INTRODUCTION TO CONCRETE BLOCKS

Shelter is one of the three basic needs of man along with food and clothing. The prehistoric man
lived in caves, and later, he began constructing walls from the mud. In due course of time, many
techniques for the masonry were developed and it became a structural part of the shelter. In early days,
burnt brick masonry and stone masonry were popular. Now, with growing demand for construction,
cheaper and faster techniques and materials are the need of the hour.
A concrete block is primarily used as a building material in the construction of walls. It is
sometimes called a concrete masonry unit (CMU). A concrete block is one of several precast concrete
products used in construction. The term precast refers to the fact that the blocks are formed and hardened
before they are brought to the job site. Most concrete blocks have one or more hollow cavities, and their
sides may be cast smooth or with a design. In use, concrete blocks are stacked one at a time and held
together with fresh concrete mortar to form the desired length and height of the wall.
HISTORY
Concrete mortar was used by the Romans as early as 200 b.c.
to bind shaped stones together in the construction of buildings. During
the reign of the Roman emperor Caligula, in 37-41 a.d., small blocks of
precast concrete were used as a construction material in the region
around present-day Naples, Italy. Much of the concrete technology
developed by the Romans was lost after the fall of the Roman Empire in
the fifth century. It was not until 1824 that the English stonemason
Joseph Aspdin developed portland cement, which became one of the
key components of modern concrete.
The first hollow concrete block was designed in 1890 by Harmon
S. Palmer in the United States. After 10 years of experimenting, Palmer
patented the design in 1900. Palmer's blocks were 8 in (20.3 cm) by 10
in (25.4 cm) by 30 in (76.2 cm), and they were so heavy they had to be
lifted into place with a small crane. By 1905, an estimated 1,500 Picture of a rusticated concrete block
companies were manufacturing concrete blocks in the United States.
By the 1920s rock face concrete blocks had become a common
building material used for foundations, porches, even entire buildings and houses. With the advent of
the automotive industry, many homeowners found themselves in need of a garage to house their new
cars. Rock face block was a cheap and aesthetically pleasing material that was often used to build these
new garages and service stations.
TWO MAJOR TYPES OF CONCRETE BLOCKS OR CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT
Solid Concrete Blocks
Solid concrete blocks are made from aggregate,
Portland cement and sand. These blocks have a solid
material, not less than 75% of the total volume of the block
calculated from the overall dimensions. Hence, they are heavy
in weight. These blocks provide good stability to the structure.
So, these blocks are used for a large work of masonry. They
are used in the load-bearing walls as well as the non-load
bearing walls. Solid blocks are available in large sizes as
compared to the conventional bricks. Therefore, less time is
required to construct concrete block masonry than brick
masonry.
Hollow Concrete Blocks
They are the standard sized rectangular hollow
blocks made of cast concrete of high or low density. For high-
density blocks, Portland cement and aggregate, usually
sand and fine gravel are used as a raw material. For low
density blocks, industrial wastes, such as fly ash or bottom
ash are used as the primary raw materials and are often
called cinder blocks /breeze blocks in different parts of the
world.
Hollow concrete blocks are more commonly used in
masonry construction. It accelerates the construction
process, saves cement and steel and reduces the work
expenses at the construction site. These blocks lower the
natural weight of masonry constructions and improve the
physical properties of walls, such as noise and thermal
insulation. They also provide facilities for
concealing electrical conduit, water and soil pipes.
Size of Hollow Concrete Blocks

Hollow concrete block made of cement, composite, water, can be produced to the required size
and shape by blocking machine, such as concrete unit for construction materials, standard size is 4
inches, 6 inches, 8 inches, 10 inches and 12-inch unit adjustment.

Different sizes of Hollow concrete block are given below.

 Hollow concrete block 12” (200 X 300 X 400), Weight (kg): 32.
 Hollow concrete block 10” (200 X 250 X 400), Weight (kg): 31.
 Hollow concrete block8” (200 X 200 X 400), Weight (kg): 23.
 Hollow concrete block 6” (200 X 150 X 400), Weight (kg): 18.
 Hollow concrete block 4” (200 X 100 X 400), Weight (kg): 14.

Uses of Hollow Concrete Blocks

 Hollow concrete blocks are used in all type of masonry construction such as,
 Exterior load-bearing walls
 Interior load-bearing walls
 Curtain walls
  Partition wall and panel walls
 Backing from brick, stone, and other facing
 Fireproofing over a structural member
 Fire-safe walls around stairwells, elevators
 Piers, column and retaining walls etc.
 Boundary fences

ADVANTAGES OF HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCK MASONRY

According to the research by ‘Chaure, A. P., Shinde P. A. et al.’ followings are the advantages of hollow
concrete blocks,
01. Hollow concrete block masonry is the easier and faster construction practice as compared to any
other masonry practices.
02. Hollow concrete block masonry reduces the cost of construction labour and construction materials
because the use of a larger size of concrete block reduces the number of joints in work.
03. Semi-skilled or unskilled labour can also work in this type of construction.
04. These concrete blocks need low maintenance and are durable.
05. They are eco-friendly materials as industrial wastes, such as fly ash or bottom ash are used as raw
materials.
06. Reinforcing the hollow block masonry is possible as there is no additional formwork or any
construction machinery required.
07. Hollow concrete block masonry is highly durable as the concrete is compacted by high pressure and
vibration, which gives substantial strength to the block. Adequate curing increases the compressive
strength of the blocks.
08. As the hollow concrete blocks are light in weight, they reduce the weight of the structure and hence
light structural member or less percentage of steel is required for a given R.C.C building.
09. Presence of rough texture on concrete blocks provides good bonding between cement mortar and
concrete blocks.
10. It is possible to construct a thin wall by using hollow blocks. Therefore, it helps to save space and
increase the floor area or carpet area, i.e. carpet area efficiency is better.
11. In the hollow blocks, the voids or cores can be filled with steel bars and concrete for achieving high
seismic resistance.
12. Hollow concrete blocks have good insulating properties against sound, heat and dampness.
13. These blocks have low water absorption than conventional bricks. If you want to know how to
measure water absorption in bricks then read the water absorption test of bricks.
14. Hollow concrete block can safely resist the atmospheric action. This block doesn’t require protecting
covering.
15. It has good fire resistance.

DISADVANTAGES OF HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCK MASONRY

There are various different types of disadvantage that we can get while using hollow concrete blocks in
construction some of which are given below.
01. Hollow blocks has poor bearing capacity because the total mass of wall decoration materials is
reduced, the load-bearing capacity is also reduced.
02. It is very dangerous to hang heavy objects on such walls.

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TYPES OF CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS

1. Stretcher Block

Concrete stretcher blocks are used in construction to connect the

corner of masonry units. Their faces are laid parallel to the face of
the wall.

2. Corner Block

Corner blocks are placed at corners, as you might expect, or at the

ends of windows and door openings. The plain side is exposed to the
exterior, while the stretcher side runs parallel to the wall.

3. Pillar Block

As the name implies, pillar blocks are most often used to build pillars
or piers. They’re also called double-corner blocks and are designed
so that both ends could be left visible. Pillar blocks are the kind of
blocks many people think of when they think of concrete blocks, and
they are often available in large quantities at building supply stores.

4. Jamb Block

Jamb blocks are made with a shallow groove across the two holes
and a deeper groove at one end. They provide space for the casing
members of a window and are often used specifically in double-hung
windows.

5. Partition Block

Partition blocks are similar to concrete pillar blocks except that they
are taller than they are wide. These narrow blocks look almost like
wide goggles if viewed straight-on.

6. Lintel Block
Lintel block, also known as channeled blocks or beam
blocks, are U-shaped concrete masonry units. They are primarily
used in the preparation of lintel beams. It is used for the purpose of
provision of beam or lintel beam.
It is generally provided on the top portion of doors and
windows, which bears the load coming from top. Concrete lintel
blocks have deep groove along the length of block. After placing the
blocks, this groove is filled with concrete along with reinforcement.
7. Frogged Brick Block
Frogged brick block is a type of lightweight concrete block
that contains a frog on its top along with header and stretcher like
frogged brick. This frog will help the block to hold mortar and to
develop the strong bond with top laying block making the masonry
strong.

8. Bullnose Block
Bullnose concrete blocks are the same as corner blocks in
their use and structure. The only minor difference between the two
concrete hollow block types is that a bullnose block has rounded
edges (which is the reason for its name), while a corner block does
not.

9. Column Block
A column block is typically a square block with a single hole.
These can be stacked to create columns, with reinforcement inside.
Also referred as double corner block where two ends of corner are visible.

10. Splitface Block

Splitface blocks look like pillar blocks, except one edge has a
very rough, almost jagged texture that exposes the block’s inner
aggregates. This block is very porous and therefore vulnerable to
water damage, but it also has a lower risk of termite infestation and is
less susceptible to fire.
A splitface block like the one pictured above might come in a
6-by-8-by-16-inch size.
 TESTING

UNIT SAMPLING

The purpose of selecting multiple samples for unit testing is to ensure that the range of results is
representative of the entire lot of units from which the specimens were taken. Consequently, concrete
masonry units chosen for testing should be randomly sampled. Choosing units from one portion of a
pallet, or choosing the most or least desirable units may misrepresent the properties of the lot.

Although a shipment may consist of several different unit configurations, samples for testing should all
have the same configuration and dimensions. In some cases, such as shrinkage results under ASTM
C426 (ref. 2), it is generally acceptable to consider the test results of one unit configuration to be
representative of units with different configurations provided they were made using the same mix design,
manufacturing and curing procedures.

Units that are representative of the entire lot of units are sampled from the job site or may be sampled
from the manufacturer’s storage inventory. Sampled units are marked with a unique identification and
weighed.

MEASUREMENT OF DIMENSIONS

Unit dimensions are used: to verify that the overall length, width and height are within allowable
tolerances; to calculate normalized web area and equivalent thickness; and to verify that face shell and
cross web thicknesses meet the requirements of the appropriate unit specification (see Figure 1).
Minimum face shell thickness is prescribed to address concerns such as ease of mortar placement,
sufficient mortar coverage over joint reinforcement and resistance to lateral pressure from grouting.
Minimum web thickness and area considerations include transfer of shear, flexural strength in the
horizontal span, and resistance to tensile splitting of walls under compression.

Included in ASTM C140 since 2012 is testing to determine minimum normalized web area. Its purpose is
to ensure that the unit has sufficient web material connecting the face shells. It replaces the equivalent
web thickness criteria in previous versions of the standard. To determine the normalized web area, the
minimum thickness and height of each web is measured and used to calculate the total web area of the
unit. This total web area is divided by the nominal unit face area to determine normalized web area in
in.²/ft² (mm²/m²).

Although not specified in ASTM C140 (ref. 1), the units set aside for absorption testing are typically used
for measurement of unit dimensions, before the units are immersed in water. This way, the gross volume
(determined from overall unit dimensions) and the net volume (determined from water displacement) for
the units are both determined from the same set of test specimens.
ABSORPTION

Absorption describes the amount of water a unit can hold when saturated. Absorption can be an indicator
of the level of compaction of the concrete mix or of the volume of voids within a block. For a given mix
design and manufacturing and curing process, variations in absorption can be an indication of deleterious
materials in the mix, mixing quality, and/or compaction of the concrete mix, which also can indicate
variations in compressive strength, tensile strength, durability, laboratory procedural problems, or other
causes. Data collected during absorption testing is used to calculate absorption, density, net area, net
volume and equivalent thickness.

Each unit is weighed a minimum of five times in this order: received weight; immersed weight; saturated
surface dry weight; and oven-dry weight (at least twice). The saturated and immersed weights should
always be determined following 24 to 28 hours of immersion and prior to oven drying the units.

Because the units are immersed in water and subsequently oven-dried during absorption testing, the
units used for this determination should not be used for compression testing, the results of which are
influenced by unit moisture content. Six units of identical size and configuration are therefore required for
ASTM C140 testing—three for compression testing and three for absorption.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Compressive strength tests are used to ensure that concrete masonry units meet the minimum strength
requirements of the applicable unit specification (see ref. 11). The unit compressive strength results may
also be used to verify compliance with the specified compressive strength of masonry, f’m, when using
the unit strength method (ref. 4, Article 1.4 B.2.b). Unit compression tests are easier and less expensive
to perform than similar tests on masonry prisms, making the unit strength method the more popular.
Some of the critical areas of compression testing that are necessary to insure accurate testing include:

 Appropriate capping stations with stiff, planar plates with smooth surfaces.

 Compression machines with spherically seated heads and bearing plates of adequate planeness
and thickness for the size of the specimen being tested. See TEK 18-1B (ref. 8) for details and an
example.
  Proper specimen alignment within the testing machine (center of mass aligned with center of
thrust).

For compressive strength determination, three specimens are tested. Wherever possible, full-sized units
are used. However, certain modifications are permitted or required as follows:

 Unsupported projections with a length exceeding the projection thickness must be removed by
saw-cutting (see Figure 2). For units with recessed webs, the face shell projecting above the web
is removed by saw-cutting to provide a full bearing surface over the net cross-section of the unit,
as shown in Figure 3.

 When the size and/or strength of the unit exceeds the testing machine capacity, a specimen may
be cut to conform to the testing machine capabilities. The resulting specimen, however, must
contain an enclosed four-sided cell or cells without irregular face shells or webs.

 If saw-cutting does not produce a test specimen complying with the above provisions, coupons
may be saw-cut from the face shells (see Figure 4).
  For concrete roof paver units, cut three test specimens from three whole paver units to produce
a strip of paver with the specimen height equal to its width. Where the paver has supporting ribs,
cut the coupon perpendicular to the direction of the ribs, such that any bevelled or recessed
surfaces are not included in the top or bottom edges of the specimen.

 For concrete brick, specimens are required to have an aspect ratio (height divided by least lateral
dimension) of 0.6 ± 0.1 (see Figure 5).
The prepared specimens are then capped in accordance with ASTM C1552 (ref. 9) to provide a uniform
and level bearing surface. After the specimen center of mass is located, the specimen is positioned in
the testing machine such that the specimen’s center of mass is aligned with the machine’s center of
thrust. All hollow units are tested with their cores in a vertical direction, except for special units intended
for use with their cores horizontal. These special units and units that are 100% solid are tested in the
same direction as intended for service. Further information on compressive strength testing is available
in references 8 and 12.

CALCULATIONS

Using the data gathered in the preceding test methods, the following characteristics are determined:
absorption, density, average net area, gross area, net and gross area compressive strengths, normalized
web area and equivalent thickness.

Density, or unit weight, is described in terms of dry weight per cubic foot. It is determined from the
saturated weight, immersed weight and oven-dry weight. Using these weights, the volume of concrete in
a unit is readily determined and its density is the oven-dry weight divided by its net volume. Among the
properties affected by density of concrete in a block are wall weight, building weight, thermal conductivity,
heat capacity and acoustical properties.

Cross-sectional area is the basis for expressing compressive strength of concrete masonry units. Unit
specifications require that block comply with a minimum net area compressive strength. Net area is
described in terms of the percentage of solid material in the cross section, and is measured by the ratio
of net volume of the unit to gross volume of the unit. Because water displacement is used to determine
net volume, the net cross-sectional area represents the average net area of the unit.

Equivalent thickness is used to determine the fire resistance rating. It represents the average thickness
of a hollow unit if the volume is configured into a solid unit of the same face dimension. It is determined
by dividing the net unit volume by the unit face area.
DRYING SHRINKAGE, ASTM C426

ASTM C426, Standard Test Method for Drying Shrinkage of Concrete Masonry Units (ref. 2) is intended
to evaluate the potential shrinkage characteristics of concrete masonry units due to moisture loss only.
Note that concrete masonry may also shrink due to factors such as carbonation and temperature
changes, which are not addressed by this test method (although temperature is standardized and
corrected so as not to influence the results). This test measures unit length change from a totally
saturated condition to an “equilibrium” condition at 17% relative humidity. This represents the potential
shrinkage because the masonry is unlikely to encounter these extreme conditions under normal
circumstances. The test results are used to determine concrete masonry crack control provisions.

Typically, it is not necessary to run shrinkage tests on units made with the same mix design but having
different unit configurations. As long as there are no changes in materials, mix design, production
methods or curing, ASTM C426 tests are required to be performed only once every two years, per ASTM
C90 (ref. 13).

Test specimens are usually whole units with measurements taken on both faces. Alternatively, coupons
may be cut from face shells, as illustrated in Figure 6. Gage plugs are mounted on the test specimens to
facilitate length measurements.

This method requires the test specimens to be saturated for 48 hours, at which time the length is precisely
measured and recorded. Specimens are then dried in an oven for 5 days. After drying, specimens are
cooled and measured. Test specimens are then returned to the drying oven for periods of 48 hours until
the length change is negligible.

PREFACED UNITS

For concrete masonry units with a smooth, resinous tile-like facing adhered to the unit, Standard
Specification for Prefaced Concrete and Calcium Silicate Masonry Units, ASTM C744 (ref. 3) includes
requirements and applicable test methods for the facing. The concrete masonry unit to which the facing
is applied must comply with the applicable unit specification. Facing requirements include:

 Resistance to crazing—Units are subjected to wetting and drying to demonstrate that the facing
does not craze, crack or spall.

 Resistance to chemicals—The facing must remain unchanged when subjected to the specified
list of chemicals and exposure durations.

 Adhesion—The facing must remain adhered to the unit when the unit is loaded to failure by an
applied compression load.

 Abrasion—The wear index of the facing must exceed 130 when the facing is subjected to a
standard abrasion test (ASTM C501, ref. 5).

 Surface burning—The flame spread and smoke density rating of the facing must not exceed 25
and 50, respectively, when tested in accordance with ASTM E84 (ref. 6).

 Color tint & texture—The facing texture must remain unchanged and facing color difference must
not exceed 5 Delta units (ref. 7) when subjected to an accelerated weathering test.

 Soiling and cleansability—No more than a trace of stain may remain on the facing after cleaning
when subjected to a specified list of marking substances.
Properties of Concrete Hollow Blocks
Architects and structural engineers design buildings with concrete blocks (also known as
concrete masonry units, or CMUs) for several important properties: high structural capacity, resistance
to fire, resistance to water, variety of aesthetic possibilities and insulating and acoustical advantages. In
many cases, this minimum-maintenance material may provide the most economical way to meet certain
requirements of building codes or the specialized needs of a client. ASTM International's Publication
C140 - 09a, "Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Concrete Masonry Units and Related
Units," ensures that each concrete block meets minimum design expectations.

1. Structural Properties
While concrete blocks vary by type, their primary structural property is compressive strength.
The American Concrete Institute's (ACI) Publication 318, "Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete," contains the structural property standards for concrete and 7-day and 28-day testing
methods used to ensure that the concrete blocks manufactured meet or exceed building codes
throughout the United States. ACI's 228.1R-03, "In-Place Methods to Estimate Concrete Strength,"
outlines the standard in-place strength tests that estimate concrete strength during construction or
estimate concrete strength during the evaluation of existing concrete block structures. Inserting rebar
(steel rods) into the cells (the openings in blocks--most blocks have holes for ease of construction) or
solid grouting the cells produces a significantly stronger concrete block.

 Compressive Strength:
For Grade A: 3.5 to 15.0 N/mm2
For Grade B: 3.5 and 5.0 N/mm2
2. Water Resistance
Permeability and porosity vary by unit type, but generally concrete blocks absorb water. A
mixture of coarse and fine particle material during manufacture produces a significantly more
waterproof concrete block wall. The amount of cement used in the manufacture of concrete blocks
affects the block's permeability; a mixture rich in cement produces a less permeable block. Facing the
blocks with a mixture of cement and fine sand, using waterproof compounds during manufacture, or
applying one of the various washes available after erecting the blocks.

 Moisture Movement: Not more than 0.09%

 Water Absorption: Not more than 10%
 Drying Shrinkage: Not more than 0.06% the penetration of water.
3. Fire Resistance
One major factor of the hollow block being fireproof is it is low in thermal conductivity. This
implies that even if a building catches fire it takes less time to spread in the entire building. Its load-
bearing capacity and structural features do not let it catch fire easily even if any building is set on fire,
the non-combustible materials protect it from spreading fire. Nevertheless, not all kinds of concrete
blocks are fireproof. Hollow blocks consist of cement and other aggregated materials that are needed to
protect any structure from catching fire.
4. Aesthetic Properties
The aesthetic properties of concrete blocks, once utilitarian and gray, have become more
important. Concrete block manufacturers now produce concrete blocks in a wide range of colors,
textures and finishes that architects utilize to great effect, depending on the building design. Concrete
block manufacturers develop new concrete block shapes and sizes to meet an ever-evolving
construction market.
5. Insulating Properties
The insulating properties of various concrete blocks vary by manufacturer and are dependent on
the density of the block. Thermal conductivity tests performed by manufacturers determines the
insulating properties. By reducing the concrete block density by volume and producing a lower-weight
block, manufacturers increase the heat-insulating properties of the blocks. Solid grouting the cells of
concrete blocks increases the insulating properties of a concrete block wall.

 Density:
For Grade A: 1500 kg/m3
For Grade-B: 1100 kg/m3 to 1500 kg/m3
6. Acoustic Properties
The acoustic properties of any concrete block structure depend on the form of construction, the
junctions and connections between the blocks and the properties of the materials used during
manufacture of the blocks. Following concrete block installation recommendations as provided by the
ACI and other organizations significantly increases acoustic control within the building.

REFERENCES
https://www.hunker.com/12310270/properties-of-concrete-blocks
https://gharpedia.com/blog/hollow-concrete-blocks-basic-information/
https://btibuildingproducts.com/concrete-hollow-blocks-are-fireproof-myth-busted/