MATHEMATICS 10 p = {±1, ±2}

q = {±1}
SYNTHETIC DIVISION p/q = {±1, ±2}
Testing of possible roots using the Remainder
Theorem
If P(x) = 1
P(1) = x3 – 3x + 2
P(1) = 13 - 3(1) + 2
P(1) = 1 - 3 + 2
P(1) = 0
If P(x) = -1
P(-1) = x3 – 3x + 2
P(-1) = -13 - 3(-1) + 2
P(-1) = -1 + 3 + 2
P(-1) = 4
If P(x) = 2
P(2) = x3 – 3x + 2
P(2) = 23 - 3(2) + 2
P(2) = 8 - 6 + 2
P(2) = 4
If P(x) = -2
P(-2) = x3 – 3x + 2
P(-2) = -23 - 3(-2) + 2
P(-2) = -8 + 6 + 2
REMAINDER THEOREM
P(-2) = 0
- If r is a number and the polynomial P(x) is divided
Therefore, the rational roots of P(x) are -2
by (x –r), then the remainder is P(r), where P(r), is
and 1.
the value of the polynomial P(x) at r in other words, R
= P(r).
EXAMPLES:
POLYNOMIAL EQUATION
I. x3 - 3x2 + 3x + 1 divided by x - 1
- A polynomial expression anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 +
R = P(1) = x3 - 3x2 + 3x + 1
… + a1x + a0 is equated to zero
R = P(1) = 13 - 3(1)2 + 3(1) + 1
R = P(1) = 1 - 3 + 3 + 1
R = P(1) = 2

II. x5 - 3x4 - 2x2 +5x - 2 divided by x + 2

P(x) = x5 - 3x4 - 2x2 + 5x - 2
P(-2) = (-2)5 - 3(-2)4 - 2(-2)2 + 5(-2) -2
P(-2) = -32 - 3(16) - 2(4) - 10 - 2
P(-2) = -32 - 48 - 8 - 10 - 2
P(-2) = -100
EXAMPLE OF DETERMINING THE ROOTS
I. Given the factored polynomial equation (x – 2)(x +
FACTOR THEOREM 3)(x + 1) = 0, determine its roots.
- x – r is a factor of the polynomial P(x) if and only if x-2=0 ----- x=2
P(r) = 0. x+3=0 ----- x = -3
EXAMPLES: x+1=0 ----- x = -1
I. Show that x – 2 is a factor of P(x) = x5 – 4x3 – 3x2 + The roots of the polynomial are 2, -3, and -1.
10x – 8.
P(x) = x5 – 4x3 – 3x2 + 10x – 8 II. Determine the polynomial equation whose roots are
P(2) = 25 - 4(2)3 - 3(2)2 + 10(2) - 8 ±2i and 1.
P(2) = 32 - 4(8) - 3(4) + 20 - 8 i = √-1 & ±2i = ±2√-1
P(2) = 32 - 32 - 12 + 20 - 8 ±√-4
P(2) = 0 x2 = -4 ----- x2 + 4 = 0
x=1 ----- x-1=0
II. Show that x + 2 is a factor of x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6. (x2 + 4)(x - 1) = 0
P(-2) = (-2)3 – 2(-2)2 – 5(-2) + 6 (x3 - x2) + (4x - 4) = 0
P(-2) = -8 - 8 + 10 + 6 x3 - x2 + 4x - 4 = 0
P(-2) = 0

POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION
RATIONAL ROOT THEOREM - A polynomial function P(x) is a function defined by a
- If the polynomial P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + …+ a1x polynomial in one variable. It is of the form P(x) =
+ a0 has integer coefficients and if p/q is a rational anxn + an−1xn−1 + an−2xn−2 + ⋯ + a1x + a0, where
number in lowest terms, then every rational root of an, an−1, an−2, … , a1, a0 are real numbers, an ≠ 0, and
P(x) is of the form p/q, where p is a factor of the n is a non-negative integer.
constant and q is a factor of the leading coefficient . CLASSIFICATION OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION
EXAMPLES: ACCORDING TO ITS DEGREE
I. Find the rational roots of P(x) = x3 – 3x + 2. CONSTANT FUNCTION P(x) = a0
 where a0 ≠ 0, has degree 0. II. Write a quadratic function whose zeros are 6 and
P(x) = a1x + a0 –9.
LINEAR FUNCTION f(x) = (x – 6)(x + 9)
where a1 ≠ 0, has degree 1.
P(x) = ax2 + bx + c, f(x) = x2 + 3x – 54
QUADRATIC FUNCTION The f(x) = x2 + 3x – 54 is a quadratic function with
where a1 ≠ 0, has degree 2.
P(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, zeros 6 and –9.
CUBIC FUNCTION
where a1 ≠ 0, has degree 4.
QUARTIC FUNCTION A polynomial of degree 4
Polynomials with a higher degree are named after their DESCARTE’S RULE OF SIGN
degree. For example, f(x) = x9 + 5x3 – 2x + 5 is called a EXAMPLES:
ninth–degree polynomial function. I. f(x) = 5x3 – 3x2 – 2x + 4
There are two variations in the signs of the
terms of f(x) above. Therefore, it has zero (2
– 2) or two positive real zero(s).
ZERO OF THE FUNCTIONS
- are the values of x which P(x) = 0. The zeros of a
II. f(-x) = -5x3 – 3x2 + 2x + 4
polynomial function have the same values as the roots
There is one variation in the signs of the
or solutions of a polynomial equation and the x –
terms of f(–x) above. Therefore, it has one
intercepts of the graph of the polynomial function.
negative zero(s).
EXAMPLES:
I. Determine whether the following are zeros of the
polynomial function f(x) = x4 – 13x2 + 12x.
0
f(x) = x4 – 13x2 + 12x
f(0) = 04 – 13(0)2 + 12(0)
f(0) = 0
1
f(1) = (1)4 – 13(1)2 + 12(1)
f(1) = 1 -13 + 12
f(1) = 0 III.
-3
f(-3) = (-3)4 – 13(-3)2 + 12(-3)
f(-3) = 81 - 13(9) - 36 UPPER BOUND THEOREM
f(-3) = 81 - 117 - 36 - Let f(x) be a polynomial function with a positive
f(-3) = - 72 leading coefficient. Suppose f(x) is divided by x – c,
Therefore, it means that 0 and 1 are zeros of f(x) & 3 where c > 0. If the coefficients in the quotient
is not. and remainder are all positive, then f(x) has no
real zero less than c, and c is the upper bound of the
zeros of f(x).
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA LOWER BOUND THEOREM
EXAMPLES: - Let f(x) be a polynomial function with a positive
I. Determine the zeros of the function x3 – 12x2 + 36x leading coefficient. Suppose f(x) is divided x –c, where
= 0. c < 0. If the coefficients in the quotient and
x3 – 12x2 + 36x = 0 remainder alternate in signs, then f(x) has no real
x (x –6)(x – 6) = 0 zero greater than c, and c is the lower bound of the
x = 0 or x = 6 or x = 6 zeros of f(x).
The zero 6 is counted twice. This means that the zeros EXAMPLE
of the function are o and 6 of multiplicity two. I. g(x) = x3 - 7x2 + 7x + 15
II. Determine the zeros of the function 3x2 − 18x + 24
= 0.
3x2 − 18x + 24 = 0
3 (x – 2)(x – 4) = 0
x = 2 or x = 4
The zeros on the function are 2 and 4.

LINEAR FACTORIZATION THEOREM

- If f(x) is an nth–degree polynomial function, where n
> 0, then f has exactly n linear factors f(x) = an (x –
c1)(x – c2) . . . (x – cn), where c1, c2, . . ., cn are GRAPHS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
complex numbers.
EXAMPLES:
I. Write a cubic polynomial function whose zeros
are 1, 0 and –2.
f(x) = (x – 1)(x – 0)(x + 2)
f(x) = x3 + x2 – 2x
The f(x) = x3 + x2 – 2x is a cubic function with zeros
1, 0 and –2.
 BEHAVIOR OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLE
I. P(x) = 2x3 – 5x2 – x + 6

EXAMPLES
I. f(x) = –3x3 – 2x – 1
II. P(x) = –x5 + 2x4 + 5x3 – 10x2 – 4x + 8

EXAMPLES:
I. P(x) = x4 + 3x3 – 12x2 – 27x – 18
II. y = 2x4 – 3x2 – 3

EXAMPLES:
I. P(x) = –x6 + 2x5 – 18x4 – 2x3 – 19x2 + 7x – 10