SARTRES AND EXISTENTIALISM

According to Sartre, “In philosophical terminology, every object has an essence

and an existence. An essence is an intelligible and unchanging unity of properties; an

existence is a certain actual presence in the world.”

It is by popular view that essence precedes existence. This notion is based up on

religious connotation. For if God made man their must have been a blue print and an idea

of his existence predating him. Atheist and theist’s alike believed that an object could not

exist unless with its essence, which is, in the human case a “soul”; whose existence is

debatable. Sartre’s and his school of existentialism posits that “Man and in man alone

existence precedes essence. Hence “man first IS, and only subsequently is this or that.”

He then puts forward the proposition that man must create his own essence, hence not

being reliant on one which is transcendent. Sartre states “It is throwing himself into the

world, suffering there, struggling there, that he gradually defines himself and the

definition always remains open ended.” Thus man cannot be defined without ambiguity

until death; as with a clear essay and a conclusion.

SARTES DEVISION OF BEING ( Three Types of Being regarding

consciousness)

The For itself

According to Christian J. Onof “Sartre presents the in-itself as existing without

justification independently of the for-itself, and thus constituting an absolute ‘plenitude’.

It exists in a fully determinate and non-relational way.

Regarding the for itself Sartres regards consciousness as ‘the awareness of” and

considers the most important act of it and the core of its structure to be the ability to

negate, through the process of nihilation, which is the act to determine what is not by
saying NO. He sees consciousness as impersonal and does not see a need for

A‘transcendental ego’ which he views as irrelevant. Sartre does not believe taking the

matter from the body achieves unity; as in separating the soul from the body. The idea is

that ‘consciousness is always conscious of something’. He argues that what gives

consciousness unity to its activities is not some soul or entity from another realm, but

firstly the awareness of the objects the transcendental being of which it is conscious.

Hence the essence cannot be perceived before the object. However Sartre also presents

the idea of a ‘transversal intentionality’ which is that prior acts of consciousness can

become objects for present acts of consciousness; an example of which could be an

invention.

Sartre’s views consciousness as just being aware of and having a direct

relationship with being. Meaning it is not ‘the object’ but it identifies itself in

relationship to them. Being is very diverse and many things share relation with it, such as

emotions; which Sartre’s regards as consciousness attempting to change the world

magically.

Sartre moves on to dispel the tabular rasa as he doesn’t see consciousness as an

empty vessel to be filled by experience, and neither does he consider it to contain

anything at inception which would be responsible for its behavior. His notion of

consciousness is that, it is a lack of being and a relationship to Being and at the same time

a desire for Being. The for itself, consciousness seeks to become and to justify Being, in

a quest for value. In attempts to value many ask questions are asked, such as Why am I

here? What is my purpose? Who is my source of existing? Who am I? some find their

answers in religion.
 Another crucial element that the for itself introduces is time, which is an element

absent from the in it self. The in it self is self existent and absolute, Sartre sees it as

dormant, being neither past, present, or having subdivisions and no distinctions. When

the past which is of relation to the Being for itself is grasped by the a present act of

consciousness it takes on being as an object and becomes the In-itself. But rather than

present Sartre believes in an instant. To achieve this instant the for itself is in perpetual

flight towards attaining value which is never accomplished. This flight creates a

realization of the in itself as it is what brings time into the picture. In its pursuit of value

the for itself creates possibilities and hence a future. Then Sartre’s says it goes back into

the present the condition of the action and into the past which gives a meaning. In other

words your PAST is the cause for your NOW and your NOW creates your

POSSIBILITIES. Hence from my presentation now, Ms. Mcallah will see the

possibilities of what grade I could receive.

To further clarify Sartes posits the relationship of reflective and pre reflective

consciousness. The relationship between the two is as a perpetual mirror, which provides

pure and impure reflections.

THE BEING FOR OTHERS

Plato’s View on Existence: The theory of forms

1. Plato splits up existence into two realms: the material realm and the

transcendent realm of forms. According to David Banach Plato’s theory of forms seeks
to solve two problems. 1. The Ethical problem of how one can live a fulfilling happy life in a

contingent, changing world where every thing they attach themselves to can be taken

away? : 2. How can the world appear to be both permanent and changing? The world we

perceive through the senses seems to be always changing. The world that we perceive

through the mind, using our concepts, seems to be permanent and unchanging. Which is

most real and why does it appear both ways?”

In Plato's theory of the subdivisions of the human soul, he posits that there are

three souls, the appetite located in the gut, the spirit of courage which dwells in the heart

and reason, which is transcendent. Plato believes human beings have access to the realm

of forms mentally, through reason. This transcends them to an unchanging world not

influenced by the pains of the material world.

Unlike Sartre’s, Plato considers this ‘form ‘to be abstract. He views this ‘form’ as

any property of an object separated from it, in human case the soul. Plato considered this

property to exist apart from the body, in a different manner of existence than the body.

The idea of the soul exists independently without the body regardless of any one

becoming aware of it. This property is not only subjected to humans. The difference

between a form and its material is that forms are transcendent and exist outside of time

and space, whilst material the object IS at a particular place at a particular instance. The

human soul for example is not seen as existing in any place at any time. The form is

perpetual, and exists by different means. The argument is that a soul will never change as

it exists but is not governed by time. A form is always the same and can be in many

places at once, existing independently. Plato is simply saying that if the form of a
pyramid is triangular, this property can also be found elsewhere and even if all triangular

objects were destroyed the triangular property of the pyramid would always exist.

One may consider that the pyramid has many other properties than being

triangular, it has five faces and at the base it has four corners. To make a distinction

between the form and these other properties Plato suggests it to be Pure an apart from

every other property. Hence its triangular state is only triangular. This form lacks the

complexity or diversity of the material, as the body with its ‘soul’.

Plato sees this from as perfect and considers the material just a mere cop copy of

the real form. Hence our soul is the original blueprint for the body. In further explanation

of this Plato used the cavemen man allegory. This allegory shows a group of people who

living in chains on a wall of a cave all of their lives, facing a blank wall. The people

watched shadows projected on the wall by things passing in front of a fire behind them,

these shadows were the properties the people in the chains were the form. Thus the

human material is just a shadow of the perfect soul. Plato calls this property the

archetype.

Where Sartre’s considers existence to be the cause of the essence it’s the reverse

with Plato. The fact that he sees all objects as a mere copy of the original he argues that

the essence which is the original of the form to the cause of the objects existence. Plato

asserts that the forms are the causes of all our knowledge of all objects as well as the

cause of the existence of all objects. To clarify and explain how the forms in general, and

the form of the Good in particular, are causes in these two ways Plato uses a sun analogy;

illustrating that similar to the sun giving light, allowing us to see objects, the form of the

Good provides order and transparency allowing us to know objects.

 Even though the form exists independently and is separate from the object Plato

posits that forms are also systematically interconnected. Entwined with each other and

the material objects in a system intricately. This system is runs left and right flowing

down from the form of the good demonstrating the process needed to aspire towards

knowledge of the forms. Entwined with each other the form and material objects are

placed in a hierarchical system. Through this system Plato suggests that one can gain

knowledge of the forms thorough a Dialectic process. According to David Banach “This

process entails putting together two subjective points of view to form a more objective

concept.”

The forms flow down from the most abstract idea of the consciousness which is seen by

Plato as ‘the Good’ to that which is more external and in a sense real. How this works is

that starting from the bottom which has external conceptions of specific things we aspire

towards more objective ideas of the common, intangible forms which Plato considers

universal. Plato’s idea is that the more objective a thing is, is the realer it gets. He
considers the world as we see it not to be objective but subjective to our experience as a

person who is colour blind sees the world differently from a person who is not. Hence he

considers the senses to be an agent of deception. To strengthen his argument of forms

Plato asserts that the most certain knowledge we have is mathematical, 1+1=2 and the

access to perfect squares and circles, which aren’t evident in the material world and

aren’t acquired via sense but through rational. Plato believes these figures which are most

accurate exist in another realmobjects that we think about in mathematics must be

real, since they are most certain. Since they could not exist in the material

world, there must be another realm in which they exist that is even more real,

the realm of forms.

LIVING VS EXISTENCE

This argument would have to be looked at without subjectivity. If one is

speaking of non-living things one could say those things exist and existence is

different from living. But as it regards living things when a statement such as

he is just existing! is used, this is used loosely as that would be impossible. The

fact that I am conscious of my existence means I just lived, as I became aware

of the fact that I am here using my basic function of thinking hence purpose

whether voluntary or involuntary . One might argue and say the person does

not see purpose in his life or lacks motivation. Regardless of what you

perceive or even what that person perceives they still contribute to the world,

the only way that person could exist without living is if they don’t perform
basic functions such as feeding, excreting, growth, reproduction, breathing etc.

even if a person can’t reproduce it is one or the other. If I deficate for example I

have just contributed a lot to the world, as my feces contributes to a cycle

benefiting other organisms either by fertilization or nurturing them. In fact

when I die I will leave some of that for those organisms. Hence in living

organisms living and existing is one in the same, if a person existed they lived.

A person’s contribution to the world is just an essence of that person left in the

world and perpetuated by person’s memory. Bob Marley lived and existed, his

music is but a part of his essence but he doesn’t exist now as HE WAS, and IS

NOT, now as I AM concerned, but you ARE.

III: Plato's Arguments for the Theory of Forms

A. The general argument from objectivity:

The general structure of Plato's argument is as follows:

1. We already believe that the more objective a concept is, the more real
the thing it represents. We show that we believe this by the way we use
objectivity to distinguish appearance and reality. This is a version of
what we will call Plato's principle: The more objective you get, the more
real you get.)
2. The forms are more objective than material objects.

Therefore, the forms are more real than material objects.

Plato's argument for premise 1: The world that we perceive with the senses
often deceives us. This would not be so if the world and objects that we
perceive with the senses were the real objects.
It seems that all the objects we perceive with the senses are simply images or
experiences in our mind. They are only subjective points of views on the real
objects. For example, the world appears radically differently to a color blind
person than it does to us. The objects that we perceive as colored, then, must
not be the real objects, but just our experience of these objects that is
determined by my particular subjective point of view and perceptual apparatus.

Once one sees that the world that we perceive through the senses is not the real
world but just an image of it, it becomes difficult to determine at what level of
description we get in touch with the real objects that make up the world.

In general, we assume that the more objective the concept or description, the
more real the object it describes is. For example, when we see a person far
away, we automatically follow our objective concept of humans as being about
6 feet tall and see the person as normal sized, even though the subjective image
we have is of a very tiny person. In general, we form a more objective concept
by combining different points of view into a more objective description that
takes into account what all the other views had in common. This process is
called dialectic: the back and forth discourse between different points of view
that leads to their combination or synthesis into a more objective conception
that takes into account both points of view.

Plato's argument for the second premise: What then are the real objects? They
cannot be the subjective images we perceive. These often deceive us.

What about the everyday material objects, like chairs, tables, rocks, and trees,
that we think our subjective perceptions of things refer to? The concepts we
from of these are slightly more objective than subjective images. They combine
and take into account all of the subjective images we can form of a single
object, such as this particular asterisk * . Yet, there are reasons to avoid taking
this as the real object as well:

1. We only contact these objects through subjective images. We never perceive

them directly.

2. These objects contain a number of properties that are mixed together. Any
description of the object that doesn't separate out these properties cannot
explain what makes the object act the way it does. For example, If all you know
about the asterisk above is that it is the particular thing it is, you will not know
as much as if you know that it is black, star-shaped, made of ink on paper, etc.
3. These objects are always changing, taking up different properties from
moment to moment, and going in and out of existence.

For these reasons, it seems that the only level at which things really exist must
be the level of single properties separated from particular objects. These are the
forms:

1. Our concepts of these are more objective than our perceptions of material
objects. For example, my concept of blackness takes into account all the points
of view anyone can have on any black object, while my perception of the
asterisk above only takes into account those views you can have of this object.
The object that my concept refers to, the form, must be more real than a
material object.

2. The forms explain why an object is the way it is. It is the fact that an object
has the properties that it does that makes it what it is, not that it is the particular
thing it is.

3. The forms never change.

B.

C. The argument from relativism:

All we ever perceive of the world are subjective perspectives. Unless there are
forms it seems that some form of relativism is true. Relativism is the view that
all that exist are subjective points of view about such things as truth, beauty,
and justice.

Plato held that relativism must be false for a number of reasons:

1. Relativism is self-defeating. If relativism is the view that there is no truth,

then is relativism true?

2. We do often objectively discuss and argue about concepts like beauty and
truth and justice, and by this dialectic process we come to a better
understanding of them.

If there are forms of beauty, truth, and justice then it is possible to objectively
criticize subjective points of view about these things.

IV. Plato's Argument that Only Objective Value is Real:

A. The argument from objectivity:

Plato's argument with respect to value has the same form as his argument for
the reality of the forms:

1. We already believe that the more objective a value is, the more real it
is. This is shown by the way we distinguish real values from apparent
ones.
2. Only detachment from all particular desires for objects and persons
can be completely objective.
-------------------------------------------------------------
Therefore, only detachment from all particular objects and persons has
real value.
Plato's argument for premise 1: We all realize that something that only makes
us feel good for a moment, but which leads to pain in the future isn't a real
value. We determine what things are most valuable by seeing what values last
the longest or are valued from the most points of view.

Plato's argument for premise 2: As long as we are attached to particular things

and people we will always be open to pain; there will always be some point of
view from which the value will disappear.

B. The Argument from Analogy to Itches and Hunger:

1. All subjective values are like itches and hunger.

2. The pleasure we get from scratching an itch or from eating arises from a
defect or deficiency in us. Once we fill the defect we will feel good, but the
defect will inevitably arise again and give rise to dissatisfaction. We will itch
again; we will be hungry again. We would rather never itch or never be hungry,
than always be scratching and eating.

--------------------------------

Therefore, all subjective values are defective in this way. We ought to eliminate
all desires rather than trying to satisfy them.

2006 David Banach

 PLATO!

The forms are:

1. Transcendent - the forms are not located in space and time. For
example, there is no particular place or time at which redness exists.
2. Pure - the forms only exemplify one property. Material objects are
impure; they combine a number of properties such as blackness,
circularity, and hardness into one object. A form, such as circularity,
only exemplifies one property.
3. Archetypes - The forms are archetypes; that is, they are perfect
examples of the property that they exemplify. The forms are the perfect
models upon which all material objects are based. The form of redness,
for example, is red, and all red objects are simply imperfect, impure
copies of this perfect form of redness.
4. Ultimately Real - The forms are the ultimately real entities, not
material objects. All material objects are copies or images of some
collection of forms; their reality comes only from the forms.
5. Causes - The forms are the causes of all things. (1) They provide the
explanation of why any thing is the way it is, and (2) they are the source
or origin of the being of all things.
6. Systematically Interconnected - The forms comprise a system leading
down from the form of the Good moving from more general to more
particular, from more objective to more subjective. This systematic
structure is reflected in the structure of the dialectic process by which we
come to knowledge of the forms.