Melting Boiling and Condensation

When a force is applied to a solid the atoms move slightly further apart in the direction of the force and stretching
occurs. When a solid is heated, the distance between atoms increases. If enough energy is supplied to the solid the
atoms move even further apart and melting into a liquid occurs.

When a liquid is cooled sufficiently, solidification occurs and it returns to the solid state. The density of a material in its
solid state is usually higher than it is in its liquid state. When a liquid is heated, particles can escape from its surface by a
process called evaporation. When sufficient energy is supplied, boiling occurs and the liquid turns into a gas.

The particles of gas have no ordered structure and are able to move about freely in a random manner. Gases are more
easily compressed than solids or liquids and expand more when they are heated. When a gas is cooled sufficiently it will
return to the liquid state in a process known as condensation. Drops of water are formed when steam condenses on a
cold window pane, for example.

Evaporation
When a liquid below its boiling point changes into a gas, this is called evaporation. It happens because some particles in
the liquid move faster than others. The faster ones near the surface have enough energy to escape and form a gas. This
is illustrated below –

The cooling effect of evaporation

Evaporation has a cooling effect. For example, if you wet your hands, the water on them starts to evaporate. As it
evaporates, it takes thermal energy away from your skin. So your hands feel cold.

The kinetic theory explains the cooling effect like this. If faster particles escape from the liquid, slower ones are left
behind, the average kinetic energy of the liquid decreases and therefore the temperature of the liquid decreases.

Sweating also uses the cooling effect of evaporation. You start to sweat if your body temperature rises more than about
0.5 oC above normal. The sweat, which is mainly water, comes out of tiny pores in your skin. As it evaporates, it
takes thermal energy from your body and cools you down. On a humid day, sweat cannot evaporate so easily, so it is more
difficult to stay cool and comfortable

Boiling
Boiling is a very rapid form of evaporation. When water boils vapour bubbles form deep in the liquid. They expand, rise,
burst, and release large amounts of vapour.
Temperature During State Change

During solidification a substance transfers thermal energy to its surroundings but its temperature does not fall.
Conversely when a solid is melting, the energy supplied does not cause a temperature rise; energy is transferred but the
substance does not get hotter. For example, the temperature of a well-stirred ice–water mixture remains at 0°C until all
the ice is melted. Similarly, when energy is supplied to a boiling liquid, the temperature of the liquid does not change.
The temperature of pure water boiling at standard atmospheric pressure is 100°C.

The temperature stays the same when a solid is melting or a liquid is boiling (changing state) during a change of state,
even though heat energy is being absorbed. The temperature also stays the same while a liquid freezes, even though
heat energy is still being released to the surroundings. Since the temperature remains constant during change of state, it
can be concluded that the kinetic energy also remains the same. The energy supplied increases the molecular potential
energy. The energy supplied is used to overcome the intermolecular forces that hold the particles together.