CCC8011

Critical Thinking: Analysis and Argumentation

5A. Argument Forms (Syllogisms)

Lingnan University, Hong Kong

peterhawke@ln.edu.hk

Term 2, 2020-2021
 Admin

Readings and further exercises for this topic:

https://philosophy.hku.hk/think/arg/
https://philosophy.hku.hk/think/venn/
Lau A05, A12, V01-V08
 Introduction

We continue to study deductive logic i.e. we study valid arguments.

That some arguments are valid seems obvious (i.e. intuitive):
‘Marilyn is 20 years old. So she’s more than 10 years old.’
But are there more systematic ways of checking for validity,
especially in harder cases?
Yes: we can sometimes determine validity by examining an
argument’s form.
 Introduction
Compare these arguments:

1 If this object is made of copper, it will conduct electricity.

This object is made of copper, so it will conduct electricity.

2 If there is no largest prime number, then 510511 is not the

largest prime number. There is no largest prime number.
Therefore 510511 is not the largest prime number.

3 If Lam is a Buddhist then he should not eat pork. Lam is a

Buddhist. Therefore Lam should not eat pork.

If P then Q.
P.

Q.

Any argument of this form is valid.

 Introduction

Compare these arguments:

1 Every poodle is a dog. Every dog is a mammal. So every

poodle is a mammal.

2 Every dog is a lizard. Every lizard is a mammal. So every dog

is a mammal.

3 Every dog is a lizard. Every lizard is a cat. So every dog is a

cat.

Every A is a B.
Every B is a C.

Every A is a C.

Any argument of this form is valid.

 Introduction

More generally: if we uniformly replace certain parts of an

argument with letters (‘P’, ‘Q’, ‘R’, ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’), then we get an
argument form.

If we get a certain argument form by uniformly replacing parts of

an argument with letters, then we say that argument is an instance
of that form.

Def. An argument form is valid iff every instance of that form is

valid.
 Plan

We will consider:
• two kinds of argument structure
- quantificational form and propositional form;
• associated tests for validity.

Line-up:

1 Quantificational Form:
Syllogisms, Venn diagrams

2 Propositional Form:
Propositional connectives, truth tables, natural deduction
 Syllogisms

If you uniformly replace some count nouns in a statement with

term letters (e.g. ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’), you get a quantificational form.
Example:

Every whale is a mammal.

⇒ Every A is a B.

Some whales are mammals.

⇒ Some As are Bs.
 Syllogisms

If you uniformly replace all term letters in a quantificational form

with count nouns, you get an instance of that form.
Example:

No A is a B.
⇒ No bat is a carnivore.

Some As are not Bs.

⇒ Some bats are not carnivores.
 Syllogisms

The standard quantificational forms:

• Universal affirmative: Every A is a B.

• Universal negative: No A is a B.

• Particular affirmative: Some As are Bs.

• Particular negative: Some As are not Bs.

 Syllogisms

A syllogism is an argument where:

1 there are exactly two premises;

2 each statement is an instance of a standard quantificational
form;
3 at most three distinct count nouns appear.
 Syllogisms

Example syllogism 1:

Every dog is a lizard.

Every lizard is a mammal.

Every dog is a mammal.

Syllogistic form:
Every A is a B.
Every B is a C.

Every A is a C.
 Syllogisms

Example syllogism 2:

Every prosecutor is a lawyer.

Some lawyers are people who only care about money.

Some prosecutors are people who only care about money.

Syllogistic form:
Every A is a B.
Some Bs are Cs.

Some As are Cs.

 Syllogisms

Example syllogism 3:

Some lawyers are people who work long hours.

Every person who works long hours is an unhealthy person.

Some lawyers are unhealthy people.

Form:
Some As are Bs.
Every B is a C.

Some As are Cs.

 Venn diagrams

To give a syllogism is to reason about the relationship between

different different sets of things (whales, mammals, lawyers etc.).
Venn diagrams let us represent such relationships pictorially.
Test for validity (rough version):
(i) represent the information in the premises with a Venn diagram;
(ii) check whether the information in the conclusion is part of the
representation in (i).
 Venn diagrams

In a Venn diagram, a set of things to which a term applies (dogs,

lawyers, numbers, whatever) is represented by a circle.
To represent more than one such set, draw a circle for each.
So to represent a syllogism, draw three overlapping circles, one for
each count noun.
The overlap between two circles represents the intersection of the
sets: the things that are members of both sets.
 Venn diagrams

The highlighted region represents the set of all mothers.

Mothers

Pianists Lawyers
 Venn diagrams

The highlighted region represents the set of all mothers that are
also pianists.

Mothers

Pianists Lawyers
 Venn diagrams

The highlighted region represents the set of all mothers that are
both pianists and lawyers.

Mothers

Pianists Lawyers
 Venn diagrams
The highlighted region represents the set of all mothers that are
not pianists.

Mothers

Pianists Lawyers
 Venn diagrams
The highlighted region represents the set of all mothers that are
lawyers but not pianists.

Mothers

Pianists Lawyers
 Venn diagrams

Universal statements give information about which sets are empty:

e.g. ‘Every whale is a mammal’ tells us that the set of whales that
are not mammals has no members.
We represent an empty set by graying out that part of the Venn
diagram.
 Venn diagrams

Particular statements give information about which sets aren’t

empty:
e.g. ‘Some whales are mammals’ tells us that the set of whales
that are mammals has at least one member.
We represent a non-empty set on a Venn diagram with .
 Venn diagrams
‘Every mother is a lawyer’

Mothers

Pianists Lawyers
 Venn diagrams
‘No mother is a lawyer’

Mothers

Pianists Lawyers
 Venn diagrams
‘Some mother is a lawyer’
NB. The overlaps pianists and non-pianists, to show
uncertainty.

Mothers

Pianists Lawyers
 Venn diagrams
‘Some mother is not a lawyer’
NB. The overlaps pianists and non-pianists, to show
uncertainty.

Mothers

Pianists Lawyers
 Venn diagrams

Test for validity of a syllogism (detailed version):

1 Determine the form of the argument.

2 Draw a Venn diagram with a circle for each term letter.
3 Represent all premises that are universal statements on the
diagram.
4 Represent all premises that are particular statements on the
diagram.
5 If the conclusion is thereby represented on the diagram: valid.
If it is not thereby represented on the diagram: invalid.

Or to show a given form of syllogism is valid: start at step 2!

 Venn diagrams

Recall example syllogism 1:

Every dog is a lizard.

Every lizard is a mammal.

Every dog is a mammal.

 Venn diagrams

Step 1:
Every A is a B.
Every B is a C.

Every A is a C.
 Venn diagrams

Step 2:

B C
 Venn diagrams

Step 3: Premise 1

B C

Every A is a B.
 Venn diagrams

Step 3: Premise 2

B C

Every A is a B. Every B is a C.
 Venn diagrams

Step 5: Is conclusion represented?

B C

Every A is a B. Every B is a C.
Valid! ‘Every A is a C’ is represented.
 Venn diagrams

Recall example syllogism 3:

Some lawyers are people who work long hours.

Every person who works long hours is an unhealthy person.

Some lawyers are unhealthy people.

 Venn diagrams

Step 1:
Some As are Bs.
Every B is a C.

Some As are Cs.

 Venn diagrams

Step 2:

B C
 Venn diagrams

Step 3: Premise 2

B C

Every B is a C.
 Venn diagrams

Step 4: Premise 1

B C

Every B is a C. Some As are Bs.

NB. the falls entirely in the C circle - no uncertainty!
 Venn diagrams

Step 5: Is conclusion represented?

B C

Every B is a C. Some As are Bs.

Valid! ‘Some As are Cs’ is represented.
 Venn diagrams

Exercise: show example syllogism 2 is invalid.

Every prosecutor is a lawyer.

Some lawyers are people who only care about money.

Some prosecutors are people who only care about money.