␻02 m̄ᐉ − + mb 1 − cos + mt 共25兲 Following the nomenclature of Pilkey and Pilkey 关7兴, Ktg is a
2 ␲ 2ᐉ constant that defines a stress riser or stress concentration factor
The potential energy V of the pole, together with that of its that accounts for an increase in the nominal flexural stress when
transformer and hanging wires, is there is a flaw such as a hole or gouge in the pole. Note that the

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 Fig. 4 Stress concentration at the corner A of a shallow notch
or gouge in local section of an isotropic circular cylinder. Ap-
plied to a utility pole, the bending moment M is caused by the
wind gust, which is perpendicular to the pole in the left view
Fig. 3 Stress concentration factor at a through-hole in a local „data adapted from Pilkey and Pilkey †7‡….
section of an isotropic circular cylinder. Applied to a utility
pole, the bending moment M is caused by the wind gust, which
is perpendicular to the pole in the left insert „data adapted from Shown in Fig. 5共a兲 is part of the left rear of the vehicle at rest
Pilkey and Pilkey †7‡…. in the oncoming lane, together with the downed lines ahead of the
vehicle, and a cut portion of the ruptured pole. The new standing
pole that replaced the broken one is to the left of the vehicle. Both
absence of such flaws implies that Ktg = 1. For a pole of diameter poles were southern yellow pine treated with preservative, with a
D with a transverse through-hole of diameter d, data for Ktg as a nominal diameter D = 0.305 m 共12 in.兲, an above-ground height of
function of the ratio d / D were compiled by Pilkey and Pilkey 关7兴,
and selected data are shown in Fig. 3. Here, it is observed that
Ktg → 3.0 as d / D → 0 and Ktg → 4 as d / D → 0.3, a practical upper
limit for present applications. Another type of flaw is shown in
Fig. 4: a longitudinal gouge of width D / 4 and a depth of D / 8. If
D ⬎ 0.165 m 共0.54 ft兲, as for common utility poles, then Ktg
= 2.1 at the gouge fillet.
Strictly speaking, the data of Figs. 3 and 4 are applicable only
to isotropic cylinders, whereas wood poles are orthotropic and
strongest in the longitudinal direction. However, Ktg values have
yet to be measured for flawed wood poles in flexure. Thus, it is
judicious to use these referenced stress concentration factors as
approximations rather than to completely ignore such flaws in the
pole design process.

5 Case Study
On the afternoon of November 13, 2003, a 1999 Chevrolet Trail
Blazer was traveling in the northbound lane of South Bridge
Street in Somerville, NJ. As the vehicle approached the utility
pole no. 60103, which had been in service for 10 years, and lo-
cated on the west edge of the road, the pole broke in two at c
= 4.6 m 共15 ft兲 above the ground. The top section of this pole with
its attached wires and transformer fell across South Bridge Street
and onto the hood and windshield of the oncoming Trail Blazer.
The forward momentum of the struck Trail Blazer as it pulled the
entangled wires, together with a high wind, led to the toppling of
the five consecutive power poles on the west edge of South Bridge
Street behind the Trail Blazer. Weather records for Somerville, NJ
at the time of this accident indicated that the temperature was
44 ° F and that a wind of speed V = 107 km/ h 共67 m/h兲 swept Fig. 5 „a… In the foreground is a section cut from the ruptured
across an open park at a right angle to the line of the South Bridge pole 60103. „b… The ruptured pole section shows longitudinal
Street utility poles. shear failure.

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 Table 1 Computed loads and dynamic responses for pole No. 60103 to a 107 km/h „67 m/h…
wind gust of 2 s duration
Type of load or stress
Wind pressure on pole
q0: wind load per unit pole height
P0: wind load on wires and transformer at top of pole
Q0: wind load on wire at b = 5.18 m 共17 ft兲 above base
Lowest pole bending frequency 共n = 1兲
Pole’s maximum horizontal displacements
At top
At c = 4.6 m 共15 ft兲 above base
Maximum flexural stress
At base 共no stress concentration兲
At c = 4.6 m 共15 ft兲, with no stress concentration
At c = 4.6 m 共15 ft兲, incl. hole stress concentration
Proportional limit, southern yellow pine 关4兴
Rupture stress, southern yellow pine 关4兴
13.7 m 共45 ft兲, and a rupture strength of 88.4 MPa 共12,820 psi兲
关4兴. The poles, located in an urban setting, were packed in solid
ground between a concrete sidewalk and the road’s concrete curb,
which justifies the clamped base condition assumed in the above
dynamic analysis. Shown in Fig. 5共b兲 is a close up view of the
ruptured pole, which is a typical longitudinal shear failure.
The magnitudes of the three classes of wind drag loads
共q0 , P0 , Q0兲 are based on the reported wind speed of 107 km/h,
which is assumed to be the peak gust velocity. The customary
empirical expression for the total wind drag force FD at right
angles to a cylindrical object, which is stationary, or nearly so, is
given by
1 paragraph 250-C of the code, the wind pressure was computed as
F D = C D 2 ␳ V 2A P 共34兲
Here, CD = 2.0 is the drag coefficient for cylinder, which is long
compared with its diameter 共the present case兲, ␳ = 1.324 kg/ m3 is
the mass density of the air, and A p = Dᐉ is the projected area of the
pole perpendicular to the wind gust. With numerical values of A P,
for all wires extending to the midlength of its two adjacent poles
and for the transformer at the top of the pole, the three respective
drag loads q0 , P0 , Q0 were calculated using Eq. 共34兲. These loads
were assumed to be in phase because the wind gust was most
likely uniform as it swept unobstructed across the open park ad-
jacent to this line of utility poles of South Bridge Street.
The results based on the dynamic analysis are summarized in
Table 1, in dual units. These were based on the pole’s Young’s
modulus of E = 12.4 MPa and its equivalent mass per unit length
of m̄ = 62.2 kg/ m. This equivalent unit mass was the sum of 37.2
kg/m for the pole alone and 19.8 kg/m, where the latter was the
transformer mass with that of its surrounding wires, modeled as a
uniform load intensity along the pole length.
The horizontal displacement and bending moment responses
along the pole as a function of time for up to 2 s after the wind
gust loading were computed utilizing a program written in the
object-oriented language of MATHEMATICA 关13兴. Suitable series
convergence was achieved using the first three modes 共n
= 1 , 2 , 3兲. Listed in Table 1 are the lowest pole bending frequency
共␻1 = 5.67 rad/ s = 0.903 Hz兲, the maximum dynamic flexural
stresses at the base 共55.3 MPa兲 and at the rupture point 共26.8
MPa兲, and stresses that are below the pole’s rupture stress of 88.4
MPa. These calculations lead to the important conclusion that, had
pole no. 60103 been free of all loose knots and through-holes near
the break, the pole would have maintained its integrity and not
snapped in the reported wind gust of 107 km/h 共67 m/h兲.
However, consider a through-hole in the neighborhood of the
4.6 m 共15 ft兲 point of the rupture, a hole used to bolt the lower
four cables to the pole. For the ratio of bolt hole diameter d to
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SI units English units
1.154 kPa 24.1 lb/ ft2
351 N/m 24.1 lb/ft
1.41 kN 316 lb
3.73 kN 839 lb
0.903 Hz 0.903 Hz
1.30 m 4.28 ft
0.234 m 0.767 ft
55.3 MPa 8,017 psi
26.8 MPa 3,890 psi
73.7 MPa 10,700 psi
53.8 MPa 7,800 psi
88.4 MPa 12,820 psi
pole diameter D in the range of 0.05ⱕ d / D ⱕ 0.1, then the stress
concentration factor from Fig. 2 is Ktg ⬇ 2.75 and the peak tensile
flexural stress at the edge of the hole on the wind side is ␴
= Ktg共26.8兲 = 73.7 MPa 共or 10,700 psi兲, a value that exceeds the
pole’s proportional limit but is just under its rupture strength. It is
noted that a loose knot near the rupture point could have had the
same effect as this hole.
Consider now how the ruptured pole measures up to the design
specifications of the National Electrical Safety Code 共the code兲.
As shown in Fig. 250-2 of the code, the design wind speed is 129
km/h 共80 m/h兲 for central New Jersey, the region of this case
study. With this wind speed and the formula given in Section 25,
784 Pa 共16.38 lb/ ft2兲. Further, the code specifies an overload fac-
tor for q0 of 4.0 and an overload factor for the transformer and for
all wires of 2.0.
Using the wind-generated pressure together with the geometry
of the pole with its attachments, the loads q0, P0, and Q0, includ-
ing their appropriate overload factors, were computed and are
listed in Table 2. For a flawless, uniform pole fixed at its base, the
maximum flexural stress always occurs at the base. This calcu-
lated stress for the pole is 52.5 MPa 共7620 psi兲, which is listed
near the end of Table 2. Also listed is the flexural stress for rupture
of southern yellow pine, which is 88.4 MPa 共12,820 psi兲. Since
the computed base stress is less than both the pole’s proportional
limit and its rupture strength, pole no. 60103 met the code require-
ments when it was installed in 1993.
6 Discussion
This study of wood utility poles illustrates the role of wind
gusts, pole dynamics, and pole flaws 共bored holes, knots, and
gouges兲 on the pole’s structural integrity. Five important features
and limitations of this study are now discussed.
First, consider wind gusts. Measurements show that short wind
gust velocities of 1–5 s in duration are usually 20–30% higher
than the measured mean wind velocity 关14兴. Thus, if for design
purposes the expected extreme horizontal wind speed is based on
the maps presented in the codes that wind speed should be en-
hanced by at least a factor of 1.2. For the case study, for instance,
it is not clear whether or not the 107 km/h 共67 m/h兲 wind speed
reported by the National Weather Service included the gust factor.
If not, then the short-time wind speed when pole 60103 ruptured
was actually about V = 共1.2兲 共107兲 = 128 km/ h 共80 m/h兲. Since the
pole flexural stresses vary as the square of the wind speed, then
NOVEMBER 2010, Vol. 132 / 111006-5
 Table 2 Design loads and stresses for pole no. 60103 based on the code †8‡. The design wind
speed was 129 km/h „80 m/h….

English Code or
Type of load or stress SI units units reference

Wind pressure on pole 784 Pa 16.38 lb/ ft2 Table 250-2

q0: wind load per unit pole length 共includes 4.0 overload factor兲 956 N/m 65.52 lb/ft Table 261-3A
P0: wind load on wires and transformer at top of pole
共includes 2.0 overload factor兲 10.3 kN 2,325 lb Table 261-3A
Q0: wind load on wires at b = 5.18 m 共17 ft兲
共includes 2.0 overload factor兲 11.7 kN 2,635 lb Table 361-3A
Maximum flexural stress at base 52.5 MPa 7,620 psi 共Computed兲
Proportional limit, southern yellow pine 53.8 MPa 7,800 psi 关4兴
Rupture stress for southern yellow pine 88.4 MPa 12,820 psi 关4兴

the pole’s flexural stress at the rupture point c = 4.6 m 共15 ft兲
would be 共1.2兲2共73.7兲 = 106 MPa 共15,410 psi兲, which exceeds the
rupture strength of the pole as listed in Table 1.
Second, consider the importance of a dynamic analysis. This
general analysis applied to the case study led to a pole natural
frequency of 0.903 Hz. Thus, the pole’s natural period was 1.11 s,
which falls in the range of 0.5–5 s for typical wind gusts. Such a
matching of periods could lead to a pole resonance state with
enhanced responses. For instance, from Table 1, the peak flexural
stress at the base was calculated as 55.3 MPa, which exceeds its
counterpart stress of 52.5 MPa 共Table 2兲 using the code with its
several somewhat arbitrary overload factors. The dynamic analy-
sis can be considered a calculation based purely on fundamental
mechanics without any overload factors.
Third, consider the pole geometry assumed for the dynamic
model. In the case study, the pole diameter decreased by about
20% from base to tip, which is typical for utility poles in use. The
pole diameter D was chosen herein as the mean value for the
gradually tapered pole. In this way, the dynamic results could be
compared with those static responses derived from the code in
which a uniform pole of mean diameter is also assumed. However,
in calculating the flexural stresses based on the dynamic moment,
the local diameter of the tapered pole was used.
Further calculations led to bounds for the bending frequencies
of a gradually tapered pole: upper bounds for a uniform pole of
diameter 1.1D and lower bounds for a uniform pole of diameter
0.9D. In the first case, these n frequencies of Eqs. 共7兲 and 共11兲 are
modified as
11, respectively. With this equivalent pole length, the full clamped
base occurs beneath the soil surface where this depth depends on
the strength properties of the soil. Use of the present dynamic
analysis is justified if such an equivalent pole length is used for
poles buried in nonfirm soil.
Fifth, consider pole flaws. Sometimes through-holes need to be
tolerated, either below the base for the injection of wood preser-
vatives or at the bolted brackets needed to hold the distribution
wires. Sometimes surface gouges resulting from installation or
from vehicle impact need to be accommodated. In such cases, the
pole’s flexural stress calculated using the bending moment of a
dynamic analysis is multiplied by the appropriate stress concen-
tration factor of Fig. 3 or by Ktg = 2.1 for a gouge approximated by
the geometry of Fig. 4. These referenced values of Ktg are strictly
applicable to isotropic materials, but lacking further data, are con-
sidered as reasonably realistic when applied to flawed orthotropic
wood utility poles.
In summary, wood utility pole design should always include
considerations of wind gust loading, pole dynamics, and pole
flaws acting as stress risers. The uniform pole of mean diameter to
represent a gradually tapered pole is appropriate for analysis and
design purposes. For future sustainable designs, the resulting criti-
cal stresses can be used to complement the code-based designs.
Acknowledgment
The author thanks Hugh M. Turk for supplying the evidence
related to the case study and for the partial financial support dur-
ing this accident investigation.

␻n = 共␣nᐉ兲2 冑 共1.1兲4EI
共1.1兲2m̄ᐉ4
= 1.1共␣nᐉ兲2 冑 EI
m̄ᐉ4
共35兲
which are 10% higher than those based on the mean diameter D.
In like manner, the lower bound frequencies for the minimum pole
diameter are calculated to be 10% lower than those based on D.
For practical purposes, these results strongly suggest that the
mean pole diameter is an adequate physical representation of a
tapered pole whose respective frequencies lie between those of the
larger and smaller poles or close to the frequencies based on the
mean diameter. Also, the fundamental periods for these poles,
large, mean, and small, all lie within the range of typical gust
periods: 0.5–5 s. A future dynamic analysis of tapered poles would
involve an extensive numerical analysis with nonorthogonal mode
shapes rather than the closed form solutions herein. A starting
point for such an analysis would be the analytical results dis-
cussed by Wilson 关15兴 concerning the toppling of truncated cones
and trees.
Fourth, consider the pole’s base fixity. The fully clamped con-
dition was applicable to the case study because this pole was
buried in firm soil between a concrete walk and curb. For cases in
which the soil base is softer 共in sand for instance兲, an equivalent
longer length for the pole can be chosen using either the method
of Kocsis or Reese, as presented by Wilson 关10兴 in Chaps. 2 and
Nomenclature
A p ⫽ projected area of wire cluster or pole in direc-
tion of wind velocity
b ⫽ height of lowest wire cluster above ground
CD ⫽ coefficient of wind drag on a long, solid
cylinder
c ⫽ height of pole rupture point above ground
D ⫽ pole diameter
EI ⫽ pole flexural stiffness
FD ⫽ total drag force on a cylindrical solid
Ktg ⫽ stress concentration factor, Figs. 3 and 4
ᐉ ⫽ pole length above ground
m̄ ⫽ pole mass per unit length
mbg ⫽ weight of pole wires at x = b
mtg ⫽ weight of transformer and wires at x = ᐉ
n ⫽ mode number 共n = 1 , 2 , 3 , . . .兲
P = P共t兲 ⫽ horizontal wind drag load at tip of pole
p共t兲 ⫽ modal load
Q = Q共t兲 ⫽ horizontal wire cluster drag load at x = c
q0 ⫽ uniform component of pole drag load per unit
length

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 q̄共x , t兲 ⫽ total pole loading per unit length 关4兴 USDA, 1954, Wood Handbook 72, Forest Products Laboratory, USDA, Wash-
ington, DC.
Xn = Xn共x兲 ⫽ nth mode shape of pole 关5兴 Koch, P., 1985, Agricultural Handbook 605, USDA, Washington, DC.
x ⫽ pole length coordinate 关6兴 Wolfe, R. W., Bodig, J., and Lebow, P. K., 2001, “Derivation of Nominal
V ⫽ wind speed Strength for Wood Utility Poles,” Forest Service, USDA, Technical Report No.
FPL-GTR-128.
v = v共x , t兲 ⫽ transverse pole displacement 关7兴 Pilkey, W. D., and Pilkey, D. F., 2008, Peterson’s Stress Concentration Fac-
y n共t兲 ⫽ nth generalized coordinate of pole motion tors, 3rd ed., Wiley, Hoboken, NJ.
关8兴 IEEE, 1993, National Electrical Safety Code, IEEE, New York, pp. 143–153.
␣n ⫽ nth frequency parameter 关9兴 Engle, M., Brown, R., Phillips, E., and Bingel, N., 2009, “Extreme Winds Test
␦共t兲 ⫽ delta function Wood Pole Strength,” http://www.tdworld,com/overhead_transmission/
␳ ⫽ air mass density power_extreme _winds_test/index.html
␻n 关10兴 Wilson, J. F., 2003, Dynamics of Offshore Structures, 2nd ed., Wiley, Hoboken,
⫽ nth pole free vibration frequency, rad/s NJ.
关11兴 Clough, R. W., and Penzien, J., 1993, Dynamics of Structures, 2nd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
References 关12兴 Timoshenko, S. P., and Gere, J. M., 1961, Theory of Elastic Stability, 2nd ed.,
关1兴 Pellicane, P. J., and Franco, N., 1994, “Modeling Wood Pole Failure,” Wood McGraw-Hill, New York.
Sci. Technol., 28, pp. 261–274. 关13兴 Wolfram, S., 1999, MATHEMATICA Version 4, Wolfram Media, Champaign, IL.
关2兴 Elkins, L., Morrell, J. J., and Leichti, R. J., 2007, “Establishing a Through- 关14兴 Gaythwaite, J., 1981, The Marine Environment and Structural Design, Van
Boring Pattern for Utility Poles,” Wood Fiber Sci., 39共4兲, pp. 639–650. Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
关3兴 American National Standards Institute 共ANSI兲, 2002, American National Stan- 关15兴 Wilson, J. F., 2004, “Segmented Impact Fracture of Toppling Truncated Cones
dard for Wood Poles, ANSI, New York, NY, pp. 1–26. and Tall Trees,” Int. J. Impact Eng., 30, pp. 351–365.

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