LANDMARK UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

(CHE 312 & 322)

LABORATORY MANUAL

VOLUME 1

1
TABLE OF CONTENTS Pages

General Introduction 7-13

Experiment Title (CHE 312)

I Fluid Friction in a Smooth Bore Pipe 14-19

II Head Loss Due to Pipe Fittings 19-22 III Fluid

Friction in a Roughened Pipe 23-25

IV Orifice Plate 26-29

V Venturi 30-32

VI Pitot Tube 25-27

VII Flow Meter Characteristics 28-30

VIII V Notch Weir 36-38

IX Air Flow Rig 39-41

X Comparing the Performance of two Nozzles using Orifice meter 42-45

XI Determination & Comparison of Pressure drop across Bends & Elbows. 46-47

XII Dispersion Jet. 48-59

XIII Boundary layer growth in a pipe flow 60-63

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Experiment Title ( CHE 322 ) Pages

1 Determination of reaction rate constant in a stirred batch Reactor at 64-68

Constant temperature

2 Determination of the effect of reactant concentration on the reaction

rate in a stirred batch reactor at constant temperature 69-72
3 Studying the effect of mixing on reaction rate 73-76
4 Fluid to Fluid Heat Transfer in a Tubular Heat Exchanger 77-79
5 Energy balance and overall efficiency determination in a shell and
tube arrangement 80-84
6 Investigating effect of flow rate type (co current and counter –current
Flow) on a tubular heat exchanger efficiency 85-90
7 Determination of the overall heat exchange coefficient of a tubular heat
Exchanger 91-95
8 Investigation of the effect of cooling load on approach to wet Bulb and
in Basic Water Cooling Tower 96-100
9 Investigation of the effect of cooling load on approach to Wet Bulb
and the pressure drop through the packing 101-104 10
Investigating the effect of changes in hot and cold fluid flow rate on
the temperature profile and overall heat transfer coefficient using a
Shell and Tube heat exchanger 105-109

List of Plates

3
Plates Description Pages
1 CEB MK III 65
2 CEB MK III 70
3 CEB MK III 74
4 HT30 XC Heat Exchanger 77
5 HT 30 XC Heat Exchanger 81
6.1 Co-current flow illustration 85
6.2 Counter current flow illustration 86
7.1 Counter current: Heat flow power emitted from
hot fluid 91
7.2 Co-current flow: Heat power emitted from hot fluid 91
8.1 Flowchart of a cooling tower 96
9.1 Flow chart of a cooling tower 98
10.1 Co-current flow 104
10.2 Counter-current flow 106

List of Tables:
Table Description Page
2.1 Reaction Vs. Concentration 72

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3.1 Speed at 50%K 74
3.2 Speed at 80% K 74
3.3 Speed at 20%K 74
4.1 Record of experimental measurements 79
5.1 Table for experimental fluid volumetric flow rate 82
5.2 Table for Mass flow rate for hot fluid& cold fluid 82
5A& 5B Reference tables 83-84
6.1 Generated table by the software output 85
6.2 Record for temperature in hot and cold fluid 89
7.1 Generated table by the software output 92
7.2 Temperature difference variables 95
8.1 Observation sheet 96
9.1 Observation sheet 101
10.1 Hot fluid flow rate and cold fluid flow rate 107
10.2 Temperature efficiency 108

List of Figures
Figures Description Page

5
 a. Relationship between cooling load and approach to wet
bulb temperature 100

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Experimental Process Engineering

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The Chemical Engineering Process Laboratory is unique and very different from the general

“Unit-op” labs found in most Chemical Engineering Departments nationwide. The emphasis is

on the developing skills in planning, designing and execution of research and development

projects, data collection calibration analysis of data, and making proper interpretation and

decision. To develop good, solid oral presentation and report writing skills is an integral part of

the learning process. Selected pilot-plant experiments will be carried out. These are designed to

enable verification of the mass and heat transfer theory and empirical relationships covered

during CHE 313 course lectures. Moreover, the exercise is intended to provide practical

experience in the operation of measured data.

1.2 Safety

In Carrying out the laboratory experiments, safety takes precedence over all other considerations.

The following must therefore, be observed:

i. When performing dangerous chemical procedures, be sure there is someone in the

immediate vicinity you can or can reach you in case of emergency.

ii. Before beginning a procedure, take a minute to investigate hazards involved; take all

necessary safety precautions.

iii. Store food products in separate non-lab refrigerators specifically reserved for that use.

iv. Eating, drinking, and smoking is not permitted in laboratory areas.

v. Remove unsafe equipment from service. Report unsafe facilities or behavior to your

supervisor.

vi. Because unattended equipment and reactions are major causes of fire, floods, and

explosions, double check utility connections. Anticipate hazards that would result

from failure of electrical, water, or gas supply.

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vii. Properly label all containers, and keep it safe location.

viii. Remind all visitors and non-lab staff to observe lab safety rules, while in the

laboratory.

ix. Wear protective gloves and clothing whenever handling corrosive, toxic, or other

hazardous chemicals. Wear closed-toe shoes at all times in the lab.

x. Check that guards are provided on moving parts of mechanical apparatus to prevent

hazardous contact.

xi. Maintain lab areas reasonably neat and uncluttered.

xii. Use a safety shield or barrier to protect against explosion, implosion, and flash fires

when performing reactions with large volume of flammable liquids or unstable

material.

xiii. Inspect glassware for cracks, sharp edges, and contamination before using. Broken or

chipped glassware should be repaired and polished or discarded.

xiv. Always use a lubricant (e.g., water, glycerol) when inserting glass tubing into rubber

stoppers or grommets. Protect hands in case breaks.

xv. Broken glass should be put in impervious containers that are large enough to

completely contain the glass.

xvi. Plan and provide for the possibility of explosion prior to conducting experiments that

develop high pressure or vacuum.

xvii. Heat reactants only in a system with an approved pressure relief.

xviii. Wait for pressure to be released before opening a pressurized vessel (autoclave, e.t.c)

xix. Chemical transport containers are not to be used for non-compatible chemicals or

food products at any time.

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 xx. All containers should have a lid at all times except during an active experiment.

xxi. Student should always report breakage, damage on any injury sustained during

experimentation.

2.0 REPORT WRITING

2.1 Introduction

Writing of good technical reports is vital to Engineers and Scientists since the reports is

vital to Engineers and Scientists. Report is almost always the only means for communicating

scientific ideas and explaining a scientific work and its results. The assessment of the idea or

work is inevitably affected by the quality of the written report. There are various types of

technical reports depending on the purpose for which they are written. However, in our case

here, we are looking at the physical research report which is written to explain physical
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 experiments and their results termed our Laboratory Reports. Only this type of reporting is

discussed in this manual.

The sections of the report format are arranged as follows:

COVER PAGE

TITLE

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION
2. BACKGROUND, THEORY OR SURVEY OF LITERATURE
3. INSTRUMENTATION AND EQUIPMENT
4. PROCEDURE
5. RESULTS
6. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
7. CONCLUSIONS
8. RECOMMENDATIONS
9. REFERNCES
10. APPENDICES

The contents of the sections of the report Format are briefly provided as follows:

Abstract
This is in brief of what was done or statement of problem; how it was done and what was

achieved e.g. results. It should give overview of what was done, results obtained and how

comparable your findings are with results in the open literature. (Format of the abstract should

be: One page one paragraph).

1.0 Introduction
This section explain the purpose of the investigation, the reasons for doing the investigation and

what is to be gained by doing the investigation e.t.c. Furthermore, briefly state the scope of the

work.

It should be:

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- Less than the three pages for long reports

- Less than one page for shorter ones

1. Background, Theory of Survey of Literature

Describe history, geography and other background information that will help give an insight into

the problem or bring the reader up-to-date with the research.

This section must also provide a general literature survey of subjects pertaining to the

investigation. The survey should include references to similar work done in the field of interests.

Briefly state existing theories, equations and assumptions made in deriving theoretical equations

which are pertinent to reducing data or which are being experimentally tested. Do not derive

equations which exist in the equations. Long detailed equation derivations and explanations

should be placed in the appendix.

1. Instrumentation and Equipment

Instrumentation and equipment should be described and illustrated with sufficient precision so

that a skilled person could set up the apparatus for a duplication of the research if necessary or

desirable. For short laboratory reports, a list of equipment and their manufacturers is sometimes

acceptable for this section. Student should also take note of the status of equipment, i.e. if

damaged or leaking such observation should be detailed /reported here.

2. Procedure
This section should give a step by step account of experiments that were carried out during the

investigation. Procedure should include enough detail that another investigator could repeat the

experiments and obtain similar results, all things being equal.

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 3. Results

Give the results obtained by the procedure already discussed in tables, graphs,

photographs, together with necessary connecting and explanatory prose.

4. Discussion of Results
This section is for discussion problems, results, data, e.t.c that have come up during the

investigation. Averages and trends should be listed and commented on. Sources of errors should

be discussed. Conclusions can be drawn which will be repeated in the next section. Comparison

with previous investigation is very desirable. Reasons for getting certain results should be given

or specified and backed up with literature.

5. Conclusion
This section is composed of numbered statements of facts that were proven during this

investigation. Be specific, don’t generalize in the conclusion. For example, if you investigated a

process between 1000oC and 1500oC do not include: ‘That firing density increases with

temperature;’ but state that: Density increased from 1.79 to 2.31 g/cm 3 as the firing temperature

was 1000oC to 1500oC.

6. Recommendation
Should explain such things as what you think should be done with your results and what other

experiments you would have carried out if you had more time, other equipment or more money.

Students are at liberty to give general advice on how to improve the rig in this section.

7. Reference
Should contain all reference used in the text in numerical order based on their appearance. The

style for listing references is given in the style section.

8. Appendix

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If long calculations or numerous tables or figures are included in the report, it’s often better to

include them in an appendix and refer to them in the earlier sections.

CHE 312: EXPERIMENT I

FLUID FRICTION IN A SMOOTH BORE PIPE

Objective
To determine the relationship between head loss due to fluid friction and velocity for flow of
water through smooth bore pipes and to confirm the head loss predicted by a pipe friction
equation.
Method
To obtain a series of readings of head loss at different flow rates through the four smooth bore
test pipes.
Theory
Professor Osborne Reynolds demonstrated that two types of flow may exist in a pipe.

1. Laminar flow at low velocities where h α u

2. Turbulent flow at higher velocities where h α u n
Where h is the head loss due to friction and u is the fluid velocity. These two types of flow are
separated by a transition phase where no definite relationship between h and u exists.
Graphs of h versus u and log h versus log u show these zones.

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Calculated from the formula:

2 2
4 fL u λL u
h= ∨ 1.1
2 gd 2 gd

Where L is the length of the pipe between tapings, d is the internal diameter of the Pipe, u is the
mean velocity of water through the pipe in m/s, g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s 2 and f
is pipe friction coefficient.
Note that the American equivalent of the British term f is λ where λ = 4f.
The Reynolds number, Recan be found using the following equation:

ρud
ℜ= 1.2
μ

Where µ is the molecular viscosity (1.15 x 10-3 Ns/m2 at 15°C) and ρ is the density (999 kg/m3 at
15°C).

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Having established the value of Reynolds number for flow in the pipe, the value of f may be
determined using a Moody diagram. A simplified version of which is shownbelow.

Equation (1) can then be used to determine the theoretical head loss.
Additional Equipment.
Additional equipment required: Stop watch, Internal Vernier caliper.
EQUIPMENT DIAGRAM

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Figure 1.0 : General Arrangement of Fluid Friction Apparatus

16
Figure 1.1 : Component structures of the fluid friction apparatus.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

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Prime the pipe network with water. Open and close the appropriate valves to obtain flow of

water through the required test pipe.

Take readings at several different flow rates, altering the flow using the control valve on the

hydraulic bench (six readings is sufficient to produce a good head-flow curve).

Measure flow rates (hint: taking time interval of 30secs) using the volumetric tank. For small

flow rates use the measuring cylinder. Measure head loss between the tapping using the

pressurized water manometer as appropriate.

Obtain readings on all four smooth test pipes.

Measure the internal diameter of each test pipe sample using a Vernier caliper.

Results
All readings should be tabulated as follows:

Volume Time Flow rate Q Pipe Diam. Velocity Reynolds Calculated Measured

(V) (T) (m /s)

3
D(m) u Number Re Head loss Head Loss
(m/s)
λ hc H
(litres) (30secs)
(mH20) (mH20)

V × 10 −3
4Q ρud From (h1 −h2)
Moody
T πd
2
μ
diagram

Plot a graph of h versus u for each size of pipe. Identify the laminar,transition and turbulent

zones on the graphs.

Confirm that the graph is a straight line for the zone of laminar flow.

Plot a graph of log h versus log u for each size of pipe. Confirm that the graph is a straight line

for the zone of turbulent flow hαυ2. Determine the slope of the straight line to find n.

Estimate the value of Reynolds number R e= ( ρud

μ )
at the start and finish of the transition phase.

These two values of Reare called the upper and lower critical velocities.

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Compare the values of head loss determined by calculation with those measured using the

manometer. Confirm that the head loss can be predicted using the pipe friction equation provided

the velocity of the fluid and the pipe dimensions are known.

It is assumed that the molecular viscosity µis 1.15 x 10-3 Ns/m² at 25°C and the density ρis 1000

kg/m³ at 25°C.

EXPERIMENT II
HEAD LOSS DUE TO PIPE FITTINGS
Objective

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To determine the head loss associated with flow of water through standard fittings used in
plumbing installations.
Method
Measure the differential head between tapings on fittings and test valves.
Theory
Head loss in a pipe fitting is proportional to the velocity head of the fluid flowing through the
fitting:

2
Ku
h= 2.1
2g

Where K is the fitting ‘loss factor’, u is the mean velocity of water through the pipe in ms−1and g

is the acceleration due to gravity in ms−2As velocity changes in the Contraction and in the

Enlargement, it is necessary to correct the measured loss to account for the change in Velocity

Head. Note: A flow control valve is a pipe fitting which has an adjustable ‘K’ factor. The

minimum value of ‘K’ and the relationship between stem movement and ‘K’ factor are important

in selecting a valve for an application.

Equipment Setup

Additional equipment required: Stop watch.

The following fittings and valves are available for test (numbers in brackets refer to

Figure 1 in the Equipment Diagrams)

Sudden Contraction (3)

Sudden Enlargement (16)
Ball Valve (12)
45o Elbow (22)
45o Mitre (5)

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 45o Y Junction (4)
Gate Valve (21)

Globe Valve (20)

In Line Strainer (2)
90o Elbow (22)
90o Short Radius Bend (15)
90o Long Radius Bend (6)
90o T Junction (13)

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Prime the network with water. Open and close the appropriate valves to obtain flow of water

through the required fitting. Take readings at several different flow rates, altering the flow using

the control valve on the hydraulic bench. Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank, measure

also differential head between tapping’s on each fitting using the pressurized water manometer.

Results

All readings should be tabulated as follows:

Volume (V) Time Flow rate Q Pipe Velocity Velocity head Measured Fitting Valve
(litres) (T) (m3/s) Diameter u Head loss h Factor Position
h v (m H 20)
(30secs) d (m/s) K (valves
(m H 2 0)
(m) only)

V × 10
3
4Q u
2
(h1 −h2) h
T πd
2
2g hv

Confirm that K is constant for each fitting over the range of test flow rates.
Plot a graph of K factor against valve opening for each test valve. Note the differences in
characteristic.

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Note: Measured head loss across the Contraction and the Enlargement must be corrected for the
change in Velocity Head (due to the change in pipe diameter) to obtain the true head loss/K
factor

EXPERIMENT III
FLUID FRICTION IN A ROUGHENED PIPE
Objective

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To determine the relationship between fluid friction coefficient and Reynolds’ number for flow
of water through a pipe having a roughened bore.
Method
To obtain a series of readings of head loss at different flow rates through the roughened test
pipes.
Theory
The head loss due to friction in a pipe is given by:

2 2
4 fL u λL u
h= ∨ 3.1
2 gd 2 gd

Where L is the length of the pipe between tapping’s, d is the internal diameter of the pipe, u is
the mean velocity of water through the pipe in m/s, g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s²
and f is pipe friction coefficient. Note that the American equivalent of the British term f is λ
where λ = 4f
The Reynolds’ number, Re, can be found using the following equation:

( R = ρudμ )
e 3. 2

Where µ is the molecular viscosity (1.15 x 10-3 Ns/m2 at 15 °C) and ρis the density (999 kg/m3 at
27°C).
Having established the value of Reynolds’ number for flow in the pipe, the value of f may be
determined using a Moody diagram, a simplified version of which is shown below.

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Use equation (1) to determine the theoretical head loss.

Equipment Set Up
Additional equipment required: Stop watch, Internal Vernier caliper. Open and close the ball

valves as required to obtain flow through only the roughened pipe.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Prime the pipe network with water. Open and close the appropriate valves to obtain flow of

water through the roughened pipe. Take readings at several different flow rates, altering the flow

using the control valve on the hydraulics bench. Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank,

for small flow rates use the measuring cylinder.

Measure head loss between the tapping’s using the hand-held meter, sensors or manometer as

appropriate.

Estimate the nominal internal diameter of the test pipe sample using a Vernier caliper (not

supplied). Estimate the roughness factor є = k/d.

Results
All readings should be tabulated as follows:

Volume (V) Time Flow rate Q Pipe Diam. D(m) Velocity u Reynolds Measured Head Friction
(litres) (T) (m /s)
3
(m/s) Number Re loss coefficient f
(secs)
V × 10 −3
4Q ρud H (mH20) ( gdh
T πd
2
μ h1 −h2) 2l u
2

24
Pipe length l = ___ m
Roughness height k = ___ m
Plot a graph of pipe friction coefficient versus Reynolds’ number (log scale).
Note the difference from the smooth pipe curve on the Moody diagram when the flow is
turbulent.

EXPERIMENT IV
ORIFICE PLATE
Objective
To demonstrate the application of an orifice plate in the measurement of flow rate in a closed
conduit.
Method

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By taking readings for the pressure drop across an orifice for a range of flow and comparing this,
to the measured flow rate and determining any relationship between pressure drop and flow
velocity.
This is achieved by measuring the pressure loss across the meter.
Equipment Required
Flow meter Demonstration Unit, Orifice Plate Accessory, Mercury manometer, or Pressurized
water manometer.
Optional Equipment
Stopwatch for flow measurement by timed volume collection
Theory
For an orifice plate, the flow rate and differential head are related by the Bernoulli equation with
a correction coefficient for energy degradation.

[ [ ]] √
2 −1
A0 2
Q=C d A 0 1 − 2 g (h1−h2) 4.1
A1

Where
Q = Volume flow rate (m3/s)
Cd= Discharge coefficient (typically 0.6 for an orifice plate)
Ao= Area of the orifice (m2) (where d0 = 22mm)
A1= Area of the pipe upstream (m2) (where d1 = 39mm)
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 (m/s2)
(h1 – h2) = Differential orifice head (m H2O) = m Hg x 12.6
(h3 – h4) = Head loss across meter (m H2O)

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Figure 4.0: Equipment Set
Ensure the equipment has been assembled. Fit the orifice plate accessory.

27
Fit the mercury manometer or hand-held pressure meter to measure the differential pressure
across the orifice. Fit the water manometer to measure the pressure loss (differential pressure)
across the orifice flowmeter. Prime the pipework and manometers with water.

Procedure
Vary the discharge flow control valve to obtain different flowrates of water through the orifice
flowmeter.
At each setting measure the flowrate as required, using the reference flowmeter or using the
volumetric tank in conjunction with a stopwatch.
At each setting measure the differential head reading between the tappings on the orifice
flowmeter using the mercury manometer, and the differential head loss across the orifice
flowmeter using the water manometer.

Results
Volume Time Measured Orifice Orifice Orifice Calculated
collected taken flowrate head loss diff head differential flowrate
V t Qm h3 - h4 (mHg) head Qc
(Litres) (secs) (m3/s) (m H20) h1 - h2 (m3/s)
(m H20)
(=mHg x 12.6)

For the orifice plate, calculate the theoretical flowrate from the measured differential head at
each flow rate.
Plot the following graphs to show the characteristics of the Orifice Plate as a flowmeter:
 Orifice differential head against Measured flowrate Qm
 Calculated flowrate Qc against Measured flowrate Qm
 Orifice Head loss against Measured flowrate Qm

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Conclusion

Did the orifice plate flowmeter provide an accurate means of measuring flow rate?
Did the accuracy vary across the range of flow rates studied?
Discuss the limitations of this type of flow meter, and suggest applications where an orifice plate
flowmeter would not be suitable as a result of these limitations.
Mention of the types of fluids that the meter is suitable for use with. The results are best used in
combination with those from other flow meters, so that the performance of the different types
may be compared.

EXPERIMENT V
VENTURI
Objective
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To demonstrate the application of a Venturi in the measurement of flow rate in a closed conduit.
Method
The procedure is achieved by taking readings for the pressure drop across a Venturi for a range

of flow rates. Comparing this, to the flow rate and determining any relationship between pressure

drop and flow velocity. Pressure loss across the meter is also determined.

Equipment Required

Flowmeter Demonstration Unit

Venturi Accessory

Mercury manometer or Pressurized Water manometer

Optional Equipment

Stopwatch (not supplied) for flow measurement by timed volume collection

Theory

For a Venturi, the flow rate and differential head are related by the Bernoulli equation with a

correction coefficient for energy degradation.

[ [ ]] √
2 −1
A0 2
Q=C d A 0 1 − 2 g (h1−h2) 5.1
A1

Where
Q = Volume flowrate (m3/s)
Cd = Discharge coefficient
= Typically 0.98 for a Venturi tube
Ao = Area of the throat (m2) (do = 18mm)
A1 = Area of the pipe upstream (m2) (d1 = 39mm)
(h1 - h2) = Differential Venturi head (mH2O) = mHg x 12.6
g = 9.81 (acceleration due to gravity, m/s2)
(h3 – h4) = Head loss across Venturi meter (mH2O)

Equipment Set Up

30
Insert the Venturi test section into the service pipework ensuring that an ‘O’ ring seal is
incorporated at both unions. Secure the flowmeter in position using the clamping unions. Do not
use a tool to tighten the unions. Connect the mercury manometer or Pressurized Water
manometer to the pressure tapping’s at the throat and immediately upstream of the throat of the
Venturi, to measure the head difference in the Venturi. Connect the pressurized water manometer
to the tapping’s upstream and downstream of the Venturi assembly to measure the head loss
across the Venturi flow meter.
Prime the pipework and manometers with water.

Procedure
Vary the discharge flow control valve to obtain different flow rates of water through the Venturi
flow meter. At each setting measure the flowrate as required using the reference flowmeter or
using the volumetric tank in conjunction with a stopwatch. At each setting, measure the
differential head reading between the tapping’s on the Venturi flowmeter using the mercury
manometer and the differential head loss across the Venturi flow meter using the water
manometer.
Results

Volume Time Measured Venturi Venturi Venturi Calculated

Collected taken flowrate head loss diff head diff head flowrate
V T Qm (h3 - h4) (mHg) (h1 - h2) Qc
(litres) (secs) m /s
3
(mH2O) (mH2O) m3/s
(=mHg x12.6)

For the Venturi meter, calculate the theoretical flowrate from the measured differential head at
each flow rate.

Plot the following graphs to show the characteristics of the Venturi meter as a flowmeter:
 Venturi differential head against Measured flowrate Qm
 Calculated flowrate Qc against Measured flowrate Qm
 Venturi Head loss against Measured flowrate Qm

Conclusion

31
Did the Venturi flow meter provide an accurate means of measuring flow rate? Did the accuracy

vary across the range of flow rates studied?

Discuss the limitations of this type of flow meter, including the types of fluids that the meter is

suitable for use with.

The Venturi flow meter operates on a similar principle to the Orifice Plate flowmeter.

Discuss the similarities and differences between these two specific types of meter.

Are there applications where one or the other would be more suitable, and if so why?

The results are best used in combination with those from other flow meters, so that the

performance of the different types may be compared.

EXPERIMENT VI
PITOT TUBE
Objective
To demonstrate the application of a pitot tube in the measurement of flow rate in a closed
conduit.
Method

32
By using a pitot tube, measure the difference between total head and static head at a range of
flow rates. By comparing this to the flow rate and determining any relationship between pressure
difference and flow velocity.
Equipment Required
Flowmeter demonstration unit
Pitot tube accessory
Water manometer.
Optional Equipment
Pressurized Water manometer, differential pressure meter
Stopwatch
Theory
For a pitot tube, the differential head measured between the total and static tapping’s

U2
=( h1−h2 ) 6 .1
2g
Therefore,
U =√ 2 g(h 1−h2 ¿ )6 .2 ¿

Where
U = mean velocity of water through the pipe (m/s)
(h1-h2) = differential head at Pitot (mH2O)
g = 9.81 (acceleration due to gravity, m/s2)
(h3 – h4) = Head loss across Pitot tube (mH2O)

Equipment Set
Insert the Pitot tube assembly into the service pipework, ensuring that an ‘O’ ring seal is
incorporated at both unions. Secure the flowmeter in position using the clamping unions. Do not
use a tool to tighten the unions.
Connect the pressurized water manometer (or differential pressure manometer if available) to the
tappings at the top of the Pitot tube to measure the difference between the total and static head.

33
If using differential pressure manometer as above, connect the pressurized water manometer to
the tappings upstream and downstream of the Pitot tube assembly to measure the head loss
across the Pitot tube flow meter.
Note: differential pressure manometer is not available then it will be necessary to alternate the
pressurized manometer between the two sets of tappings to obtain the required readings.
Prime the pipework and manometer(s) with water.

Procedure
Vary the discharge flow control valve to obtain different flow rates of water through the Pitot
tube assembly. At each setting measure the flowrate as required using the reference flowmeter or
using the volumetric tank in conjunction with a stopwatch.
At each setting measure the differential head reading between the tappings on the Pitot tube
using the pressurized water manometer (or the differential pressure meter - kerosene over water
manometer if available). At each setting measure the differential head loss across the Pitot tube
flow meter using the pressurized water manometer (move the connections to the manometer if
not using differential pressure manometer connected to the Pitot tube).
Results
Volume Time Measured Pitot Pitot Calculated Calculated
collected taken flowrate head loss diff head velocity flowrate
V t Qm (h1 - h2) (h3 - h4) U Qc
(litres) (secs) (m /s)
3
(mH2O) (mH2O) (m/s) (m3/s)

Calculate the theoretical velocity U and the corresponding flowrate Qc from the measured
differential head at each setting.
Plot the following graphs to show the characteristics of the Pitot tube as a flowmeter:
 Pitot differential head against measured flowrate Qm
 Calculated velocity U against measured flowrate Qm
 Calculated flowrate Qc against measured flowrate Qm
 Pitot head loss against measured flowrate Qm

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 EXPERIMENT VII
FLOW METER CHARACTERISTICS
Objective
To demonstrate the use of one or more alternative flow meters for the measurement of flow rate
in a closed conduit, and to determine the flowmeter characteristics.
Method
By taking readings for the pressure drop across one or more flow meters for a range of flow

rates, and recording the flow rate indicated by each meter tested.

By comparing the indicated flow rate to the actual flow rate for each meter tested, and by

comparing the accuracy and the pressure losses inherent in each meter.

35
Equipment Required
Flowmeter Demonstration Unit

Flow meter accessories, as available, for example:

Shunt Gap meter

Swinging Flap

Volumetric Rotary Piston

Electromagnetic

Helical Rotary

Inferential Multi stream

Mercury manometer, or held pressure meter H12-8

Stopwatch (not supplied) if using flowmeter with accumulating display

Optional Equipment
Stopwatch (not supplied) for flow measurement by timed volume collection

Theory
The operational characteristics i.e. the range, pressure drop/flow rate, stability, accuracy and ease

of use, vary for different designs of flowmeter. These factors all contribute to the selection of the

meter.

Factors such as cost also influence this decision. The operational characteristics of various direct

reading flow meters can be examined in this experiment.

Equipment Set Up
Insert the required flowmeter assembly into the service pipework ensuring that an ‘O’ ring seal is

incorporated at both unions. Secure the flowmeter in position using the clamping unions. Do not

use a tool to tighten the unions.

36
Connect the mercury manometer or hand held pressure meter to the tapping’s’ upstream and

downstream of the flowmeter assembly to measure the head loss across the flowmeter.

Prime the pipework and manometers.

Procedure
At each setting measure the flowrate as required using the reference flowmeter or using the

volumetric tank in conjunction with a stopwatch.

At each setting measure the differential head loss across the test flowmeter using the mercury

manometer or pressure meter.

At each setting record the reading displayed by the test flowmeter. Where a flow meter has a

totalizing display it will be necessary to time the change between two chosen readings using a

stopwatch, in order to obtain the actual volume flowrate.

Results

Volume Time Measured Indicated % Error Flowmeter

collected taken flowrate flowrate head loss
V t Qm Qc (h3 - h4)
(litres) (secs) m /s
3
m /s
3

( 1−
indicated
measured )
× 100 mH2O
(=mHg x 12.6)

For the test flowmeter, calculate the flowrate Qc if changes in total flow are recorded against

time at each setting.

Plot the following graphs to show the characteristics of the test flowmeter:

 Calculated flowrate Qc against measured flowrate Qm

 Flowmeter head loss against measured flow rate Qm

 % Error against measured flow rate Qm

37
Conclusion

Describe the accuracy, pressure loss and ease of use for each flowmeter. Mention the types of

application for which each type of flowmeter might be used, and discuss limitations.

Compare the performance of the different types of flowmeter. Flowmeters form earlier exercises

should also be included if this information is available. Cover such aspects as accuracy across the

range, ease of use, ease of design and manufacture, and the range of potential applications.

EXPERIMENT VIII
V NOTCH WEIR
Objective
To demonstrate the characteristics of a V notch weir in an open channel.
Method
By taking readings for the height of flow over a V notch weir in an open channel across a range

of flow rates.

Equipment Required
Flowmeter Demonstration Unit

V Notch Weir for C9

Hook and Point Gauge

Stopwatch

Theory

8.1

38
Where
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
B = Width of notch (m)
H = Head above bottom of notch (m)

Equipment Set Up
Clamp the Vee notch weir plate to the weir plate carrier (bonded to the free end of the moulded

channel) using the plastic thumb nuts supplied. Ensure that the sharp edge of the weir is

upstream i.e. the chamfer on the notch facing the volumetric tank.

Install the Instrument Carrier incorporating the Hook and Point Gauge above the open channel

approximately half way between the weir plate and the stilling baffle.

Procedure
Measure and record the angle of the notch, ϴ.

Admit water to the open channel until the water discharges over the weir plate. Close the

discharge flow control valve and allow water to drain over the weir until the flow stops. Set the

Vernier Height Gauge to a datum reading (the hook or point may be used for measuring the

water depth by adjusting the fine adjusting screw until the tip just touches its reflection).

Admit water to the channel and adjust the flow control valve to obtain heads, H, increasing in

steps of 1cm. For each flow rate, allow the conditions to stabilize then measure and record the

depth of water above the datum H. At each setting measure the flowrate as required using the

reference flowmeter or using the volumetric tank in conjunction with a stopwatch (the reference

flowmeter should be used above 1.2 l/s).

Note: The technique described does not comply with British Standards but is advisable to

prevent damage to the knife edge of the weir plate. A small head will be present due to a

meniscus at the weir plate which will result in a slight error.

39
However, use of this technique should eliminate damage to the notches by the point of the level

gauge.

Results
Angle of Notch, ϴ:_________

Volume Time Measured Head above Calculated Q2/5 Cd

Collected taken flowrate notch Flow rate
V T Qm H Q
(litres) (secs) m3/s (m) (m3/s)

Compute and tabulate Q and Q2/5.

Plot Q2/5 against H and find Cd from the slope of the graph.
Conclusion
Using the graph, describe any relationship observed between Q2/5 and H. What are the

advantages and disadvantages of plotting Q2/5 against H instead of Q against H5/2?

Is Cd constant for the conditions of the experiment? Compare the value(s) obtained for C d to

‘typical’ values as quoted in standard textbooks. Discuss possible reasons for any significant

difference.

Consider the practical applications of this type of flow rate measurement, including advantages

and disadvantages. Suggest ways in which flow measurement could be automated.

40
 EXPERIMENT IX
AIR FLOW RIG

OBJECTIVE

To determine the discharge coefficient experimentally for an orifice plate meter fitted in an air

flow pipe. Also using the static pressure tapings provided, to determine the pressure distribution

along the pipe downstream of the orifice plate.

THEORY:
An orifice plate meter forms an accurate and inexpensive device for measuring the discharge for

the flow of liquids or gases through a pipe. The multi-tube manometer provided is used to

measure the pressure drop across the orifice and this is related to the discharge determined

independently.

PROCEDURE
Insert the orifice plate into the suction pipe at the flanged joint approximately half way along its

length. Connect all the static pressure tapping points to the manometer tubes ensuring that one

manometer tube remains unconnected to record room air pressure and that one is attached to the

standard inlet nozzle which should be fitted.

Turn on fan with low air flow (damper plate almost closed) and read all manometer tubes

including any opened to the air. Increase air flow and repeat. Continue in steps until damper is

fully open or until manometer tube lengths prove inadequate.

RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS

41
The orifice plate meter forms a jet which expands to fill the whole pipe, some diameters distance

downstream. The pressure difference between the two sides of the plate is related to the jet

velocity, and therefore the discharge, by the energy equation:

Q = AjVj= AoCcVj = AoCcCv 9.1

Where Q = discharge (volume/time)
Aj = Jet cross-section area at minimum contraction (vena contracta)
A0 = orifice cross section area (πd2/4: d = orifice diameter)
Vj = jet velocity at minimum contraction (vena contracta)
Cc = coefficient of contraction of jet
Cv = coefficient of velocity of jet
g = gravitational acceleration
h = pressure difference ‘head’ across orifice (in terms of the flowing fluid, air)
These two coefficients are normally combined to give a single coefficient of discharge: CD =
CC Cv

Equation (1) now becomes

Q = CDA0 (2)
If Q can be determined independently then the discharge coefficient can be determined as
follows:

CD = (3)
Values of Qi can be determined if the standard nozzle with known CD is fitted at the pipe inlet.
If hi = drop in pressure head across the nozzle inlet , the discharge

Qi = AiC’D (4)
in which Ai = nozzle cross-sectional area and C’D is assumed to be 0.97

Values of hi are obtained from the difference between manometer tube levels connected to the

pipe inlet pressure tapping and that open to the atmosphere.

42
Note that the manometer tubes can be inclined to increase the sensitivity of the readings. If the

manometer is inclined at an angle of θ from the vertical then the equivalent vertical separation of

liquid levels in the manometer tubes is given by

Δh = (X1 – X2) Cos θ (m of kerosene)

If required, the measured head difference using kerosene can be converted to an equivalent head

of water (or any other fluid) as follows:

Δh =(ρk /ρw ) (X1 – X2) Cos θ (m of water)

Where ρk andρw are density of kerosene and water respectively.

When air flows through the pipe ρA, density of air is used instead of water.

Assuming a density of 787 kg/m3 for kerosene

Plot values of CD obtained in this way against corresponding values of pipe Reynolds number

(Re) obtained using the relationship: Re =

Where μ is the coefficient of dynamic viscosity of air and ρ its density, u is the mean pipe

velocity (Qi/Ai) and d the pipe diameter

Also plot longitudinal pressure profiles (mm of kerosene) for the pipe at selected discharges

(tapping positions along test pipe).

43
 EXPERIMENT X

COMPARING THE PERFORMANCE OF TWO NOZLES BY USING ORIFICE PLATE

METER.

OBJECT OF EXPERIMENT

To compare the performance of the two nozzles provided by checking them against a pre-
calibrated orifice plate meter.
THEORY:
The 80 mm nozzle used in experiment 1 provides a very convenient standard for discharge

measurement. The effect of the nozzle scale can be explored by carrying out tests using both the

standard 80 mm nozzle and also the reduced size 50 mm nozzle.

PROCEDURE
The relationship between pressure drop across a nozzle and discharge Q is given by the
expression:

Q i = A i CD
Where Ai = nozzle cross-section area
C'D = Nozzle discharge coefficient
and hi = pressure head drop across nozzle
The value of hi is obtained from the difference between the levels in the manometer tube

connected to the nozzle tapping and the one open to atmospheric pressure. The discharge

coefficient CD for the 80 mm nozzle should be assumed to have a constant value of 0.97.

Using the standard 80 mm nozzle and the orifice plate meter, first calibrate the orifice plate
meter as set out in experiment 1.
Now change the standard nozzle for the 50 mm one and repeat the calibration this time using the
orifice plate meter as the standard.

44
Determine values of the discharge coefficient for the small nozzle in this way.
Plot these values of CD against the nozzle Reynolds number.

EXPERIMENT XI

DETERMINATION & COMPARISM OF PRESSURE DROP ACROSS BENDS &

ELBOWS.

OBJECTIVE
To determine and compare the pressure drop across the bends and elbows supplied and to

examine the static pressure distribution along the downstream pipe.

THEORY:
The design of any pipe system must be based on accurate prediction of head losses in all its

components, including the secondary energy losses in bends and other fittings. In this

experimental rig a range of bends and elbows are provided which may be fitted to the pipe inlet,

in conjunction with the standard entry nozzle provided. The static pressure tapping points in the

pipe wall, when connected to the multi-tube manometer, will enable the pressure pattern

downstream of the elbow or bend fitted to be determined. The inlet pressure can be taken as

standard and will be indicated by the manometer tube connected to the nozzle tapping point. The

term “minor losses” is sometimes used for energy losses in bends and other pipe fittings but this

is something of a misnomer, unless very long pipes are involved, because these losses often

exceed the normal pipe friction losses in tortuous or complicated systems.

It is usual to express the head loss in a bend or other pipe fitting as the kinetic energy head of the

flow in the pipe multiplied by a suitable factor (k), i.e.

Where hL = pressure loss in bend expressed as “pressure head” of fluid

45
 u = pipe mean velocity (Q/A)
A = pipe cross – section area (πd2/4)
Values of Q must be determined from the pressure drop across the standard entrance nozzle.

Determine the value of K for each fitting investigated over a range of air velocity, using the

damping plate at the fan outlet to control the air flow.

Plot values of K against pipe Reynolds number.

Also plot longitudinal pressure profiles (mm of kerosene) for the pipe at selected discharges

(tapping positions along test pipe).

EXPERIMENT XII
46
DISPERSION OF A JET
Objective
To explore the dispersion of a free non-buoyant fluid jet by determining the velocity distribution

in the jet at various cross-sections different distances from the orifice and then calculating:

a. the discharge

b. the momentum flux

c. the kinetic energy flux in the jet at each cross-section investigated.

Figure. 12.0 : Equipment Set Up

Data Sheet 1 - Calculation of pressure differences and heads

The differences between the liquid levels in the manometer tubes are used to calculate the

pressure differences in each of the experiments.

Starting with the basic equation of hydrostatics:

P = ρ gh 12.1
Where p is the pressure in units of Nm -2 (Pascals), is the density of the manometer fluid in kgm -3,

g is the gravitational constant 9.81 ms-2 and h is the head of manometer fluid in m.

47
Therefore the pressure difference ∆ P corresponding to two different levels in manometer tubes 1

and 2 is ∆ P=ρgh , Nm−2 12.2

If the height of fluid in two vertical manometer tubes is X 1 and X 2

thenthe manometer tubes can be inclined ¿ increase the sensitivity of the readings . If

the manometer is inclined at an angle of θ ¿ the vertical thenthe equivalent

vertical separation of liquid levels∈the manometer tubes is given by

∆ h= ( X 1 - X 2 ) Cos θ , m 12.3 Or

−2
∆ P=ρg ( X 1− X 2 ) cos θ N m 12.4

When using kerosene in the manometer ρK = 787 kgm−3

∆ P=ρkg ∆ h=ρkg ( X 1− X 2 ) cos θ , N m−2 12.5Or

−2
Nm 12.6

Note: If required, the measured head difference using kerosene can be converted to an equivalent
'head' of water as follows:

(m of Kerosene) 12.7

(m of water) 12.8

Assuming a density of 787 kgm−3 for kerosene and 998 kgm−3 for water gives:

(m of water ) 12.9

48
Figure 12.1 : Velocity profile in test pipe

49
Figure 12.2 : Tapping position along the taps

50
Theory
When a free non-buoyant jet is established it can be shown that the jet dispersion pattern is

geometrically and kinematically similar. This experiment allows the structure of this form of

fluid mixing to be determined from velocity traverses of an air jet using a total energy tube.

Readings to be taken
Select three or more cross-sections of the jet well-spaced along its axial length. The cross-section

closest to the orifice will be fixed by the need to accommodate the total head on the jet centre

line (point of maximum velocity) within the range of the manometer provided. The position of

the most remote cross-section will be fixed by considerations of accuracy in the measurement of

total head with the manometer

Figure: 12.3
Determine the jet axis or Centre at each cross-section selected by moving the total head tube

through the Centre of the jet and stopping it at the point where the highest manometer reading is

obtained. If this process is repeated a couple of times traversing alternatively in the horizontal

and vertical directions, the jet axis will soon be located. Do not assume that the centre of the jet

occurs at the same y and z values at each cross-section as it may be inclined in either the vertical

or horizontal plane.

51
When the y and z co-ordinates of the point of maximum velocity have been located, traverse the

total head tube through this point recording the position and the manometer liquid levels at each

point. Enough velocity points must be taken to ensure a clearly defined velocity profile. Pay

particular attention to the edges of the jet continuing to take velocity readings until well clear of

the mixing zone at each section.

52
Figure 12.4: Experimental diagram

53
Results
Because the jet dispersion mechanism is essentially one of turbulent mixing at a free shear layer,

the flow being investigated will be highly turbulent. Point velocities therefore will vary with

time, especially near the edges of the jet, and mean (time averaged) velocity values can only be

obtained if the movement of the manometer fluid column is damped either by partial pinching of

the connecting tubes using the clamps provided, or by friction in long tube lengths. The circular

jet may well not be perfectly symmetrical and a further averaging process can be introduced

using the method described:

Figure 12.5:Concentric diagram of the pipe

Figure 10.0:Graphical of the jet

54
A free non-buoyant jet can be considered as consisting of a series of concentric annuli, of which

a typical one radius r and width δ r, is shown in Figure 9.0. The velocity measurements are made

across the jet along two perpendicular axis (Y and Z). In this way four velocity values are

obtained at 1, 2, 3 and 4 which are ideally the same. If however the crossing of the axis is not

exactly at the centre of the jet, the values at 1, 2, 3 and 4 will vary slightly. To avoid this

problem, the four corresponding velocity values should be averaged and a single velocity profile

plotted as in Figure 10.0. To do this it is necessary to take velocity readings equidistant from the

axis origin. If this is not done then all velocity values must be plotted as points on Figure 10.0 (r

values relative to the axis crossing values of Y and Z) and the best fit curve drawn through the

four sets of points by eye.

Jet Discharge
The discharge (volume/second) value of the jet can now be obtained by using the smoothed

experimental data represented by the curve in Figure A4. Considering Figure 9.0 we can say:

discharge through annulus: δ Q = 2 π rδ r.v total discharge :

Q = ∑ 2 π r.v.δ r = 2 π ∑ ( rv δ r )−−−−−−−−−¿ ¿ (1)

In Figure 10.0 the shaded area represents the average condition in an typed annulus and the area

= (v.δ r) .But from equation (1) above it will be seen that we need the product (r.v.δ r) to obtain

the discharge, so a second curve is prepared using the v ordinates of the curve in Figure 10.0 and

multiplying them by the radius r before repotting the (r.v) data as a new curve shown in Figure

11.0.

55
Figure. 12.6: Plot of (V.r) against r

We can now see that the discharge can be obtained by applying equation (1) to the area under the

curve in Figure 11.0 in which the shaded area represents:

Q = 2 π x (area under curve in Fig. 11.0)

The area under the curve may be determined by counting squares once the (v.r) graph shown in

Figure A5 has been constructed from the velocity-radius data.

Jet Momentum

The linear momentum possessed by the free air jet at any cross-section can be determined from

the same velocity traverses used to determine discharge in 'Jet Discharge'. Again the smoothed

and averaged velocity data shown graphically in Fig. 10.0 may be used by considering the

momentum possessed by the flow through the annulus shown in Fig. 9.0.

δ M = (mass flow rate x velocity)

δ M=2 π r r.v x v x ρ

δ M = 2 π rv2 ρ r

For the whole jet momentum: M = 2 πρ ∑ (r v 2 δ r )

56
Figure12.7: Plot of v2 r against r
Now from graph Figure 12: shaded area = (rv2δ r) and so M = 2 π ρx (area under curve). The area

under the curve may be obtained by counting squares once the (v 2 r) graph shown in Figure 12.7

has been constructed from the velocity-radius.

Jet Kinetic Energy

The jet kinetic energy based on mean velocity distributions may be determined for those cross-

sections for which velocity data is available. Again the smoothed and averaged data shown in

Figure A4 may be used as a basis for kinetic energy calculation as follows:

The kinetic energy flux through an annulus as shown in Figure 9.0 is given by:

δ E = (mass flow rate x 1/2 velocity2)

δ E = 2 π r r ρ v.1/2v2
δ E = πρ(rv3 r)
Energy flux through whole jet: E = πρ∑(rv3δ r)

57
Figure 12.8 :Plot of (v3.r) values plotted against r

Now from the graph of (v3.r) values plotted against r in Figure 13.0. Shaded area = (rv3. δ r)
Therefore: E = πρx (area under curve)
The area under the curve may be obtained by counting squares once the (v 3.r) graph shown in
Figure 13.0 has been constructed from the velocity-radius data.
Conclusions
For a free non-buoyant jet the total discharge through any cross-section will increase as the

distance from the orifice increases. However, the momentum possessed by the jet should remain

the same at all cross-sections (law of conservation of momentum applied to fluid flows). Because

of turbulence and viscous dissipation of energy in the dissipating jet, the kinetic energy

possessed by the jet should

decrease, as the distance away from the orifice increases. Plot a single graph showing the total

discharge, momentum and energy of the jet (to suitable scales) on the Y axis and the distance

from the orifice on the X axis. Draw lines through the discharge, momentum and energy data

points and comment on their trends.

EXPERIMENT XIII
BOUNDARY LAYER GROWTH IN A PIPE FLOW.

58
OBJECTIVE
A Pitot tube is used to explore the developing boundary layer in the entry length of a pipe which

has air drawn through it. The Pitot tube is used to determine the velocity distribution profiles at a

number of cross-sections in the pipe at different distances from the pipe inlet. Because the air is

drawn along the pipe (sucked) by connecting the fan inlet to the pipe outlet the developing air

flow in the entry length of the pipe is unaffected by flow disturbances caused by the fan. The

profiled bell mouth inlet ensures that there is no flow separation from the pipe at inlet and the

flow straightening vanes there suppress any tendency for an inlet vortex to form. Velocities in

the pipe are determined by using the Pitot tube to measure the dynamic pressure of the moving

air in the pipe and comparing this with the static pressure in the pipe at the same cross-section

and flow velocity. The Bernoulli equation applied to the fluid impinging on the tip of a Pitot tube

gives the following relationship for the air velocity:

13.1

In which Op is the pressure difference between the Pitot tube and the wall pressure tapping

measured using the manometer bank provided. Alternatively, h is this same pressure difference

expressed as a 'head' of the fluid being measured (air), ρ is the air density at the atmospheric

pressure and temperature of that day and g is the gravitational acceleration constant (9.81 ms-2).

See Fig. 4.0 for a worked example.

59
Fig. 13.0 Equipment Set Up andPitot tube assembly

THEORY
When fluid flows past a stationary solid wall the shear stress set up close to this boundary due to

the relative motion between the fluid and the wall leads to the development of a flow boundary

layer, which may be either laminar or turbulent in nature depending on the flow Reynolds

number. In this experiment the boundary layer undergoes a transition to turbulent flow quite

close to the pipe entrance. The growth of this boundary layer can be revealed by studying the

velocity profiles at selected cross-sections, the core region still outside the boundary layer

showing up as an area of more or less uniform velocity. If velocity profiles for cross-sections

different distances from the pipe entrance are compared (see Fig. 5.0), the rate of growth of the

boundary layer along the pipe length can be determined. Once the boundary layer has grown to

the point where it fills the whole pipe cross-section this is termed "fully developed pipe flow".

READINGS TO BE TAKEN

60
Five mounting positions are provided for the Pitot tube assembly. These are: 54mm, 294mm,

774mm, 1574mm and 2534mm from the pipe inlet. Ensure that the standard (large) inlet nozzle

is fitted for this experiment and that the orifice plate, which can be inserted at the pipe break line,

is not in position. Mount the Pitot tube assembly at Position 1 (nearest to the pipe inlet) and

connect the pressure tapping at the outer end of the assembly to a convenient manometer tube.

Connect the appropriate pipe wall static pressure tapping to the neighboring manometer tube.

This should always be the one immediately upstream from the Pitot tube position in use at that

time. Position the Pitot tube in the centre of the pipe and start the fan with the outlet throttle

closed. Now open the throttle slowly making sure that the fluid levels in the manometer tubes do

not approach too close to the top and bottom of the visible tubes. This throttle should be set

ideally so that with the Pitot tube in this position the difference in level between the "dynamic"

and the "static" manometer tubes should be about 2/3 of the maximum available range. If this

separation of the manometer tube levels is not achieved with the fan discharge throttle fully open

then the manometer board should be inclined from its normal vertical position until this ratio is

achieved. Carry out a velocity traverse of the pipe with the Pitot tube, being sure to record its

transverse position at each reading point using the short scale provided on the Pitot tube

assembly.

Ensure that the Pitot tube traverses right across the pipe until it is in contact with the far wall of

the pipe; its recorded position here will enable the plotted velocity traverse to be related to the

position of the pipe walls and centre line. Read and record both manometer tube levels and the

transverse position scale at each measurement station. Space the measurement stations more

closely together in regions where the velocity gradient is large. Repeat the velocity traverse for

the same air flow value at each of the other. crosssections. Replace the blanking plugs provided

61
in the Pitot tube mounting holes not inuse. If the manometer is used in an inclined position,

record its angle to the verticalso that the manometer tube readings may be corrected later for this

slope.Record the air temperature and barometric pressure in the laboratory at the time ofthe

experiment so that the air density value may be obtained.

RESULTS

Calculate air velocity at each point using Equation (1) and referring to the worked example in

Fig 4.0. Plot the transverse velocity profiles on a common graph as shown in Fig 5.0 indicating

the origin of the velocity scale and the true position of the measurement points relative to the

pipe walls, remembering in this connection to allow for the semi-diameter of the Pitot tube (3

mm O/D tube).

Note that the boundary layer grows in the pipe to fill the whole cross-section – fully developed

pipe flow - by the third or fourth velocity traverse position.

Calculate the discharge of air in the pipe from one of the velocity profiles using the method set

out under 'Jet Discharge' in Experiment A - Dispersion of a jet and compare this value with those

obtained by other methods.

CHE 322

EXPERIEMENT 1

Determination of reaction rate constant in a stirred batch reactor at constant temperature

Objectives:

62
1. To find the reaction rate constant in a stirred batch reactor

2. To investigate temperature dependence behavior of reaction rate constant.

Theory

The reaction:

NaOH + CH3COOC2H5→ CH3COONa + C2H5OH

Sodium Hydroxide + Ethyl Acetate → Sodium Acetate + Ethyl Alcohol

Assumptions:

The initial concentrations are equal,

The amounts of reagent used up after time t is X;

The concentrations at time t will be

NaO H +CH 3 COO C 2 H 5 → C H 3 COONa+C 2 H 5 OH

a-X + a-X → X + X

−X
k . t= 1.1
a ( a− X )

From the kinetic analysis of a general second order reaction, it can be shown that

where k is the reaction rate constant and t is the time of reaction. Using notation from the

nomenclature:

X A =C a −C a 0 0
1.2

Substituting for X in equation (2) above gives:

−Ca −Ca 1
k .t= 0 0
1.3
Ca Ca 0 1

Hence a plot of ¿ ¿ against t gives a straight line of gradient k

63
Safety of the Experiment

Safety measure is to wear protective clothing, gloves and safety spectacles; when handling all the

chemicals required for this experiment.

Apparatus:

CEB MKIII Transparent Batch Reactor, volumetric flask, Conical Flask Measuring Cylinder as
shown in Plate 1.

Plates1: CEB MKIII

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Make up 0.5 litres batch of 0.1M sodium hydroxide and 0.5 of 0.1M ethyl acetate (containing

1·10-5Mol/l Crystal Violet). Open Software and choose ‘Isothermal operation Set up the Hot

Water Circulator as detailed in the Operation section. Adjust settings on the PID loop as detailed

in Operation procedure for Isothermal Operation and set point to 30oC

64
Charge the batch reactor with 0.5 litre of the sodium hydroxide solution. Set the reactor agitator

to '50%' and press ‘Power on’ to start the agitation. Then press ‘Hot Water Circulator’ and water

will start to circulate through jacket in the reactor and vessel. As the experiment involves the

collection and storage of conductivity data, the data output port in the plinth must be connected

to the computer with Interface data logger. This will enable data logging of the conductivity,

temperatures and stirrer speed values at selected time intervals over a selected period.

Collection of data will be until a stable condition is reached in the reactor and this will take

approximately 30 minutes. It is advisable to set the data collection period to45 minutes.

Then, switch on the Hot Water Circulator. The temperature of the sodium hydroxide in the

reactor vessel will begin to rise and will be automatically maintained at the desired set-point (30 o

C) by the action of the HWC in the jacket.

Carefully add 0.5 litre of the ethyl acetate solution to the reactor and instigate the data logger

program (or begin taking readings if no computer is being used). (Note that the degree of

conversion of the reagents affects the conductivity of the reactor contents). By recording the

conductivity with respect to time, either manually or using the Data Logger, the amount of

conversion can be calculated.

Repeat this procedure above but with the temperature controller set to 29°C, 32 °C and 35 °C

respectively with correspondent data collected with time of the reaction.

Experimental Results:
i. Print the calculated and stored information on the interface data logger on the

computer connected to the reactor for all the experimental runs.\

65
ii. Record the conductivity contents of the reactor over the period of the reaction, then

translate the conductivity measurements into degree of conversion of the constituent

iii. Plot of ¿ ¿ versus time (t) for each of runs with different slope K (note there should be

the four graphs) at difference temperatures.

iv. Investigate the effect of temperature on the reaction rate Arrhenius law is applicable
−E
that is:k =k e RT
0

E1 1
V. From ln k =ln k 0− plot ln k against this will be a straight line graph with
RT T

E
as the slope and ln k 0 the intercept.
T

V. Do all the calculations via a spreadsheet such as Microsoft TM

Excel and display all the

results in tabular and graphical forms.

Experimental Observation: the set of readings of conductivity with time will need to be

transferred to the computer as two columns of data.

66
 EXPERIMENT 2
Determination of the effect of reactant concentration on the reaction rate in a stirred batch reactor

at constant temperature

Objective
i To determine the effect of reactant concentration on the reaction rate

ii To determine from the order of this reaction if elementary or non-elementary.

Theory
In homogenous reaction systems, reaction rates depend on the concentration of the reactants.

Collision theory indicates a rate increase if the concentration of one or both of the reactants is

increased. However, the specific effect of concentration changes in a reaction system has to be

determined by experimental methods. Increasing the concentration of substance A in reaction

with substance B could increase the reaction rate, decrease it, or have no effect on it - depending

on the particular reaction. It is important to recognize that the balanced equation for the net

67
reaction does not indicate how the reaction rate is affected by a change in concentration of

reactants.

The general form of the rate law is:r a =K C an C mb (2.1) where:

r a =¿ reaction rate

K=¿ rate constant

C a ,, C b= molar concentrations of reactants

n and m are appropriate powers (based on experimental data)

Apparatus
CEB MKIII: Transparent Batch Reactor, volumetric flask, Conical Flask Measuring Cylinder
as shown in Plate 2

Plate 2: CEB MKIII Transparent

Experimental Procedure

68
Prepare different initial concentrations of the reagents for 0.1M, 0.08M and 0.02M. 0.5 litre of

each solution in six separate bottles and label appropriately. This will be required for each

mixture tested.). Open the Software and choose ‘Isothermal operation. Set up the Hot Water

Circulator. Adjust settings on the PID loop as detailed in Operation procedure for Isothermal

Operation and set point to 30oC.

It is advisable period to use 45 minutes to set the data collection. Collection of data will be until

a stable condition is reached within the reactor and this takes (approximately) 30 minutes. Then

switch on the Hot Water Circulator. The temperature of the sodium hydroxide vessel will begin

to rise and will be automatically maintained at the desired set-point (30 o C) by the action of the

HWC in the jacket. Charge the batch reactor with 0.5 litre of 0.1M of the sodium hydroxide

solution. Set the reactor agitator to 50% and press ‘Power on’ to start the agitation. Then press

‘Hot Water Circulator’ and water will start to circulate through jacket in the reactor and vessel.

Carefully add to the reactor 0.5 litre of 0.1M of the ethyl acetate solution and instigate the data

logger program (or begin taking readings if no computer is being used).

NOTE:

It has been determined that the degree of conversion of the reagents affects the conductivity of

the reactor contents.

By recording the conductivity with respect to time, either manually or using the Data Logger, the

amount of conversion can be calculated. Using the Data Logger in each experiment, graphs can

be plotted relating reaction rate to concentration level for each of the reactants tested. Repeat

these procedures again with 0.08M, 0.05M and 0.02M.Hence, reaction rate obtained in each of

69
the four runs. A logarithmic plot of reaction rate to concentration level will give a straight line of

slope equal to the power of the relationship.

Hence the rate law for sodium hydroxide and ethyl acetate can be written in the form;

log r =nlog C a + mlog Ca OR log r =(n+ m)log c a therefore a plot of log r versus log C awith a slope

equal to nm which is the overall order of reaction.

Experimental Results:

Calculate log r and for all experimental runs via Table 2.1

Calculate log C a for all experimental runs using the table below

Find the plot of log r versus log C awith a slope equal to nm which is the overall order of reaction.

Table 2.1 : Reaction Vs. Concentration

Reaction Ca Cb r log r log C a

Initial conc. Initial
NaOH conc.CH3COOC2H5
RUN 1 0.1 0.1
RUN2 0.08 0.08
RUN4 0.05 0.05
RUN4 0.02 0.02

70
 EXPERIMENT 3

Studying the effect of mixing on the reaction rate in Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor

Objective: To determine the effect of inadequate mixing on reaction rate.

THEORY

The rate of reaction is measured by the amount of reactants converted to products in a unit of

time. In order for reaction to occur, particles must come into contact and this contact must result

in interaction. The rate of reaction depends on the collision frequency and collision efficiency of

particles of the reacting substances. These factors are optimized by thorough mixing of the

reactants using stirrers and baffles within the reactor. Inefficient mixing will result in reduced

reaction rates. Considering the reaction between sodium hydroxide and ethyl acetate, if the initial

concentrations are equal (C a ) and the conversion ( X a) then the concentrations are as follows:
0

NaOH + CH3COOC2H5    →   C2H5OH + CH3COONa

(C a - X a)      (C a - X a)                          ( X a)           ( X a)

0 0

From the performance equation of the general second order reaction and constant density
reaction in a mixed flow reactor, it can be shown that:

71
 Xa
2
=τk 1.1
Ca ( 1− X a )

or

( C a −C a )
=τk 1.2
0

C a2

Where k is the reaction rate constant and τ is the space time. Space time is given as :

reactor volume (v )
Space time (τ) = 1.3
volumetric feed rate (ᶹ 0 )

Xa
Hence a plot of 2 against τ gives a straight line of gradientC a k .from which k is
( 1−X a ) 0

evaluated.

Safety of the Experiment

Safety measure is to wear protective clothing, gloves and safety spectacles when handling all the

chemicals required for this experiment.

Apparatus:

CEM MK11 Transparent Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor, Volumetric flask, Measuring
Cylinder.

72
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Make up 2.5 litre batches of 0.1M sodium hydroxide and 2.5 litres of 0.1M ethyl acetate.

Remove the lids of the reagent vessels and carefully fill with the reagents to a level

approximately 50mm from the top. Refit the lids.

Start the software using the option of the experiment with heater

Set PID controller loop according to the settings for a continuous experiment described in

operation section.

Adjust the set point of the PID to 30°C.

Change PID ‘mode of operation’ to ‘Automatic’

Collection of conductivity data will be until a steady state condition is reached in the reactor and

this takes approximately 30 minutes. It is advisable to set the data collection period to, say, 45

minutes.Set the pump speed controls to 40 ml/min flowrate in the software. Fill the concentration

of both solutions in their respective boxes in the software.Fill the volume of the reactor in the

box on the software. Set the agitator speed controller to 50% in the software.Press ‘Power on’

button (or begin taking readings if no computer is being used) and pumps and stirrer will start to

work. After a few minutes the temperature sensor tip will be covered (about 25mm of liquid in

reactor) – then press ‘Hot Water Circulator’ button and water will start to recirculate through the

whole system including the reactor.

It has been determined that the degree of conversion of the reagents affects the conductivity of

the reactor contents so that recording the conductivity with respect to time using the Armfield

data logger can be used to calculate the amount of conversion. This is achieved by removing the

73
conductivity and temperature probes then removing the lid of the reactor. The baffle arrangement

simply lifts out.

Repeat the experiment with baffles removed and no stirring action. Three sets of data will be

obtained:

a. Stirred reactor with baffle .

b. Stirred reactor, no baffle.

c. Un-stirred reactor, no baffle.

Xa
The graphs of 2 against τ in each case and hence determine reaction rate constant
( 1−X a )

respectively. (Or using the manual readings obtained if not using the logger).Plot

Comment on the results obtained. How did removal of the baffle affect the reaction rate? What
effect does stirring have on the reaction rate?

Hint ; Flow rate should be increased say 40,50,60,70 80 and 100 ml/min at known and regular in
interval .obtain your reactors volume before starting your experiment.

74
 Experiment 4

Fluid to Fluid heat transfer in a Tubular Heat Exchanger.

Objectives

1. To demonstrate indirect heating or cooling by transfer of heat from one fluid stream to another
when separated by a solid wall (fluid to fluid heat transfer)

2 To measure the changes in temperature of two separate streams of water flowing through the
inner tube and outer annulus of a tubular (concentric double pipe) heat exchanger.

Theory

Any temperature difference across the metal tube wall will result in the transfer of heat between
the two fluid streams. The hot water flowing through the inner tube will be cooled and the cold
water flowing through the outer annulus will be heated.
Note: For this demonstration the heat exchanger is configured with the two streams flowing in
opposite directions (countercurrent flow).

Apparatus
Equipment required is: HT30XC Heat Exchanger Service Unit as shown in Plate 4

75
Plate 4: HT30XC Heat Exchanger

Experimental Procedure

Open the software. Select ‘exercise A’ itemized experiments on the software. Then, check that
the software reads ‘IFD OK’ in the bottom right-hand corner of the screen. Select the mimic
diagram in the software by clicking on the icon. Set the temperature controller to a set point
approximately 45oC above the cold water inlet temperature T4 (e.g. if T4 = 15oC then set
controller to 60oC).

Adjust the cold water control valve setting to give a cold water flow rate of 1 litre/min.

Click on the button for the hot water flow rate controller, set the controller to Automatic and
enter a Set Point value of 3 litre/min. Allow the heat exchanger to stabilize, then monitor the
temperature using the sensor displays on the software screen or control console. Select the (Go)
icon to record the following: T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, F hot and F cold or manually note the values.

Adjust the cold water control valve to give a cold water flow rate of 2litre/min. Select the

icon to create new results sheets. Allow the heat exchanger to stabilize then select the(Go) icon

or manually record the new sensor readings. Remember to create new results sheet for each set

of data. If using the software, save the logged data by selecting ‘Save’ or ‘Save As’ from the

‘File’ menu. Browse to the location you wish to place the saved data and give the results a

meaningful name (e.g. HT31A)

76
Experimental Results

i. Records all sensor outputs (data) as displayed on the computer in your experimental
report in tabular form as itemized in Table 4.1. ]

ii. Table 4.1: Record of the experimental measurements

For each set of readings, the software calculated the following derived results. These should be
calculated manually also using:

Reduction in hot fluid temperature F hot =T 1−T 3 0C

Increase in cold fluid temperature F cold=T 6−T 4 0C

i. Estimate the cumulative influence of the experimental errors on your calculated values
forT hot and. T cold
ii. Compare the changes in temperature at the different flow rates.
iii. Comment on the changes inT hot and T cold when the flow of cold water is increased. The
consequence of these changes will be investigated in a later experiment.

( )
Hot fluid Volume flow rate qh m3 Multiply F hot (litre/min)
s by 1.667 x 10-5
Hot fluid inlet Temperature T1 ℃
Hot fluid Mid Temperature T2 ℃
Hot fluid Outlet Temperature T3 ℃

( )
Cold fluid volume flow rate qc m
3 Multiply F cold(litre/min)
s by 1.667 x 10-5
Cold fluid Inlet Temperature T4 ℃
Cold fluid Mid Temperature T5 ℃
Cold fluid Outlet temperature T6 ℃

77
 Experiment 5

Energy balance and overall efficiency determination in a Tubular Heat Exchanger

Objectives:
i. To perform an energy balance across a Tubular Heat Exchanger
ii. To calculate the Overall Efficiency at different fluid flow rates
iii. To measure the changes in temperature of the two separate fluid streams in the
tubular heat exchanger

Theory Note: For this demonstration the heat exchanger is configured for countercurrent flow
(the two fluid streams flowing in opposite directions).

kg
Mass flowrate ( qm ) =volume flowrate ( q v ) X Density of fluid ( ρ ) ( ) (5.1)
s

Heat power Q=Mass flowrate ( q m ) X Specfic heat ( c p ) X Change∈Temperature ( ∆ T )( W ) (5.2)

Therefore,

Heat Power emitted ¿ hot fluid Qe [ W ] =q m h (C ) ( T 1−T 3 )

P h
5.3

Heat Power Absorbed by cold fliud Q a [ W ] =q M c (C ) (T 6−T 4 )

P C
5.4

78
Heat power Lost ( ¿ gained )=Q c −Qa(5.5)

Qa
Heat power lo overall Efficiency η %= .100 (5.6)
Qc

Theoretically Q c and Qa should be equal. In practice these differ due to heat losses or gains
to/from the environment.

Note: In this exercise the cold fluid is circulated through the outer annulus, if the average cold
fluid temperature is above the ambient air temperature then heat will be lost to the surroundings
resulting in 𝜼<100 %. If the average cold fluid temperature is below the ambient temperature
then heat will be gained resulting in 𝜼>100

Apparatus

Equipment required is: HT30XC Heat Exchanger Service Unit as shown in Figure 5.

Plate 5:HT30XC Heat Exchanger Service Unit

Experimental Procedure

Use the results obtained from Experiment 4 for the procedure of this experiment.

79
Experimental result
Record the temperatures using the Table 5 below

Table 5.1 Table for experimental fluid volumetric flow rate

( )
Hot fluid Volume flow qh m
3 Multiply F hot (litre/min)
rate by 1.667 x 10-5
s
Hot fluid inlet T1 ℃
Temperature
Hot fluid Mid T2 ℃
Temperature
Hot fluid Outlet T3 ℃
Temperature

( )
Cold fluid volume flow qc m
3 Multiply F col d (litre/min)
rate by 1.667 x 10-5
s
Cold fluid Inlet T4 ℃
Temperature
Cold fluid Mid T5 ℃
Temperature
Cold fluid outlet T6 ℃
temperature
Table 5.2: Mass flow rate for hot fluid & cold fluid

a. Reduction
NAME SYMBOL UNITS CALC
Mass flow rate (hot q mh kg
i. fluid)
Estimate and record the experimental errors for this experiment
s
ii. Mass flow rate (cold q mc kg
fluid) s
Heat power emitted Qe (w )
Heat power absorbed Qa (w )
Heat power loss Qf (w )
Overall efficiency 𝜼 100%
Calculate: Estimate and record the experimental errors for this experiment
a. Reduction in hot temp. fluid (b) increase in cold fluid temp.

(NOTE: use the attached references (Tables 5A & 5B) Specific heat capacity Table of
Water and Density for the exercises.

iii. Calculate via the table 5.2and use reference Table 5A & 5B for the calculations
iv. Explain the difference between Qc and Qa in your result
v. Comment on the effects of the increase in the cold fluid flow rate

80
 Specific heat of hot kJ C ph
°C (from table 1 using T 2 as
fluid kg
the average temperature)
Specific heat of cold kJ T 5 as
C pc
°C (from table 1 using
fluid kg
the average temperature)
Density of hot fluid kJ ρh
°C (from table 2 using T 2 as
kg
the average temperature)
Density of cold fluid kJ ρc
°C (from table 2 using T 5 as
kg
the average temperature)

Reference :

Table 5A: Specific Heat Capacity of Water (Cp kJ/kg° K)

81
Table 5B: Density of Water ( ρ kg/m3)

82
 Experiment 6

Investigating effect of flow rate type (co current and counter –current Flow) on a tubular
heat exchanger efficiency
Objectives

i. To demonstrate the differences between co current flow (flows in same direction) and
countercurrent flow (flows in the opposite direction)
ii. To determine the effect of heat on the heat transfer temperature efficiencies and
temperature profiles through a Tubular Heat Exchanger.

Theory

Countercurrent operation When the service unit is configured for countercurrent operation the
hot and cold fluid streams flow in opposite directions across the heat transfer surface (the two
fluid streams enter the heat exchanger at opposite ends).

Plate 6.1: Co-current flow Illustration

83
Reduction in hot fluid temperature F hot =T 1−T 3 0C 6.1

Increase in cold fluid temperature F cold =T 6−T 4 0C 6.2

Heat Power emitted ¿ hot fluid Qe [ W ] =q m h (C ) ( T 1−T 3 )

P h
6.3

A useful measure of the heat exchanger performance is the temperature efficiency of each fluid
stream. The temperature change in each fluid stream is compared with the maximum temperature
difference between the two fluid streams giving a comparison with an exchange of infinite size.

T 1 −T 3
Temperature efficiency for hot fluid ηh = 6.4
T 1−¿T ¿ 4

T 6−T 4
Temperature efficiency for cold fluid ηc = 6.5
T 1−T 4

ηh−η c
Mean Temperature Efficiency ηm = 6.6
2

Co current operation

When the service unit is configured for co current operation the hot and cold fluid streams flow
in the same direction across the heat transfer surface (the two fluid streams enter the heat
exchanger at the same end).

84
Plate 6.2: Counter –Current Flow Illustration diagram

Continued from experiments IV and V, hot fluid temperature and cold fluid temperature had
been earlier deduced.

As earlier deduced, from Eqns: (6.1) & (6.2);

Then

Heat Power emitted ¿ hot fluid Qe [ W ] =q m h (C ) ( T 1−T 3 )

P h
6.7

T 1−T 3
Temperature efficiency for hot fluid ηh (%)=
T 3−¿T ¿ 4

T 6−T 4
Temperature efficiency for cold fluid ηh (%)=
T 3−¿T ¿4

η h−ηc
Mean Temperature Efficiency ηm (%) =
2

Apparatus

85
1. HT30XC Heat Exchanger Service Unit

2. HT31 Tubular Heat Exchanger

Experimental Procedure

The equipment should be switched on at the mains before beginning the experiment.
Set the temperature controller to a set point approximately 45 oC above the cold water inlet
temperature T4 (e.g. if T4 = 15oC then set controller to 60oC).
Adjust the setting of the cold water control valve to give 1 litre/min.
Click on the button for the hot water flow rate controller, set the controller to Automatic and
enter a Set Point value of 2litre/min.
Allow the temperature to stabilize and then monitor their values using the software display.
When the temperatures are stable, select the (Go) icon to record the following values:
T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, F hot , F cold
Close the cold water flow control valve V cold ¿i.e. set the valve to 0%).

Save the logged data by selecting ‘Save’ or ‘Save As’ from the ‘File’ menu. Browse to the
location you wish to place the saved data and give the results a meaningful name (e.g. HT31C
Countercurrent Operation).

Change to co current configuration:

Select ‘Load New Experiment...’ from the ‘File’ menu and click on the Co current Operation
exercise radio button then select the ‘Load’ button.

The connections to the heat exchanger are now configured for co current operation where the hot
and cold fluid streams flow in the same direction across the heat transfer surface (the two fluid
streams enter the heat exchanger at the same end).

Adjust the cold water flow control valve setting to 1 litre/min (hot and cold water flow rates
remain the same as before).

When the temperatures are stable select the (Go) icon or manually record the following: T1, T2,
T3, T4, T5, T6,, F hot , F cold.

Save the logged data by selecting ‘Save’ or ‘Save As’ from the ‘File’ menu. Browse to the
location you wish to place the saved data and give the results a meaningful name (e.g. HT31C
Co current Operation.

86
Experimental Results

Measure the temperatures of the two fluid streams using the temperature changes and
differences to calculate the heat energy transferred and the temperature efficiencies.

NAME SYBMOL VALUES/UNIT

Records all sensor output
Reduction in hot fluid Δ T hot °C in tabular form using table
temperature
6.1 below for manual

Increase in cold fluid Δ T cold °C record of the data. Note:

temperature Table 6.1will be generated
Heat power emitted by hot Qe (W ) by the software.
fluid
Temperature efficiency for ηc %
hot fluid
Table 6.1:Generated
Temperature efficiency for ηC % table by the software
cold fluid
output
Mean temperature ηm %
efficiency

( )
Hot fluid Volume qh m3 Multiply F hot
flow rate (litre/min) by 1.667 x
s
10-5
Hot fluid inlet T1 ℃
Temperature
Hot fluid Mid T2 ℃
Temperature
Hot fluid Outlet T3 ℃
Temperature

( )
Cold fluid volume qc m3 Multiply F cold
flow rate (litre/min) by 1.667 x
s
10-5
Cold fluid Inlet T4 ℃
Temperature
Cold fluid Mid T5 ℃
Temperature
Cold fluid Outlet T6 ℃
temperature 87
Use Table 6.1 to calculate∆ T hot , ∆ T cold , Qe ηh , ηh ∧ηmand present in Table 6.2

Table 6.2: Record for temperature in hot fluid and cold fluid

i. Estimate the cumulative influence of the experimental errors on your calculated

values
ii. For each of the above temperature differences and efficiencies.
Compare each set of calculated values.
Conclusion
Your results from this exercise should indicate clearly the basic differences between
Co current and Countercurrent flow through the tubular heat exchanger.
Comment on the change in ∆ T hot and Δ T cold when the heat exchanger is converted
from co current to countercurrent operation.
Comment on the differences between the hot and cold fluid temperature efficiency for
any given configuration and explain the changes in efficiency when the configuration
is changed from co current to countercurrent operation.
Note: Save and store all reading obtained from this experiment as will use for next
experiment.

88
Experiment 7

Determination of the overall heat transfer coefficient of a tubular heat exchanger

Objectives:

1 To determine Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference to perform the calculations (for co

current and countercurrent flow) a Tubular heat exchanger.

2 To determine the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for a Tubular Heat Exchanger using the
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference to perform the calculated each flow configuration.

Theory/Background

Plate 7.1 Countercurrent Flow: Heat power emitted from hot fluidnQe and

Plate 7.1 Countercurrent Flow: Heat power emitted from hot fluid Qe =
qmh.Cph (T1 - T3) (W)

Plate 7.2:Co current Flow: Heat power

emitted from hot fluid Qe[W] = qmh.Cph
(T3 – T1)
Note: To eliminate the effect of heat
losses/gains in the cold water stream the
heat emitted from the hot fluid stream
will be used in the calculations.
Because the temperature difference between the hot and cold fluid streams varies
along the length of the heat exchanger it is necessary to derive an average temperature

89
 difference (driving force) from which heat transfer calculations can be performed.
This average temperature difference is called the Logarithmic Mean Temperature
Difference (LMTD) ∆ t lm .
∆ t −∆ t 2
LMTD ∆ t lm= 1
∆ t1 7.1
ln ⁡( )
∆ t2
where
∆ t 1=( T 3−T 4 ) ℃
∆ t 2=( T 1−T 6 ) ℃

Note: This equation cannot produce a result for the case where∆ t 1=∆t 2 .

Therefore

( T 3−T 4 )−(T 1−T 6 )

LMTD ∆ t lm= ℃
T −T 4 7.2
ln ⁡( 3 )
T 1−T 6

The heat transmission area in the exchanger must be calculated using the arithmetic mean
diameter of the inner tube.

d0 + di
Arithmetic mean diameter d m = (m) 7.3
2
Heat transmission length L (m) 7.4
Heat transmission area A = π . d m . L (m )
2
7.5
(d m can be used since r /r <1.5 otherwise the logarithmic mean radius d lm must be
2 1

used)
Qe
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient U = (W/m2K) 7.6
A . ∆ t lm
where Qe is the heat power for countercurrent or co current flow.

Experimental Procedure

The equipment should be switched on at the mains before beginning the experiment.
Set the temperature controller to a set point approximately 45 oC above the cold water inlet
temperature T4 (e.g. if T4 = 15oC then set controller to 60oC).
Adjust the setting of the cold water control valve to give 1 litre/min.

90
Click on the button for the hot water flow rate controller, set the controller to Automatic and
enter a Set Point value of 2litre/min.
Allow the temperature to stabilize, then monitor their values using the software display.
When the temperatures are stable, select the icon to record the following values:
T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, F hot , F cold
Close the cold water flow control valve V cold ¿i.e. set the valve to 0%).
Save the logged data by selecting ‘Save’ or ‘Save As’ from the ‘File’ menu. Browse to the
location you wish to place the saved data and give the results a meaningful name (e.g. HT31C
Countercurrent Operation).

Use the results obtained from Experiment on To investigate Effect of Flow Type (Co current
and Countercurrent Flow) on Tubular Heat Exchanger Efficiency. Note: The internal diameter
of the tube of the exchanger is given below as (technical data)
Technical data:
Inner tube inside diameter, di (m) 0.0083
Inner tube outside diameter do (m) 0.0095
Heat transmission length L (m) 0.660 (total)

Change to co current configuration:

Select ‘Load New Experiment...’ from the ‘File’ menu and click on the Co current Operation
exercise radio button then select the ‘Load’ button.
The connections to the heat exchanger are now configured for co current operation where the hot
and cold fluid streams flow in the same direction across the heat transfer surface (the two fluid
streams enter the heat exchanger at the same end).
Adjust the cold water flow control valve setting to 1 litre/min (hot and cold water flow rates
remain the same as before).
When the temperatures are stable select the icon or manually record the following: T1, T2, T3,
T4, T5, T6,, F hot , F cold.

Save the logged data by selecting ‘Save’ or ‘Save As’ from the ‘File’ menu. Browse to the
location you wish to place the saved data and give the results a meaningful name (e.g. HT31C
Co current Operation.

Experimental Results and Calculation

91
Table 7.1: Generated table by the software output

Name Symbol Unit Value

( ms )
Hot fluid Volume qh 3 Multiply F hot
flow rate
(litre/min) by 1.667 x
10-5
Hot fluid inlet T1 ℃
Temperature
Hot fluid Mid T2 ℃
Temperature
Hot fluid Outlet T3 ℃
Temperature

( )
Cold fluid volume qc m3 Multiply F cold
flow rate
(litre/min) by 1.667 x
s 10-5
Cold fluid Inlet T4 ℃
Temperature
Cold fluid Mid T5 ℃
Temperature
Cold fluid T6 ℃
Outlet
temperature Use the results
Arithmetic dm (m) obtained from
Mean Diameter
Experiment on to
Heat A m2
transmission investigate Effect of
Area Flow Type (Co
current and
Countercurrent Flow) on Tubular Heat Exchanger efficiency. Note: The internal diameter of the
tube of the exchanger is given below as (technical data)

Technical data:

Inner tube inside diameter, di (m) 0.0083

Inner tubes outside diameter do (m) 0.0095
Heat transmission length L (m) 0.660 (total)
Record all the sensor output in tabular form and calculate the heads.

Note: In co current flow T 3 is the hot fluid outlet temperature and T 1 is the hot fluid inlet
temperature

92
(ii) Estimate the experimental errors for the measurements.

For each set of readings, the software calculates the average hot fluid temperature (from T 1 and
T2) and the average cold fluid temperature (from T3 and T4) and then automatically provide
values for the variables in Table 7.2.

Table 7.2:Temperare Difference Varaibles.

Names Symbols Unit

Temperature difference ∆ t1 (oC)
Temperature difference ∆ t2 (oC)
Mass flow rate (hot fluid) Qmh (kg/s)
Heat power emitted by hot Qe (W)
fluid
LMTD ∆ t lm (oC)
Overall heat transfer U (W/m2K)
coefficient

(ii) Record data manually and calculate the values and

(iii) obtain the variables from the Reference Tables (5A & 5B)

(iv) Estimate the cumulative influence of the experimental errors on your calculated values for
∆ t lm and U. Compare your calculated values for and U for each set of readings.

Experimental Observations:

The most important characteristic of a heat exchanger; is calculating the Overall Heat Transfer
Coefficient for a heat exchanger.

Experiment 8

93
Investigation of the effect of cooling load on Approach to Wet Bulb in a basic water cooling
Tower
Objective
Investigation of the effect of cooling load on Approach to WetBulb in basic water cooling Tower
Apparatus: Cooling Tower. Its flow chart is shown in Plate 8

Plate 8: Flow chart of a cooling tower

Experimental Procedure
Investigation of the effect of cooling load on Approach to Wet Bulb in the Basic Water Cooling
Tower is to be prepared as follows.

94
Start and allow the cooling tower to stabilise under the following suggested conditions
Water flow rate =40 gm s-1

Air flow manometer differential =16mm H2O

Cooling load = Zero (0)

Observations are as set out in Table 8.1 .

While keeping the water and air flow constant, the load should be increased to 0.5 kW.
Furthermore, when conditions have stabilised the observations should be repeated.

Similar tests should be made with cooling loads of 1.0 and 1.5 kW.

four tests should be repeated at another constant air flow.

Result and Calculation

Typical observations, calculations, results and graphs are shown below.

Basic Water Cooling Tower Observation Sheet as itemized in Table 8.1

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*Assumed to be the same as ambient dry bulb temperature t1
Date: ____________Investigation:____________ Atmospheric Pressure:_________

Specimen Calculations
The pump transfers approximately 100W to the water, and this should be added to the load
imposed on the load tank.
For Test No. 3:
Total cooling load = Applied Load + Pump Input
= 1.0 + 0.1 kW
= 1.1 kW
Approach to Wet Bulb = tD – tAw
= 23.2 – 16.4 K
= 6.8 K
Specific volume at outlet (typically) = 0.87 m3 kg-1

Cross sectional area of column (A) = 0.15 x 0.15 m2

= 0.0225 m2

Derived Results

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Relationship between cooling load and approach to wet bulb temperature
Data: Packing B (110 m-1)
Wet Bulb Temperature at Inlet 16oC
Water Flow Rate 1.78 kg s-1 m-2

Figure 8.1: Relationship between cooling load and approach to wet bulb temperature

Experiment 9

Investigation of the effect of air velocity on Approach to Wet Bulb and the pressure drop
through the Packing

Objective
To Investigate of the effect of air velocity on Approach to Wet Bulb and the pressure drop
through the Packing

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Apparatus: The flow chart for the

Plate 9.1 Flow chart of a cooling tower

Experimental Procedure
Prepare the Basic Water Cooling Tower with the selected packed column and set to stabilize at a
cooling load of 1.0 kW, at maximum air flow and with a water flow of 40 gm s-1.
Record the observations as indicated in the table 9.1.
Note: The type of cooling tower for this experiment is cooling tower column UOP6-21 (Column
C).To measure the pressure drop across the packing; it is necessary to temporarily disconnect the
plastic tube from the orifice tapping point. The tube should be reconnected to the pressure
tapping point just below the packing. A second tube should be connected between the right hand
tapings on the manometer and the pressure tapping point on top of the packing’s.
The test should be repeated with orifice pressure drops of 10, 4 and 1.0mm H 2O, but with
constant water flow rate and cooling loads.
Typical observations are shown as shown in Table 9.1.

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The test may then be repeated:
a. at another constant load
b. at another constant water flow rate
c. Using another packing

Table 9.1 Observation sheet

*Assumed to be the same as the ambient dry bulb temperature t1

Date: ________Investigation: _________Atmospheric Pressure:________

Specimen Calculations
For Test No. 2:

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Inlet wet bulb temperature (t2) = 18.5 ºC
Outlet water temperature (t6) = 24.75 ºC
“Approach to Wet Bulb” = 24.75 – 18.5 K
= 6.25 K
Specific volume of air at outlet (by plotting tBd and tBw on the psychrometric chart)
= 0.86 m3 kg-1

Cross sectional area of empty tower A = 0.15 x 0.15

= 0.0225 m2

Results

These results are shown graphically below.

Relationship between nominal air velocity, wet bulb approach and
packing pressure drop
Data:
Packing C (200 m-1)
Wet Bulb Temperature at Inlet ≈ 18 ℃
Water Flow Rate 40 g m s-1
Cooling Load 1.1 kW

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 Experiment 10

Investigating the effect of changes in hot and cold fluid flowrate on the Temperature
Efficiencies and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient using shell and Tube heat exchanger

Objectives:
1. To investigate the effect of changes in hot and cold fluid flowrate on the Temperature
Efficiencies and
2. To investigate the overall Heat Transfer Coefficient using shell and Tube.

Theory/Background

Countercurrent operation
When the heat exchanger is connected for countercurrent operation the hot and cold fluid streams
flow in opposite directions across the heat transfer surface (the two fluid streams enter the heat
exchanger at opposite ends). The hot fluid passes through the seven tubes in parallel, the cold
fluid passes across the tubes three times, directed by the baffles inside the shell

Plate 10.1 Co-currrent flow

From the previous exercises:

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Reduction in hot fluid temperature 10.1
Increase in cold fluid temperature 10.2
Heat power emitted from hot fluid Qe = qmh. (Cp)h (T1 - T2) (W) 10.3
A useful measure of the heat exchanger performance is the temperature efficiency of each fluid
stream. The temperature change in each fluid stream is compared with the maximum temperature
difference between the two fluid streams giving a comparison with heat exchanger of infinite
size.
T 1−T 2
Temperature efficiency for hot fluid 𝜂h = X 100 (%) 10.4
T 1−T 3
T 4−T 3
Temperature efficiency for cold fluid 𝜂c = X 100 (%) 10.5
T 1−T 3
η c+ η h
Mean Temperature Efficiency = 𝜂m = 10.6
2
Co current operation
When the heat exchanger is connected for co current operation the hot and cold fluid streams
flow in the same direction across the heat transfer surface (the two fluid streams enter the heat
exchanger at the same end).

Plate 9.2: Counter Current flow

From eqns (9.1) & (9.2); then

Equation 9.7 can be deduced

Heat power emitted from hot fluid Qe = qmh. (Cp)h (T2 – T1) (W) 10.7

Temperature efficiency for hot fluid 10.8

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Temperature efficiency for cold fluid 10.9

Mean Temperature Efficiency

Apparatus
HT30XC Heat Exchanger Service Unit
HT33 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Experimental Procedure

Set the temperature controller to 60oC

Adjust the cold water control valve setting to give a cold water flow rate of 1 litre/min.
Click on the button for the hot water flow rate controller, set the controller to automatic and enter
a Set Point value of 1 litre/min. Then, allow the temperatures to stabilise (monitor the
temperatures using the sensor display on the software screen or control console).
When the temperatures are stable select the icon (Go) to record the following: T 1, T2, T3, T4, Fhot,
Fcold or manually record the values.
Repeat the above procedure for different settings of the hot and cold fluid volume flowrate as
illustrated in Table 10.1
Table 10.1: Hot fluid flow rate and cold fluid flow rate

Save the logged data by selecting ‘Save’ or ‘Save As’ from the ‘File’ menu. Browse to the
location you wish to place the saved data and give the results a meaningful name (E.g. HT33E
Countercurrent Operation).

Then use the same procedure for co current operation:

Technical data:
Inner tube inside diameter di = 0.00515 (m)

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Inner tube outside diameter do = 0.00635 (m)
Heat transmission length L = 1.008 (total) (m)

Results and Calculations

The software records all sensor outputs and also calculates several derived figures and presents
the recorded data in tabular form. The following columns are relevant to this experiment, and are
suggested as suitable column headings of recording data manually:

Note: In cocurrent flow T2 is the hot fluid outlet temperature and T1 is the hot fluid
inlet temperature.
You should estimate the experimental errors for these measurements.
For each set of readings, the software calculates the average hot fluid temperature (from T1 and
T2) and the average cold fluid temperature (from T3 and T4) and then automatically provides
values for the following variables.
Then record data manually.
Use reference Tables (5A & 5B) to obtain C ph and Ƿh and then calculate the variables in table
10.2below

Table 10.2: Temperature efficiency

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These values should be calculated manually if not using the software.
Estimate the cumulative influence of the experimental errors on the calculated values for, U and
the temperature efficiencies.
Compare the results for U and the temperature efficiencies at the different hot and cold fluid
flowrates.
Comment on the effects of changing the hot and cold fluid flowrates.

Experimental Observation:

The results from this exercise should indicate clearly the different effects of hot and Cold
flowrate on the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient and temperature efficiencies.

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