MORPHOLOGY

ENGLISH STUDY PROGRAM

TEACHER TRAINING & EDUCATION FACULTY
UNDANA
PARTS OF SPEECH
(Part 2)

CLOSED CLASS 1
Closed class
1. Closed class refers to the category of words that don't readily
accept new members, thus have restricted number of member.
They have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning,
and serve to express grammatical relationships with other
words within a sentence.
2. Closed class words are also called function words or
grammatical words. They are called function words because
their meaning may become obvious when they are used in
clauses, and they are called grammatical words because they
are used to express grammatical relationships among words
within a structure.
3. Closed class words in English include:
- Preposition - Auxiliary verbs - Particles
- Conjunctions - Articles - Interjections
- Pronouns
Prepositions
1. Most prepositions form a phrase consisting of a preposition
and a noun, called object of preposition. The noun is
linguistically viewed as a complement because it is an
obligatory element for the preposition.
2. We need to distinguish a pure preposition and a preposition-
like word used as particle (verbal particle) in a phrasal verb.
For example:
- I am coming for you ------ ‘for’ is a preposition .
- I am looking for you ------ ‘for’ is verbal particle.
3. There are three types of prepositions based on form:
- simple prepositions : such as: in, above, under, behind, for.
- compound prepositions: such as: out of, into, due to, along
with.
- phrasal prepositions: such as: in front of, on behalf of, in
account of.

4. Grammatical functions of prepositional phrases:

In general, the grammatical function of prepositional phrases
in English can be exemplified as follow:
- Indirect object : She gave a cake to the dog.
- Adverb : The dog slept on the floor (place)
He hit the dog with a stick (manner).
They arrive before 10 o’clock (time).
 - Subject complement : The dog is under the table.
- Object complement : She wanted her books on the table.
5. Detailed explanation on the meaning and usage of preposition
may be found in:
Wishon, George E, & Burks, Julia M. (1980), page 285 –
312).
Exercises:
1. Choose the most appropriate word for the blanks in following
sentences!
1. Where do you come ___________?
2. My cousin lives ________________ Norway.
3. They are walking ______________ the bridge.
4. I don't like flying, so I went to Paris ______________ bus.
5. You can stay ______________ me tonight.
6. My birthday is ______________ 29th February.
7. I'll see you ______________ Christmas.
8. Put the books ______________ the table, please.
9. I haven't seen you ______________ ages.
10. I like this house ________________ the river.
11. My parents got married _________________ 2010.
12. The police station is _________________ the right.
13. We're going _________________ Italy for our holidays.
14. We borrowed the bikes _________________ our uncle.
15. There is a bridge _________________ the river.
16. I saw Chris _________________ the bus.
17. Be nice _________________ your brother.
18. Let's meet _________________ the afternoon, not night.
19. My friend lives the house _________________ the end of the street.
20. They are not home _________________ the moment.
21. Turn right _________________ the traffic lights.
22. She is not here, she is _________________ holiday.
23. A comes _________________ B in the alphabet.
24. The cat is sitting _________________ the wall.
25. Emily left school _________________ the age of 16.
26. I'll see you _________________ Monday morning.
27. Do not open the tin _________________ a knife!
28. This laptop belongs _________________ our teacher.
29. The film was very funny _________________ the end.
30. We've been here _________________ four days now
31. Hamlet was written _________________ Shakespeare.
32. John is a student _________________ Oslo university.
33. The temperature was _________________ zero.
34. You have to write the paper _________________ hand.
35. We live _________________ the main road, so it is always very loud.
36. The trains are seldom _________________ time.
37. There were a lot of people _________________ our party.
38. Your room is _________________ the second floor.
39. Can you translate this from English _________________ French?
40. ___________ August 1st we'll go _________________ Stratford.
Conjunctions
1. Conjunctions are grammatical words used to conjoin words,
phrases and clauses together to form complex constructions.
2. Two types of conjunctions :
a. Coordinating conjunctions (coordinators) :
- They are used to conjoin two units that are “equal” in
terms of their syntactic status. They must be of the same
word class or phrasal categories, and they must have
the same syntactic function.
Coordinators in English are: ‘fanboys’
for and nor
but or yet so
- The sentences resulted from the combination using a
coordinating conjunctions are commonly called compound
sentences.
- Examples:
a. for = shows reason or purpose (sometimes because can be
used instead).
I go to the library, for I love to read.
b. and = connect two ideas
I like to eat cookies, and I like to drink milk.
c. nor = shows a non-contrasting, negative idea. It adds more
negativity. The two ideas being connected must be in
negative polarity.
He didn’t return my calls, nor did he respond to any of my texts.
 d. but = shows contrast or exception
I put a lot of effort into the assignment, but I couldn’t even get an A.
e. or = shows choice or option
You can come buy groceries with me, or you can stay home until I
get back.
f. yet = shows contrast or exception
he sauce was sweet yet had a spicy flavor to it.
g. so = shows sequence
The lady was feeling ill, so she went home to bed.
2. Subordinating conjunctions (subordinators):
They are used to conjoin two units that may have distinct
syntactic / discourse functions / or are not equally ranked. One
unit is subordinate to the other, usually the one that follows the
subordinator.
Subordinating conjunctions in English include:
after because although if before
since though unless when now that
while as whereas since while
only if so in case until even if
even though in order that whether or not, etc.
For example:
- She did not come because she was sick.
- They left although it was raining.
- She was dancing while I was playing guitar.
- Although I've been here before, he's just too hard to ignore“
- I don't care who you are, where you're from or what you did as long as
you love me.
- Walk on through the rain though your dreams be tossed and blown.
- When I see you smile, I can face the world.
- We're never going to survive unless we get a little crazy.
Exercise:
1. Complete each sentence below using the correct coordinating
conjunction from the parenthesis.
1. My car has a radio _____ a CD player. (but, or, and).
2. Sharon hates to listen to rap music, ____ will she tolerate heavy
metal. (but, nor, or).
3. Carol wanted to drive to Colorado, ____ Bill insisted that they fly.
(and, or, but).
4. I’m afraid of heights, ____ I appreciate the view from the top of this
building. (and, yet, nor).
5. I have to be on time, _____ my boss will be annoyed if I’m late.
(and, nor, for).
6. Do you like chocolate _______ vanilla ice cream better? (or, nor,
and).
7. I have to go to work at six, ____ I’m waking up at four. (but, so, yet).
8. I was on time, _________ everyone else was late. (so, but, for).
 9. Nadia doesn’t like to drive, _________ she takes the bus
everywhere. (but, yet, so).
10.Our trip to the museum was interesting, _________ there were
several new artifacts on display. (but, for, yet).
2. Complete each sentence below using the correct subordinating
conjunctions from the parenthesis.
1. I visit the Grand Canyon _________ I go to Arizona. (once, whenever,
wherever).
2. This is the place _________ we stayed last time we visited. (where,
when, how).
3. _________ you win first place, you will receive a prize. (wherever, if,
unless)
4. You won’t pass the test _________ you study. (when, if, unless)
5. I could not get a seat, _________ I came early. (as, though, when)
6. We are leaving Wednesday _________ or not it rains. (if, whether,
though).
7. Pay attention to your work _________ you will not make mistakes.
(so that, unless, or) .
8. The musicians delivered a rousing performance _________ they had
rehearsed often. (though, as, once) .
9. She’s honest _________ everyone trusts her. (if, so, when).
10. Write this down _________ you forget. (or, when, lest)
Pronouns
1. A pronoun is defined as a word or phrase that may be
substituted for a noun or noun phrase. The noun or noun
phrase being replaced is known as the pronoun’s
antecedent.
2. Pronouns are ANAPHORIC words. Meaning that they are
tools that speakers use to refer to participants and proper
names on the discourse stage. They can do everything
that nouns can do, such as being as a subject, direct
object and indirect object.
3. Sub-classes of English pronouns (Payne (2011)) include :
1. personal pronouns : I, you, we, they
2. possessive pronouns : my, mine, your, yours
3. reflexive pronouns : myself, yourself
4. demonstrative pronouns : this, these, that, those
5. reciprocal pronouns : each other, one another
6. interrogative pronouns : who, what, which
7. relative pronouns : which, who, that
8. indefinite pronouns : some, none.
9. Impersonal pronouns : it.
a. Personal pronouns
- Personal pronouns are pronouns that are associated
primarily with a particular grammatical person. They may
also take different forms depending on number (usually
singular or plural), grammatical or natural gender, case,
and formality.
- The term "personal" is used here purely to signify the
grammatical sense; personal pronouns are not limited to
people, but they can also refer to animals and objects.
- Languages typically have three (3) grammatical persons
of personal pronouns, they are:
1. First (1st)-person: --- refer to the speaker.
If speaker is alone, the pronoun is singular; such as ‘I’ in English,
and if the speaker is with somebody else, it is plural, such as ‘we’
in English.
2. Second (2nd)-person: --- refer to the person(s) being addressed.
If the person is alone, it is singular, such as you in English.
If the person is with somebody else, it is plural, such as you
(plural) in English, or kamu in Indonesian.
3. Third (3rd)-person: --- refer to third parties other than the speaker
or the person being addressed. If the third party is alone it is
singular, such as he/she/it in English. English third singular
person distinguishes a male from a female person, and an object
other than human. If the third party comes along with somebody
else, it is plural, such as they in English.
English personal pronouns system:
Personal Pronouns
Number Person
Subject Object
Singular 1 I Me
2 You You
3 (male human) He Him
3 (female human) She Her
3 (non-human) It It
Plural 1 We Us
2 You You
3 They Them
b. Possessive forms
- Possessive forms are used to show that something / an
object belongs to someone. It tells the ownership of the
thing/object.
- English has two types of possessive forms.
1. Possessive adjectives:
These forms always occur with a noun. They function in the same
way as an adjective, i.e. to modify the ownership of the noun head,
thus called possessive adjectives.
2. Possessive pronouns:
These forms of possessive are called possessive pronoun
because they are capable of replacing or substituting a noun.
English possessive forms:
Possessive Possessive
Number Person
Pronouns Adjectives
Singular 1 mine my
2 yours your
3 (male human) his his
3 (female human) hers her
3 (non-human) its its
Plural 1 ours our
2 yours your
3 theirs their
- Possessive pronouns: = These books are mine, yours are over there.
=The chairs are ours, not theirs.
- Possessive adjectives: = Your dogs are here.
= I like her painting.
c. Reflexive Pronouns
- A reflexive pronoun must normally take as its antecedent
another noun phrase in the same sentence. In English, the
noun phrase is most often the subject of the sentence.
- Reflexive pronouns in English end in -self (for singular
pronouns) or –selves (for plural pronouns). These pronouns
are used mostly when the subject and the object of a
sentence are the same.
- Reflexive pronouns are used as/with:
1. (Direct) object
- Beda cut himself when he was shaving this morning.
- We must believe in ourselves.
2. Indirect object
- Cynthia poured a cup of tea for herself.
- We’ve brought ourselves something to eat.
3. the object of a preposition when the object refers to the subject
- They had to cook for themselves.
- He was feeling very sorry for himself.
4. with the preposition by, when we want to show that someone did
something alone and/or without any help.
- The children got dressed by themselves.
- I prepared the whole meal by myself.
5. to emphasize the person or thing we are referring to.
- Kendal itself is quite a small town.
- Sir Paul McCartney himself sang the final song.
- I baked the bread myself.
- She mended the car herself.
English reflexive pronouns:
Subject Reflexive
Number Person
Pronouns Pronouns
Singular 1 I myself
2 You yourself
3 (male human) Hi himself
3 (female human) She herself
3 (non-human) It itself
Plural 1 We ourselves
2 You yourselves
3 They themselves
d. Demonstrative Pronouns
- Demonstrative pronouns are those demonstrative articles
(this, that, these and those) that are used in substitution or
replacing of a noun or noun phrase.
- Demonstrative pronouns must not be confused with
demonstrative adjective or demonstrative article.
a. The demonstrative pronoun takes the place of the
function of a noun or a noun phrase.
Example: The shirt is very good. That must be
expensive.
b. The demonstrative adjectives modify a noun or noun
phrase. They are always followed by the noun or the
noun phrase.
Example: That book is very expensive.
e. Reciprocal Pronouns
- Reciprocal pronouns are pronouns which are used to
indicate that two or more people are carrying out or have
carried out an action of some type, with both receiving the
benefits or consequences of that action simultaneously.
- English reciprocal pronouns are :
a. Each other
- Peter and Paul admire each other.
- Allie and Jerry loathe each other.
- Both groups fought hard against each other.
b. One other / another
- The two men were all pointing fingers at one another.
- The doctors rely on one another for peer consultations.
- The gangsters were fighting one another.
e. Interrogative Pronouns
- Interrogative pronouns are used to replace a noun or a noun
phrase being asked in information questions.
- English has five (5) interrogative pronouns.
a. What – used to ask questions about people or objects.
- What do you want for lunch?
- What are you going to do tomorrow?
- What is your friend’s name?
- What time are we supposed to be there?
b. Who – used to ask questions about people.
- Who is that?
- Who was driving the car when the accident occurred?
- Who will join the party tomorrow?
- Who is going to take out the trash?
c. Which – used to ask questions about preference on
people or objects.
- Which color do you prefer?
- Which of these ladies is your mother?
- Which train should we take to Tokyo/
- Which seat would you like?
d. Whose – used to ask questions about the possession of
a thing or objects
- Whose sweater is this?
- Whose parents are those?
- Whose dog knocked our the garbage can over?
- Whose phone is that?
 e. Whom – this interrogative pronoun is rarely seen these
days, but when it shows up, it is used to ask people
functioning as object of a sentence or as object of a
preposition.
- Whom did you speak to?
- Whom do you prefer to vote for?
- Whom did you call last night?.
- Whom do you live with?
Note on the use of interrogative pronouns:
1. An auxiliary verb is commonly obligatory in interrogative
sentences. It is usually placed in an inverted order, that is it is
pleced before the sentence subject, as in:
- What are you talking about?
2. However when the subject of the sentence is being
questioned, the auxiliary verb may not be used. Compare (a)
which asks the sentence object with (b) which asks the
sentence subject.
(a).John loves Merry. ---- Who does John love?
(b).John loves Merry. ---- Who loves Merry?

3. The interrogative pronoun ‘who/whom’ used to ask the object

of a preposition, may be combined with a preposition as in
(a), or may also be separated from the preposition as in (b).
He talked with a pretty girl.
(a). Who/whom did he talked with?
(b) With whom did he talked?
f. Relative Pronouns
- A relative pronoun is used to introduce a dependent clause
called relative or adjective clause and connects it to an
independent or main clause.
- With this function, a relative pronoun seems like a
conjunction, yet a relative pronoun may replace a noun or a
noun phrase or may refer to a noun or a noun phrase
mentioned in the dependent clause.
- In the sentence with an adjective clause, there must be a
shared noun between the dependent and the main clause.
The type and the function of the shared noun in the
dependent clause determines the type and form of the
relative pronoun to be used in the clause.
- Consider the followings:
a. Who --- used for person as subject or object in the adjective
clause.
- as subject:
The woman who just called you left flowers for you.
- as object:
The woman whom/who you met this morning is an actress.
b. Whom --- used for person as object or as object of a
preposition:
- as object :
The man whom/who you invited yesterday just arrived.
- object of preposition:
The man whom/who you sent the money to is here.
The man to whom you sent the money is here.
c. Which --- used for animal or thing
I hate the dog which bit my cat.
d. That --- is used for person, animal, or thing.
She finally visited the coffee shop that had such great
reviews.
e. Whose --- is used for a possessor (person, animal, or thing).
I know the man whose car was stolen last night.
f. Where --- is used for a locative noun.
The building where he lives is very old.
g. When --- is used for a noun of time.
I’ll never forget the day when I first met you.
- An adjective clause must always occur right after the noun head
it modifies. Compare the followings:
a. The policeman arrested the man who stole your car.
b. The policeman who stole your car arrested the man.

g. Indefinite Pronouns
- Indefinite pronouns are expressions such as somebody and
something that are used refer to people or things without
indicating exactly who or what they are.
- They are called “indefinite” simply because they do not
indicate the exact object, being, or place to which they refer.
- They include:
any anybody anyone either
neither nobody no someone
some every all both
each several enough many
much
- Examples:
Many are called, but few are chosen.
Somebody ate my sandwich!
Everyone says she is beautiful inside and out.
No one wants to hear about my health problems.
Either choice has its advantages.
h. Impersonal Pronouns
- Impersonal pronouns do not refer to a person or thing or to
any other part of the sentence.
- Impersonal pronouns in English include:
a. It
The impersonal pronoun "It" is the most widely used
neutral form in English that can refer to either things,
animals, or weather/time/dates.
Examples:
- It is cold here.
- It is Wednesday.
- It snowed in Chicago last week, it was very pretty.
- It's half past three.
b. There
When used as an impersonal pronoun, it is meant to
introduce a noun or an expression. It's most common
placement is at the beginning of the sentence.
Examples:
- There's something in the dark.
- There's nothing wrong with that.
- There is a new tenant in the building.
- There are so many opportunities there.
When ‘there’ is used as an impersonal pronoun, the verb
agreement (concord) occurs between the verb and the
noun following it.
- There is a kitten under the table.
- There are several kittens under the table.
Auxiliary verbs
- Auxiliary verbs form a group of words that are used to add
functional or grammatical meaning such as polarity, tense,
aspect, modality, voice, and emphasis to the sentence in which
it appears.
- They usually accompany a main verb. The main verb provides
the main semantic content of the clause verb phrase.
- modal auxiliary: can, may, must, shall, will, ought
to, have to, should, would, need
to, etc.
- auxiliary verb
to have
- auxiliary verb : to do
to be
- Modals are used to express speaker’s attitude towards what he
or she is talking about. They relate to speakers’ mode such as
possibility, probability, certainty and advisability. A few modal
may also indicate tense in addition to speakers’ mood.
- Examples:
= Polite request : Could you pass the salt, please?
= Permission : Would you mind if I closed the door?
= Necessity : All applicants must take an entrance exam.
= Certainty : Sam must not be hungry.
- The auxiliary verb ‘to be’
To be as an auxiliary verb is used in two structures:
1. to express progressive/continuous aspect (tenses):
The boy is sleeping.
He has been sleeping for two hours.
He was sleeping yesterday at the same as it is today.
 2. to express passive voice
The boy is being punished at the moment.
They were invited to the party.
His car had been stolen when he arrived home last
-night
The auxiliary verb ‘to do’
To do is used as an auxiliary in the formation of negative and
interrogative sentences in the simple present and simple past
tense.
Negative
Simple present : I do not speak
English?
She does not go to
school.
Simple past : I did not join the
class last week.
 Interrogative:
Simple present : Do you speak English?
Does you son go to school by bemo?
Simple past : Did they arrive last night?
Did you come to the meeting?

- The auxiliary verb ‘to have’

To have as an auxiliary verb is used to indicate perfect.
Examples:
I have read that book
They have been here long.
She had had lunch when I arrived.
I had been waiting for an hour when he finally arrived.
Determiners
- Pure determiner category includes:
- articles : a/an (indefinite); the (definite)
- demonstratives : this (singular proximal);
these (plural proximal)
that (singular proximal);
those (plural distal).
- In some analysis, determiner may include the followings:
a. possessive adjectives : my, your, his
b. quantifiers : some, any, many, (a) few, a lot of
c. numeral : two, three, twenty
d. possessive noun : John’s (father)
e. interrogative words : which (book)
- The use of the indefinite article a/an and the definite article
the is often found to be difficult for non-native speakers of
English.

Interjections
- Interjections are expressions that are used to convey emotion,
physical state, agreement, disagreement, and other feelings.
- They do not relate grammatically to the other parts of the
sentence and do not help the reader understand the
relationship between words and phrases in the sentence
- Interjections are rarely used in academic or formal writing, but
are common in fiction or artistic writing. They are usually, but
not always, offset by an exclamation point (which is also used
to show emotion).
- Some frequently used interjections in English are:
ah eek hmm no oh
ouch phew shit yes yuck
aha gosh goodness ha oops
oh no uh-oh uh-huh ugh
- The use of these interjections can be seen below:
Hooray! I got the job!
Hey! Stop messing with me!
Ouch! That must’ve hurt really bad!
Oh! They’re here!
Are you still going to eat that? Yuck!
Eek! There’s a flying cockroach!
Exercise:
1. Fill in the blanks with indefinite pronouns: someone, anyone, no
one, everyone, nothing, anything, nobody, something.
1. There is __________ in the clothes basket. It is empty.
2. I've tried phoning but every time I tried there was ___________in.
3. I have prepared ________ for dinner which you will like very much.
4. Would you like _________ to start with before the main menu?
5. He sat at the table but didn't have _____________ to eat.
6. You can do _____________ . I don't really care.
7. I met ____________ you know last night. She told me she had
missed you very much.
8. That's a very easy job. ___________ can do it.
9. Did you turn the oven off? I think I can smell _________ burning.
10. __________ offered help. They probably didn't have time.
2. Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate form of possessive
adjectives.
1. The one on the floor is Daniel’s sock. The one on the floor is ___ sock.
2. I am Emma's sister. I am ______________sister.
3. We are Tony's cousins. We are _____________cousins.
4. My wife's dog is really friendly. ___________ dog is really friendly.
5. These are my friends' books. These are __________ bicycle.
6. My and my uncle's eyes are green. __________ eyes are green.
7. Janette's and Jerry's son is a teacher. __________ son is a teacher.
8. My house's roof is damaged. _____________roof is damaged.
9. That cake belongs to me. That’s ___________ cake .
10. It is the administration's own fault. It’s ____________ fault.
3. Complete the following sentences with ‘each other’ or a
suitable reflexive pronoun (myself, yourself, herself, etc.).
1. They told ______________ stories all night long.
2. I've always wanted to meet you but we've never had the chance to talk
to ____________ until now.
3. Let me introduce ________________. My name is Alan.
4. She weighs ________ every morning. She is obsessed with her weight.
5. He should give ____________ more time.
6. They were very good friends and often invited ____________ over.
7. No one wants to study with me so I am going to have to study by ____.
8. They love __________ and they are going to get married.
9. How could you do something like that. You must be ashamed of _____ .
10. The two students started running around. I thought they were going to
hurt __________but fortunately nothing happened in the end.
4. Choose who / whom / that / which / when / where / whose /
why. In some questions, there may be more than one correct
answers.
1. My cousin Ethan, _________ works at NASA, is a brilliant scientist.
2. The shop ___________ I go to is close to downtown.
3. Your shop, ________ will probably be shut down next year, is really old.
4. I've met most of the people __are eager to take part in the competition.
5. Do you know the reason ___________ our offer was rejected.
6. Do you remember __________ the town you were born?
7. The neighbor son ___is always running around the street is a journalist.
8. Where is the box __________ came in the mail?
9. 1999 is the year __________ the big earthquake happened.
10. Do you know the man ___________my father's helping?
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Haspelmath, Martin. (2002). Understanding morphology. London: Arnold
Publisher.
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Lieber, Rochelle. (2009). Introducing morphology. Cambridge: Cambridge
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for joining my
lecture!