Self-Healing Bio-Concrete: Overview, Importance
and Limitations
2022 Advances in Science and Engineering Technology International Conferences (ASET) | 978-1-6654-1801-0/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/ASET53988.2022.9734969
Mariam Khaled Galal, Ahmad Al Najjar, Ahmed Thaher, Anas Mustafa,
Mahmood Sultan, Ayesha Al Awadi, Shubhra Shitole, Abdel-Hamid I.
Mourad
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department
College of Engineering
United Arab Emirates University
Al Ain, P. O. Box 15551
United Arab Emirates
Corresponding author: ahmourad@uaeu.ac.ae
Abstract—Concrete structures like all materials are prone to
natural or anthropogenic degradation and deterioration over
time as they have rather low tensile strength. In the case of
structural materials, long-term degradation creates
microcracks which increases permeability and eventually lead
to failure. As a result, mending is required to improve
material reliability and longevity. Maintenance of concrete
structure is a process that is required to be done by inspecting
and repairing on regular basis to ensure that the structure is
in a well-working condition, has a longer service life and
allows for early identification of defects. However, there are
structures that have the process of their maintenance hard to
reach and thus put the human life in danger. Therefore, self-
healing concrete plays a major role in protecting the human-
life, by maintaining the structure through self-repairing the
cracks without external aid. In addition, self-healing concrete
allows for the improvement of the mechanical strength. On the
other side, its essential to have a keen understanding about the
various microbiological technologies used for self-healing
concrete. This paper presents an overview of microbiological
technologies, their use in today's applications, and the
limitations of bio self-healing concrete which are important for
in-depth understanding of the self-healing techniques for
future research.
Keywords—Self-healing concrete; defects; microbiology;
bacteria
I.INTRODUCTION
Cracks are inherent characteristics of concrete. Despite
this, cracking can cause a structure to lose its durability due
to its permeability to liquids and gases.
Traditionally, manual repair is used to resolve the issue.
Researchers have studied bio based self-healing concepts in
the last decade, in which the metabolism of bacteria is used
to develop self-healing concrete. The technique involves
introducing bio-based healing agent to fresh concrete. When
a crack appears in the hardened concrete, it activates the
bacteria, precipitates limestone, and the crack is sealed. With
this self-healing concrete technology, concrete can regain its
original performance by regaining impermeability that has
been lost to cracks. Furthermore, self-healing concrete based
on biotechnology has been studied and developed to protect
existing structures using materials that are more compatible
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Vasilia Numan Al Khaldi
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department
College of Engineering
United Arab Emirates University
Al Ain, P. O. Box 15551
United Arab Emirates
with concrete and environmentally friendly than the repair
materials used currently [1]. The development of a mobile
phase, which enables this crack to be closed, is required for
self-healing of a (mechanical) harm (Figure 1). A fracture
can form if damage is done to the material (a and b). Self-
healing may happen at all scales, from microscopic to
macroscopic. The common premise is the emergence of a
"mobile phase" (c), which is triggered either by damage (in
the ideal example) or by external stimuli. As a result of the
directed mass transport towards the damage location and the
following local mending reaction, the damage can be
eradicated (d). Physical interactions and/or chemical
bonding ensure the (re)connection of the crack planes in the
latter. After the injury has healed, the previously mobile
material is immobilized, resulting in fully recovered
mechanical characteristics in the best-case scenario (e). This
broad principle does not apply to just one type of material.
Due to their intrinsic properties, the required temperature
varies depending on the materials: concrete need ambient
temperature, polymers and polymer composites need low
temperatures (120 ° C), metals and their composites need
high temperatures (600 ° C) for metals, and high
temperatures (> 800 ° C) for ceramics (and their
composites). Furthermore, the size of damage that can be
repaired varies significantly depending on the size and
number of species being carried [2].
Fig. 1. Self-healing materials have a common core idea.
Laboratory tests have shown these innovative concepts
to be promising, and steps are being taken to construct the
first outdoor applications that will confirm the capabilities of
the new technology [3]. Several recent studies have
observed an autogenous healing of cracks in concrete [1],
[4]–[8]. The ability of most concrete to self-heal is restricted
to microcracks (cracks with widths up to 0.1–0.2 mm). In
fact, there may be a difference in the mechanism of self-
healing since it depends mainly on the concrete mixture's
composition. Van Tittelboom et al [9] have shown in their
research paper that there was an improvement in the
autogenous crack healing when the superabsorbent polymers
were added to the mixture. Adding geopolymers to the
concrete can enhance the thermal and structural properties
[10], [11]. In Amsterdam canals, crack-healing has been
observed in mortar of old brick buildings, and it was found
that this was due to the dissolution and re-precipitation of
calcium carbonate dissolved within the largely lime-based
mortar matrix. In addition to dissolving calcite (CaCO3)
particles within the mortar matrix, crack-penetrating water
will also react with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form
partial hydration of calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide
according to the following reactions [12]: Bacillus
sphaericus and Bacillus peusturii are microorganisms that
aid in the formation of biominerals via the metabolic route.
These bacteria are urease positive and follow the nitrogen
cycle. Fig. 2 shows the formation of calcium carbonate
crystals by B. subtilis and B. sphaericus.
(a)
Fig. 2. (a) Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) image that shows the
formation of calcite precipitate by Bacillus (b) SEM image that shows the
formation of calcite precipitate by Bacillus subtilis [1]
Mechanical damage leads to the release of monomer
from microcapsules. A catalyst helps these monomers to
polymerize in the crack plane thus enabling the closer of the
crack (Fig. 3). An inner crack in concrete can be repaired by
self-healing due to its self-regeneration process caused by
autogenous or autonomous healing. Autonomous healing is
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the result of continued hydration and carbonation. Using
specific agents to produce self-healing by vascular networks,
capsules or direct addition to the concrete matrix is the basis
for autonomous healing. Superabsorbent polymers,
crystallized admixtures, microencapsulated sodium silicate,
and bacteria are examples [8].
𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 𝐻2𝑂 → 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 + 𝐶𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 + 𝐻2𝑂
Fig. 3. Microcapsules for Self-healing . Reproduced with permission [13].
To a certain extent, concrete can resist compressive
loads, but if the load is greater than the limit at which
concrete can resist it, the concrete will fail, creating cracks
in the concrete reduces its strength, and treating the cracks is
very expensive. In addition, the concrete structure loses
some properties such as durability, permeability, and
strength [9]. When the bacteria (b) enter concrete, they
produce calcium carbonate crystals. This prevents pores and
microcracks from forming in concrete [14]. Microcracks
need to be avoided in concrete as they contribute to the
material's weakness to some extent. environment with a pH
value of 10 or more kills the thew bacteria based on the
surviving ability [15]. There are different processes of self-
healing concrete technologies. These processes are natural,
chemical, and biological processes [12]. Based on the above
literature review, the self-healing concrete topic is a crucial
topic, most autonomous self-healing mechanism can heal
cracks of 300 𝜇m [16]. This area needs more attention and
future work. This paper provides an overview on self-
healing concrete and covers important aspects like healing
agents used, advantages and limitations of self-healing
concrete considering factors like effects of long-term self-
healing, loss of comprehensive strength and cost incurred
followed by the conclusion.
II.HEALING-AGENTS
Conventional concrete is made of cement and water as
the binding agents with both fine and coarse aggregate for
rigidity. Healing agents can be polymeric, biological, or
inorganic. Examples of inorganic agents are
Dicyclopentadiene and methyl methacrylate while Sodium
silicate and magnesium oxide are examples of inorganic
agents. Bacteria (specifically types of genus Bacillus as
shown in Fig. 4.) and fungi are types of biological agents.
The disadvantage of polymeric and inorganic agents is that
they have the tendency to react chemically in a broad
temperature and pH range. On the other hand, bacteria of the
genus Bacillus have a neutral-alkaline pH and show
metabolic activity within a narrow temperature range [17].
Fig. 4. (Self-healing ways.) By accumulating calcium carbonate inside the
pores, RHA concrete is strengthened by bacteria [18].
Luo, M. et al [19] in their paper showed that the
microbial self-healing agent can be used to achieve the
objective of self-healing concrete. The microbial self-
healing agent can improve the capacity of the self-healing
improve the capacity of the self-healing by inducing the
bacteria mineral precipitation. Wang, J et al [20] has showed
the usage of self-healing approach in their paper, a way to
pre-add self-healing agents to the concrete to treat the cracks
at their early age. In their research, they discussed the
potential of using silica gel or polyurethane as the carriers
for protecting the bacteria. The result showed that the silica
gel immobilized bacteria has shown a higher activity
compared to rge polyurethane immobilized bacteria.
Therefore, it was concluded that the usage of polyurethane
immobilized bacteria is more promising [21].
Fig. 5. Gemis Bacillus Type of Bacteria
III.ADVANTAGES OF SELF-HEALING CONCRETE
Concrete is one of the most used materials used in the
construction field due to its durability. The durability of the
concrete is damaged by the cracks. Therefore, it is necessary
to heal these cracks before they end up causing a collapse.
Self-healing of concrete is one of the low-cost methods of
fixing dangerous cracks from severe corrosion. It allows for
constructing buildings without the need to worry about
future crack formations. In addition, bio-self healing
concrete can play a significant role not just in building but in
several places around the cities such as the sidewalks and
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pavements causing them to not face any wear or tear. In
addition, the bio-self healing concrete will allow for a long-
term service of concrete and thus would reduce the
maintenance and repair cost. There are three main methods
of self-healing in concrete. The methods allow healing
cracks in a safe and natural way while being pollutant-free
[13]. The bio-self healing concrete plays a role in enhancing
the reduction of future production of cement which would
lead in less formation of dust that are released from the
construction of cement, less smoke released from
transportation means, less pollution from factories, etc. [19].
In addition, Kusuma K. et al [22] in their research study
found that the usage of Bacillus meqaterium allows for the
improvement in the compressive strength and stiffness of
concrete along with a reduction in water absorption and
water permeability compared to the conventional concrete
[23]. Another advantage of self-healing concrete is that the
cement contains bacteria that produce new calcium to fill in
the cracks which restricts the entry of water in a structure
thus, increasing the structural integrity for many coming
years. Moreover, self-healing concrete allows for the self-
repairing of cracks without external aid.
There is also a noticeable increase in the flexural
strength when compared to the common concrete [6]. Self-
healing concrete allows for the maintenance of structures
that are difficult to reach and can cause human life to be
placed at risk. In addition, the incorporation of the agent in
the self-healing concrete is cheap and easy when the
aggregate is immobilized in porous, light weighted agitate.
Also, the self-healing bacterial concrete will aid in the
reduction of repair costs of steel reinforced structures such
as buildings and bridges [24]. In their research, Van
Bellegham, B et al [17] used chloride diffusion tests results
to predict the service life of self-healing concrete.
Infiltration of chloride was prevented to a certain extent by
self-healed cracks (self-healed by encapsulated polyurethane
precursors). It was found that through the usage of self-
healing concrete, there was a reduction in the chloride
concentration in a cracked zone by 75% or more. It was
determined that steel reinforced self-healing concrete slabs
could provide a service life of 60 to 94 years in marine
environments as opposed to the seven years predicted for
conventional concrete slabs [17].
IV.LIMITATIONS
Concrete's 'self-healing' is made up of two concepts:
self-sealing and self-healing of cracks. Sealing entails
closing the holes, whereas healing entails the restoration of
mechanical qualities. The requirements for a durability-
based design and a strength-based design are different, thus
it is important to distinguish between the two concepts. In
addition, depending on the concrete structure's purpose or
exposure conditions, recovering one attribute may be more
desirable than recovering others. For example, crack sealing
will help concrete structures, exposed to chlorides more than
crack healing, however crack sealing will not assist inside higher levels of compressive strength and was stronger at all
structures in most circumstances. ages (though out the 4 weeks experiment). After three days,
the compressive strength is greater. The compressive
A. Long-Term Self-Healing Efficacy Low Success Rate
strengths of bio-concrete samples were also boosted by a
In a dry state, bacterial spores can live for more than 50 factor of 2. After seven and twenty-eight days, the
years. Bacteria and their spores, on the other hand, would percentages were 43 and 15%, respectively [5].
die in the harsh concrete environment. Bacterial spores have
Even though bio-agent has a beneficial influence on
barely a two-month lifetime when deposited directly in
compressive strength. In comparison to bio-concrete
concrete matrix [25], [26]. When B.cohnii spores were
specimens, aging resulted in better compressive strength
implanted directly in concrete matrix, the number of
recovery for control samples. Early-life CaCO3 biosynthesis
functional bacteria cells dropped by 80% and 90%,
contributes to Pores and voids are partially filled. This
respectively, after 22 and 42 days of curing [27]. Because
phenomenon could be the result in the suffocation of
most bacterial spores are larger than concrete holes, they are
microorganisms by a lack of nutrients and oxygen and, as a
compressed and crushed during the hydration process, when
result, by converting cells into endospores which makes the
the pores in the concrete shrink significantly. Consequently,
CaCO3 precipitation decreases [5].
bacterial spores must be encapsulated or immobilized in a
protective carrier. However, the preservation methods only In Fig. 9. the testing specimens have been put through
increased their lives by around 6 months [25], which is still accelerated aging cycles. The testing showed that WBC 2.5
insufficient given that concrete structures can survive for is more affected by the first 5 wetting and drying cycles.
decades, if not centuries. In another study, the experimental After 15 cycles, the compressive strength loss was recorded
testing was done to check the viability of self-healing to be a maximum of 33% [30].
concrete in cold climates. The testing was done in laboratory
ideal conditions for B. pseudofirmus bacteria. Fig. 6 shows
that, the amount of viable spores remained constant
(approximately 10^7 CFU/g) for the span of 72 days or 10
weeks [28].
B. Loss of Concrete Compressive Strength
One of the most essential mechanical properties of
concrete is its compressive strength. In previous
experiments, healing compounds were placed in tubular or
spherical capsules to increase bacterium survivability since
capsules could tolerate mechanical stresses during the Fig. 7. The average compressive strength of the control and bio self-
mixing process. The capsules burst when cracks occur, healing concrete test samples for 3, 7 and 28 days [5]
releasing the healing chemical and beginning the self-
According to another study, curing concrete improves
healing process. Because of the empty space created when
the material's compressive strength by a significant amount.
capsules rupture, capsule-incorporated concrete has a
In comparison to the control, Fig. 10 illustrates the
reduced mechanical strength [20]. The use of encapsulated
compressive strength of concrete inoculated with various
B.sphaericus spores lower the concrete compressive strength
percentages of E. faecalis and B. cereus. The concrete
by 15–34 %, according to [29].
combined with bacterial strains had a higher compressive
strength than the control, according to the findings (No
bacteria). After 28 days, the compressive strength increased
to its maximum. The compressive strength of bio concrete
does not vary significantly after 7 days of curing. However,
with 3 percent E. faecalis, the maximal compressive strength
(31.43 and 36.77 percent, respectively) was reported on the
14th and 28th days. The bio-concrete inoculated with B.
cereus exhibited the highest compressive strength (27.67 and
27.67, respectively) [31].
C. Cost Effectiveness
According to Silva et al. (2015) [4], the average price of
concrete per cubic meter is roughly 110 US dollars. As of
Fig. 6. Sub-zero temperatures testing for B. pseudofirmus bacteria [28].
2015, the cost of bacteria-based self-healing concrete with
encapsulated or immobilized spores was around $6,876/m3,
One of the most essential features of concrete is its
making this self-healing technology prohibitively expensive.
compressive strength. AN increased compressive strength
The high price is due to the proper conditions for extracting
could deteriorate over a period which is shown in the
bacterial spores, the use of expensive growing media, and,
discussed experimental study. In the experimental study, the
most importantly, the encapsulation procedure to protect
bio-agent-containing concrete samples had significantly
bacterial spores [4]. In a more recent study, the cost analysis

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has shown that the self-healing bio-concrete can be higher
than conventional concrete by up to 3.9 and no less than 2.3
times, and that is for concrete of lower quality. Accounting
for 80% of the raw material price is developing the material
[23]. Making it more challenging to implement this type of
concrete especially in larger structure. According to the
article, low-cost industrial waste with a high protein content
(e.g., liquid corn) can be used to reduce costs [7].
Fig. 9. Drying shrinkage and mass loss results in accelerated aging tests
Fig. 10. Compressive strength with relation to a control specimen with
increasing curing periods.
One of the reasons for the increased cost of bio self-
healing concrete is the carrier with high viability. Carries,
such as polyurethane, silica gel, and microcapsules, have
also been added into the concrete mix to boost the
survivability of bacteria. However, because most of the high
viability of mentioned carrier the self-healing concrete could
be very expensive, making them unfeasible for large-scale
concrete buildings. In conclusion a more viable carrier
strategies for bacteria-based self-healing concrete are
required [32]. Bio-concrete has the potential to save billions
in annual maintenance expenses when utilized in the
construction of bridges, tunnels, and roadways. Jonkers is
currently attempting to lower the cost of the material so that
it may be used in large-scale applications. A cubic meter of
bio-concrete now costs around 200 Euros (239 US Dollars).
Jonkers hopes that his innovative way of encapsulating
bacteria and calcium lactate will cut the cost of bio concrete
by up to half, making it only slightly more expensive than
ordinary concrete [33].
According to Gonçalves apud Helene Fig. 11 shows that
the cost in each stage can be determined from 1 in the
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Project Phase to 125 times higher when in the Corrective
Maintenance Phase which shows that the maintenance can
be more complicated and takes long time [34].
Fig. 11. The Law of Fives [25]
Fig. 12. Performance (a) and cost (b) over time for low (A) and high (B)
In Fig. 12, Both curve A which is low-quality, and B
which is (high quality) are being compared regarding the
performance and costs, they’re both designed according to
the DPP. Even though the comparison between the two
curves is graphic, but it clarifies that the higher initial costs
compensate depends on the lifetime needed for the structure.
The higher values are mostly justified in case they
considered the indirect expenses of the repair work [35].
However, due to the extensive use of concrete, the
construction industry may already benefit from incremental
improvements in a material's self-regeneration capacity, as
small improvements in material performance can result in
significant savings once the period without maintenance can
be extended and the time of repair can be postponed [36].
Aside from circumstances where structural degradation
should be avoided at all costs due to the extremely high
repercussions of failure.
V. CONCLUSIONS
This article has discussed the important aspects of self-
healing concrete based on biotechnology and provides an
overview about the self-healing technique. The results reveal
that the applied two-component bio-chemical self-healing
agent, which is made up of a mixture of bacterial spores and
calcium lactate, may successfully promote and increase the
self-healing ability of concrete by more than doubling the
maximum healable crack width. The healing agent may also
operate as an oxygen diffusion barrier, preventing corrosion
of the steel reinforcement, because the metabolically active
bacteria consume oxygen. The benefits of this bacteria-
based concrete are expected to be principally in the
reduction of maintenance and repair expenses as well as the
extension of the service life of concrete structures. In
addition, it allows for the protection of human life by
ensuring their safety. The findings indicate the demand of
more attention to research in such important area.
Furthermore, it is expected that, the investigation of self-
healing materials will lead to a wide range of new industrial
applications over the next decade, as well as new
innovations encompassing properties other than mechanical
properties. This unique technique of self-healing materials
will undoubtedly expand beyond the technology discussed
here, and it will eventually become available for everyday
usage.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge UAE
University for providing the facilities and funds through
Materials library (#31N392) – Industry 4.0 district project.
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