Name: Maria Mushtaque

Roll no: 17PH029

Assignment submitted to: Dr.Mubashir

Class: Final proff 10th semester

Subject: Medicinal chemistry

COLLEGE OF PHARMACY LUMHS JAMSHORO

Syphilis:
Causative agent: Spirochete Treponema pallidum.
Syphilis is transmissible by sexual contact with infectious lesions, from mother to
fetus in utero, via blood product transfusion, and occasionally through breaks in
the skin that come into contact with infectious lesions. If untreated, it progresses
through 4 stages: primary, secondary, latent, and tertiary.

Symptoms of syphilis:
The symptoms of syphilis are not always obvious and may eventually disappear,
but you'll usually remain infected unless you get treated. Some people with
syphilis have no symptoms.
Symptoms can include:
● small, painless sores or ulcers that typically appear on the penis, vagina, or
around the anus, but can occur in other places such as the mouth
● a blotchy red rash that often affects the palms of the hands or soles of the
feet
● small skin growths (similar to genital warts) that may develop on the vulva
in women or around the bottom (anus) in both men and women
● white patches in the mouth
● tiredness, headaches, joint pains, a high temperature (fever) and swollen
glands in your neck, groin or armpits

If it's left untreated for years, syphilis can spread to the brain or other parts of the
body and cause serious long-term problems.

When diagnosed and treated in its early stages, syphilis is easy to cure. The
preferred treatment at all stages is penicillin, an antibiotic medication that can kill
the organism that causes syphilis. If you're allergic to penicillin, your doctor may
suggest another antibiotic or recommend penicillin desensitization.

Gonorrhoea:
Causative agent: Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Gonorrhea is an infection caused by a sexually transmitted bacterium that infects
both males and females. Gonorrhea most often affects the urethra, rectum or throat.
In females, gonorrhea can also infect the cervix.
Gonorrhea is most commonly spread during vaginal, oral or anal sex. But babies of
infected mothers can be infected during childbirth. In babies, gonorrhea most
commonly affects the eyes.

Signs and symptoms of gonorrhea infection in men include:

● Painful urination
● Pus-like discharge from the tip of the penis
● Pain or swelling in one testicle

Signs and symptoms of gonorrhea infection in women include:

● Increased vaginal discharge
● Painful urination
● Vaginal bleeding between periods, such as after vaginal intercourse
● Abdominal or pelvic pain

Adults with gonorrhea are treated with antibiotics. Due to emerging strains of
drug-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae, the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention recommends that uncomplicated gonorrhea be treated with the
antibiotic ceftriaxone — given as an injection — with oral azithromycin
(Zithromax).
If you're allergic to cephalosporin antibiotics, such as ceftriaxone, you might be
given oral gemifloxacin (Factive) or injectable gentamicin and oral azithromycin.

Diphtheria:
Causative agent: Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Diphtheria is a serious bacterial infection that usually affects the mucous
membranes of the nose and throat.
Diphtheria signs and symptoms usually begin 2 to 5 days after a person becomes
infected. Signs and symptoms may include:
● A thick, gray membrane covering the throat and tonsils
● A sore throat and hoarseness
 ● Swollen glands (enlarged lymph nodes) in the neck
● Difficulty breathing or rapid breathing
● Nasal discharge
● Fever and chills
● Tiredness

Diphtheria is a serious illness. Doctors treat it immediately and aggressively.

Doctors first ensure that the airway isn't blocked or reduced. In some cases, they
may need to place a breathing tube in the throat to keep the airway open until the
airway is less inflamed. Treatments include Antibiotics, such as penicillin or
erythromycin, help kill bacteria in the body, clearing up infections. Antibiotics
lessen the time that someone with diphtheria is contagious.

Tetanus:
Causative agent: Clostridium tetani.
Tetanus is a serious disease of the nervous system caused by a toxin-producing
bacterium. The disease causes muscle contractions, particularly of your jaw and
neck muscles. Tetanus is commonly known as lockjaw.
Severe complications of tetanus can be life-threatening. There's no cure for tetanus.
Treatment focuses on managing symptoms and complications until the effects of
the tetanus toxin resolve.

The most common type of tetanus is called generalized tetanus.

Signs and symptoms of generalized tetanus include:
● Painful muscle spasms and stiff, immovable muscles (muscle rigidity) in
your jaw
● Tension of muscles around your lips, sometimes producing a persistent grin
● Painful spasms and rigidity in your neck muscles
● Difficulty swallowing
● Rigid abdominal muscles

You can prevent tetanus by being vaccinated.

The tetanus vaccine is given to children as part of the diphtheria and tetanus
toxoids and acellular pertussis vaccine (DTaP).
Amphoterism:
An amphoteric substance is a chemical species that can act as both an acid and a
base, depending on reaction conditions. The phenomenon is called amphoterism.

Examples of Amphoterism:

For example, consider the amphoterism of water (H2O):

Water accepts a proton when reacted with an acid, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl).

H2O + HCl ⇌ H3O+ + Cl–

Water donates a proton when it reacts with a base, such as ammonia (NH3).

H2O + NH3 ⇌ NH4+ + OH–

Similarly, amphoteric metal oxides, such as aluminum oxide (Al203) act as a base
when reacted with acid and as an acid when reacted with a base.

Al2O3(s) + 6H30+(aq) + 3H2O(l) → 2[Al(OH2)6]3+(aq)

Al2O3(s) + 2OH–(aq) + 3H2O(l) → 2[Al(OH)4]–(aq)

Zwitterions:
A zwitterion is a molecule that has at least two functional groups: one having a
positive charge and the other having a negative charge, with an overall charge of
zero.

The name comes from the German word “zwitter”, meaning hybrid. Zwitterions
can form from other molecules called ampholytes, or amphoteric compounds and
can act as both an acid and a base.

Amino acids are the most well-known zwitterions. They have an amino group
(NH3+) which is positive and a carboxyl group (COO-) which is negative. The R
group represents the side chain of different amino acids.

One of the most useful applications of zwitterions is in SDS PAGE which is one of
the most common practical procedures in molecular biology. It is a form of
electrophoresis used to separate protein molecules by molecular mass.

Epimerization:
Epimerization is a process in stereochemistry in which there is a change in the
configuration of only one chiral center. As a result, a diastereomer is formed. The
classical example of this in medicine is tetracycline.
Epimerization is the conversion of a compound into an epimer partially or
completely. Epimers are diastereomers that contain more than one chiral center but
differ from each other in the absolute configuration at only one chiral center.

Cross resistance:
Cross-resistance corresponds to resistance to all the antibiotics belonging to the
same class due to a single mechanism. As we know, drugs assigned to a same class
are chemically related, have thus the same target of action in the cell, and are
therefore subject to cross-resistance: bacteria that are resistant to one member of
the class are generally resistant to the other members.

However, there are degrees in cross-resistance: the more active the drug, the lower
the level of resistance. In general, drugs recently developed are more active than
old molecules of the same class. For example, among quinolones, ciprofloxacin is
much more active than nalidixic acid. As a result, Gram-negative bacteria that have
suffered a mutational event in the target of quinolones, the type II topoisomerases
(DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV) become much more resistant to nalidixic acid
(that has high MICs) than to ciprofloxacin (that retains lower MICs). This
observation stresses that a resistance mechanism has no absolute value. The level
of resistance also depends on the degree of susceptibility of the host bacterium.
Or
Bacterial cross‐resistance can be defined as resistance to multiple distinct
antimicrobial agents conferred by a single molecular mechanism.

Sleeping sickness:
Human African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, is a vector-
borne parasitic disease. It is caused by infection with protozoan parasites belonging
to the genus Trypanosoma. They are transmitted to humans by tsetse fly ( Glossina
genus) bites which have acquired their infection from human beings or from
animals harbouring human pathogenic parasites. When an infected fly bites you,
the infection spreads through your bloodstream.

West African trypanosomiasis: A bite by the tsetse fly is often painful.

Occasionally, within 1 to 2 weeks, the infective bite develops into a red sore, also
called a chancre (SHAN-ker). Several weeks to months later, other symptoms of
sleeping sickness occur. These include fever, rash, swelling around the eye and
hands, severe headaches, extreme fatigue, aching muscles and joints. You may
develop swollen lymph nodes on the back of your neck called Winterbottom's sign.
Weight loss occurs as the illness progresses. Progressive confusion, personality
changes, slurred speech, irritability, loss of concentration, seizures, and difficulty
in walking and talking occurs when infection has invaded the central nervous
system. These symptoms become worse as the illness progresses. Sleeping for long
periods of the day and having insomnia at night is a common symptom. If left
untreated, infection becomes worse and death will occur within several months to
years after infection.