Application of Ultra Sonic Wave in Medical Field

System Description See also

Anesthesiology

Ultrasound is commonly used by anesthesiologists (Anaesthetists) to guide injecting needles when placing local anaesthetic solutions near nerves

Cardiology

Echocardiography is an essential tool in cardiology, to diagnose e.g. dilatation of parts of the heart and function of heart seeechocardiography ventricles and valves

Emergency Medicine

Point of care ultrasound has many applications in the Emergency Department, including the Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) exam for assessing significant hemoperitoneum or pericardial see FAST exam tamponade after trauma. Ultrasound is routinely used in the Emergency Department to expedite the care of patients with right upper quadrant abdominal pain who may have gallstones or cholecystitis.

In abdominal sonography, the solid organs of the abdomen such as the pancreas, aorta, inferior vena cava, liver, gall bladder, bile ducts, kidneys, and spleen are imaged. Sound waves are blocked Gastroenterology by gas in the bowel and attenuated in different degree by fat, therefore there are limited diagnostic capabilities in this area. The appendixcan sometimes be seen when inflamed (as in e.g.:appendicitis).

Gynecology

see gynecologic ultrasonography

Neonatology

for basic assessment of intracerebral structural abnormalities, Intracerebral: bleeds, ventriculomegaly or hydrocephalusand anoxic insults seeTranscranial (Periventricular leukomalacia). The ultrasound can be performed Doppler through the soft spots in the skull of a newborn infant (Fontanelle) until these completely close at about 1 year of age and form a virtually impenetrable acoustic barrier for the ultrasound. The most common site for cranial ultrasound is the anterior fontanelle. The smaller the fontanelle, the poorer the

quality of the picture.

Neurology

for assessing blood flow and stenoses in the carotid arteries (Carotid ultrasonography) and the big intracerebral arteries

see Carotid ultrasonography. Intracerebral: seeTranscranial Doppler

Obstetrics

Obstetrical sonography is commonly used duringpregnancy to check on the development of the fetus.

see obstetric ultrasonography

Ophthalmology

see A-scan ultrasonography,B-scan ultrasonography

Urology

to determine, for example, the amount of fluid retained in a patient's bladder. In a pelvic sonogram, organs of the pelvic region are imaged. This includes the uterus and ovaries orurinary bladder. Males are sometimes given a pelvic sonogram to check on the health of their bladder, theprostate, or their testicles (for example to distinguishepididymitis from testicular torsion). In young males, it is used to distinguish more benign testicular masses (varicocele or hydrocele) from testicular cancer, which is still very highly curable but which must be treated to preserve health and fertility. There are two methods of performing a pelvic sonography - externally or internally. The internal pelvic sonogram is performed either transvaginally (in a woman) or transrectally (in a man). Sonographic imaging of the pelvic floor can produce important diagnostic information regarding the precise relationship of abnormal structures with other pelvic organs and it represents a useful hint to treat patients with symptoms related to pelvic prolapse, double incontinence and obstructed defecation. It is used to diagnose and, at higher frequencies, to treat (break up) kidney stones or kidney crystals (nephrolithiasis).[3]

Musculoskeletal

tendons, muscles, nerves, ligaments, soft tissue masses, and bone surfaces

Cardiovascular system

To assess patency and possible obstruction of arteriesArterial sonography, diagnose DVT (Thrombosonography) and determine extent and severity of venous insufficiency (venosonography)

Intravascular ultrasound

Application of Piezo electric oscillator

Piezoelectric sensor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A piezoelectric disk generates a voltage when deformed (change in shape is greatly exaggerated)

A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure pressure,acceleration, strain or force by converting them to an electrical charge.
Contents
[hide]

1 Applications 2 Principle of operation 3 Electrical properties 4 Sensor design 5 Sensing materials 6 See also 7 References 8 External links

[edit]Applications

Piezoelectric disk used as a guitar pickup

Piezoelectric sensors have proven to be versatile tools for the measurement of various processes. They are used for quality assurance, process control and for research and development in many different industries. Although the piezoelectric effect was discovered by Pierre Curie in 1880, it was only in the 1950s that the piezoelectric effect started to be used for industrial sensing applications. Since then, this measuring principle has been increasingly used and can be regarded as a mature technology with an outstanding inherent reliability. It has been successfully used in various applications, such as in medical, aerospace, nuclear instrumentation, and as a pressure sensor in the touch pads of mobile phones. In the automotive industry, piezoelectric elements are used to monitor combustion when developing internal combustion engines. The sensors are either directly mounted into additional holes into the cylinder head or the spark/glow plug is equipped with a built in miniature piezoelectric sensor [1]. The rise of piezoelectric technology is directly related to a set of inherent advantages. The highmodulus of elasticity of many piezoelectric materials is comparable to that of many metals and goes up to 10e6 N/m[dubious discuss]. Even though piezoelectric sensors are electromechanical systems that react to compression, the sensing elements show almost zero deflection. This is the reason why piezoelectric sensors are so rugged, have an extremely high natural frequency and an excellent linearity over a wide amplitude range. Additionally, piezoelectric technology is insensitive to electromagnetic fieldsand radiation, enabling measurements under harsh conditions. Some materials used (especially gallium phosphate [2] or tourmaline) have an extreme stability even at high temperature, enabling sensors to have a working range of up to 1000C. Tourmaline shows pyroelectricity in addition to the piezoelectric effect; this is the ability to generate an electrical signal when the temperature of the crystal changes. This effect is also common to piezoceramic materials

Piezoelectric microphone

A crystal microphone or piezo microphone uses the phenomenon of piezoelectricity the ability of some materials to produce a voltage when subjected to pressureto convert vibrations into an electrical signal. An example of this is potassium sodium tartrate, which is a piezoelectric crystal that works as a transducer, both as a microphone and as a slimline loudspeaker component. Crystal microphones were once commonly supplied with vacuum tube (valve) equipment, such as domestic tape recorders. Their high output impedance matched the high input impedance (typically about 10 megohms) of the vacuum tube input stage well. They were difficult to match to early transistor equipment, and were quickly supplanted by dynamic microphones for a time, and later small electret condenser devices. The high impedance of the crystal microphone made it very susceptible to handling noise, both from the microphone itself and from the connecting cable. Piezoelectric transducers are often used as contact microphones to amplify sound from acoustic musical instruments, to sense drum hits, for triggering electronic samples, and to record sound in challenging environments, such as underwater under high pressure. Saddle-mounted pickups on acoustic guitars are generally piezoelectric devices that contact the strings passing over the saddle. This type of microphone is different from magnetic coil pickups commonly visible on typical electric guitars, which use magnetic induction, rather than mechanical coupling, to pick up vibration.

NPN Transistor The NPN Transistor

In the preceding tutorial it was presented that the typical Bipolar Transistor or BJT comes in two major forms, the NPN (NegativePositive-Negative) type and the PNP (Positive-Negative-Positive) type with the NPN Transistor being the most commonly used transistor type. We also find out that the transistor junctions can be biased in one of the three different ways namelyCommon Base, Common Emitter and Common Collector . Now in this tutorial, we will study in detail the Common-Emitter configuration using NPN Transistors . Shown below is an example of its current flow characteristics. An NPN Transistor Configuration

Note: Conventional current flow. Apparently, transistor is a CURRENT operated device which has a very large amount of current (I c ) which flows without restraint through the device between the collector and emitter terminals. But this is only possible if a small amount of biasing current (I b ) is present in the base terminal of the transistor making the base to act as a current control input. The symbol hfe or sometimes referred to as Beta ( ) is actually the ratio of these two currents (I c /I b ) and is described as the DC Current Gain of the device. Therefore making Beta as unitless since it is expressed as a ratio. Alpha (a) on the other hand is the current gain form the emitter to the collector terminal, I c /I e , and is a function of the transistor itself. Typically the value of the parameter a is almost close to unity since the emitter current I e is the product of a very small base current I b and very large collector current I c . In general, the value of a in a low-power signal transistor ranges only from about 0.959 to 0.999.

a and Relationships

Two mathematical equations can be derived by combining the two parameters a and which will describe the relationship between the different currents flowing in the transistors.

The figure Beta ranges from about 20 to 1000 for high current power transistors and for high frequency low power type bipolar transistors respectively. By rearranging the equation of Beta to make it a function of the collector current I c , and then equating the base current to zero (I b = 0) would eventually result to zero collector current (I c = x 0 ). In addition, as base current increases collector current also increases thus making the base current as the controlling parameter for the collector current. Moreover, the most significant feature of theBipolar Junction Transistor is that only a very small amount of base current is needed to control a very high collector current. NPN Transistor | npn transistor tutorial | npn transistor operation | npn transistor datasheet | npn transistor working | npn transistor switch | npn transistor symbol | npn transistor circuit | npn transistor array | npn transistor amplifier | npn transistor pinout

The inverting input remains disconnected from the feedback loop, and is free to receive an external voltage. Let's see what happens if we ground the inverting input:

With the inverting input grounded (maintained at zero volts), the output voltage will be dictated by the magnitude and polarity of the voltage at the noninverting input. If that voltage happens to be positive, the op-amp will drive its output positive as well, feeding that positive voltage back to the noninverting input, which will result in full positive output saturation. On the other hand, if the voltage on the noninverting input happens to start out negative, the op-amp's output will drive in the negative direction, feeding back to the noninverting input and resulting in full negative saturation. What we have here is a circuit whose output is bistable: stable in one of two states (saturated positive or saturated negative). Once it has reached one of those saturated states, it will tend to remain in that state, unchanging. What is necessary to get it to switch states is a voltage placed upon the inverting (-) input of the same polarity, but of a slightly greater magnitude. For example, if our circuit is saturated at an output voltage of +12 volts, it will take an input voltage at the inverting input of at least +12 volts to get the output to change. When it changes, it will saturate fully negative. So, an op-amp with positive feedback tends to stay in whatever output state its already in. It "latches" between one of two states, saturated positive or saturated negative. Technically, this is known ashysteresis. Hysteresis can be a useful property for a comparator circuit to have. As we've seen before, comparators can be used to produce a square wave from any sort of ramping

waveform (sine wave, triangle wave, sawtooth wave, etc.) input. If the incoming AC waveform is noise-free (that is, a "pure" waveform), a simple comparator will work just fine.

However, if there exist any anomalies in the waveform such as harmonics or "spikes" which cause the voltage to rise and fall significantly within the timespan of a single cycle, a comparator's output might switch states unexpectedly:

Any time there is a transition through the reference voltage level, no matter how tiny that transition may be, the output of the comparator will switch states, producing a square wave with "glitches." If we add a little positive feedback to the comparator circuit, we will introduce hysteresis into the output. This hysteresis will cause the output to remain in its current state unless the AC input voltage undergoes amajor change in magnitude.

What this feedback resistor creates is a dual-reference for the comparator circuit. The voltage applied to the noninverting (+) input as a reference which to compare with the incoming AC voltage changes depending on the value of the op-amp's output voltage. When the op-amp output is saturated positive, the reference voltage at the noninverting input will be more positive than before. Conversely, when the opamp output is saturated negative, the reference voltage at the noninverting input will be more negative than before. The result is easier to understand on a graph:

When the op-amp output is saturated positive, the upper reference voltage is in effect, and the output won't drop to a negative saturation level unless the AC input rises above that upper reference level. Conversely, when the op-amp output is saturated negative, the lower reference voltage is in effect, and the output won't rise

to a positive saturation level unless the AC input drops below that lower reference level. The result is a clean square-wave output again, despite significant amounts of distortion in the AC input signal. In order for a "glitch" to cause the comparator to switch from one state to another, it would have to be at least as big (tall) as the difference between the upper and lower reference voltage levels, and at the right point in time to cross both those levels. Another application of positive feedback in op-amp circuits is in the construction of oscillator circuits. Anoscillator is a device that produces an alternating (AC), or at least pulsing, output voltage. Technically, it is known as an astable device: having no stable output state (no equilibrium whatsoever). Oscillators are very useful devices, and they are easily made with just an op-amp and a few external components.

When the output is saturated positive, the Vref will be positive, and the capacitor will charge up in a positive direction. When Vramp exceeds Vref by the tiniest margin, the output will saturate negative, and the capacitor will charge in the opposite direction (polarity). Oscillation occurs because the positive feedback is instantaneous and the negative feedback is delayed (by means of an RC time constant). The frequency of this oscillator may be adjusted by varying the size of any component. REVIEW: Negative feedback creates a condition of equilibrium (balance). Positive feedback creates a condition of hysteresis (the tendency to "latch" in one of two extreme states).

 An oscillator is a device producing an alternating or pulsing output voltage.

egative feedback
If we connect the output of an op-amp to its inverting input and apply a voltage signal to the noninverting input, we find that the output voltage of the op-amp closely follows that input voltage (I've neglected to draw in the power supply, +V/-V wires, and ground symbol for simplicity):

As Vin increases, Vout will increase in accordance with the differential gain. However, as Vout increases, that output voltage is fed back to the inverting input, thereby acting to decrease the voltage differential between inputs, which acts to bring the output down. What will happen for any given voltage input is that the op-amp will output a voltage very nearly equal to Vin, but just low enough so that there's enough voltage difference left between Vin and the (-) input to be amplified to generate the output voltage. The circuit will quickly reach a point of stability (known as equilibrium in physics), where the output voltage is just the right amount to maintain the right amount of differential, which in turn produces the right amount of output voltage. Taking the op-amp's output voltage and coupling it to the inverting input is a technique known as negative feedback, and it is the key to having a self-stabilizing system (this is true not only of op-amps, but of any dynamic system in general). This stability gives the op-amp the capacity to work in its linear (active) mode, as opposed to merely being saturated fully "on" or "off" as it was when used as a comparator, with no feedback at all. Because the op-amp's gain is so high, the voltage on the inverting input can be maintained almost equal to Vin. Let's say that our op-amp has a differential voltage gain of 200,000. If Vin equals 6 volts, the output voltage will be 5.999970000149999 volts. This creates just enough differential voltage (6 volts - 5.999970000149999 volts = 29.99985 V) to cause 5.999970000149999 volts to be manifested at the output terminal, and the system holds there in balance. As you can see, 29.99985 V is not a lot of differential, so for practical calculations, we can assume that the differential voltage between the two input wires is held by negative feedback exactly at 0 volts.

One great advantage to using an op-amp with negative feedback is that the actual voltage gain of the op-amp doesn't matter, so long as its very large. If the op-amp's differential gain were 250,000 instead of 200,000, all it would mean is that the output voltage would hold just a little closer to Vin (less differential voltage needed between inputs to generate the required output). In the circuit just illustrated, the output voltage would still be (for all practical purposes) equal to the non-inverting input voltage. Op-amp gains, therefore, do not have to be precisely set by the factory in order for the circuit designer to build an amplifier circuit with precise gain. Negative feedback makes the system self-correcting. The above circuit as a whole will simply follow the input voltage with a stable gain of 1. Going back to our differential amplifier model, we can think of the operational amplifier as being a variable voltage source controlled by an extremely sensitive null

detector, the kind of meter movement or other sensitive measurement device used in bridge circuits to detect a condition of balance (zero volts). The "potentiometer" inside the op-amp creating the variable voltage will move to whatever position it must to "balance" the inverting and noninverting input voltages so that the "null detector" has zero voltage across it:

As the "potentiometer" will move to provide an output voltage necessary to satisfy the "null detector" at an "indication" of zero volts, the output voltage becomes equal to the input voltage: in this case, 6 volts. If the input voltage changes at all, the "potentiometer" inside the op-amp will change position to hold the "null detector" in balance (indicating zero volts), resulting in an output voltage approximately equal to the input voltage at all times. This will hold true within the range of voltages that the op-amp can output. With a power supply of +15V/-15V, and an ideal amplifier that can swing its output voltage just as far, it will faithfully "follow" the input voltage between the limits of +15 volts and -15 volts. For this reason, the above circuit is known as avoltage follower. Like its one-transistor counterpart, the common-collector ("emitter-follower") amplifier, it has a voltage gain of 1, a high input impedance, a low output impedance, and a high current gain. Voltage followers are also known as voltage buffers, and are used to boost the current-sourcing ability of voltage signals too weak (too high of source impedance) to directly drive a load. The op-amp model shown in the last illustration depicts how the output voltage is essentially isolated from the input voltage, so that current on the output pin is not supplied by the input voltage source at all, but rather from the power supply powering the op-amp. It should be mentioned that many op-amps cannot swing their output voltages exactly to +V/-V power supply rail voltages. The model 741 is one of those that cannot: when saturated, its output voltage peaks within about one volt of the +V

power supply voltage and within about 2 volts of the -V power supply voltage. Therefore, with a split power supply of +15/-15 volts, a 741 op-amp's output may go as high as +14 volts or as low as -13 volts (approximately), but no further. This is due to its bipolar transistor design. These two voltage limits are known as the positive saturation voltage and negative saturation voltage, respectively. Other op-amps, such as the model 3130 with field-effect transistors in the final output stage, have the ability to swing their output voltages within millivolts of either power supply rail voltage. Consequently, their positive and negative saturation voltages are practically equal to the supply voltages. REVIEW: Connecting the output of an op-amp to its inverting (-) input is called negative feedback. This term can be broadly applied to any dynamic system where the output signal is "fed back" to the input somehow so as to reach a point of equilibrium (balance). When the output of an op-amp is directly connected to its inverting (-) input, a voltage follower will be created. Whatever signal voltage is impressed upon the noninverting (+) input will be seen on the output. An op-amp with negative feedback will try to drive its output voltage to whatever level necessary so that the differential voltage between the two inputs is practically zero. The higher the op-amp differential gain, the closer that differential voltage will be to zero. Some op-amps cannot produce an output voltage equal to their supply voltage when saturated. The model 741 is one of these. The upper and lower limits of an op-amp's output voltage swing are known as positive saturation voltage and negative saturation voltage, respective

Electronic oscillator
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2010)

A popular op-amp relaxation oscillator.

An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a repetitive electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square wave. They are widely used in innumerable electronic devices. Common examples of signals generated by oscillators include signals broadcast by radio and television transmitters, clock signals that regulate computers and quartz clocks, and the sounds produced by electronic beepers and video games. A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) is an electronic oscillator that generates an AC waveform at a frequency below 20 Hz. This term is typically used in the field of audio synthesizers, to distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator. Oscillators designed to produce a high-power AC output from a DC supply are usually calledinverters. There are two main types of electronic oscillator: the harmonic oscillator and the relaxation oscillator.
Contents
[hide]

1 Harmonic oscillator 2 Relaxation oscillator 3 See also 4 References 5 External links

[edit]Harmonic

oscillator

Block diagram of a harmonic oscillator; an amplifier A with its output vo fed back into its input vf through a filter, (j).

Main article: Harmonic oscillator The harmonic, or linear, oscillator produces a sinusoidal output. The basic form of a harmonic oscillator is an electronic amplifier connected in a positive feedback loop with its output fed back into its input through a filter. When the power supply to the amplifier is first switched on, the amplifier's output consists only of noise. The noise travels around the loop and is filtered and re-amplified until it increasingly resembles a sine wave at a single frequency. In inductive-capacitive or LC oscillators, the filter is a tuned circuit (often called a tank circuit) consisting of an inductor (L) and capacitor (C) connected together. Charge flows back and forth between the capacitor's plates through the inductor, so the tuned circuit can store electrical energy oscillating at its resonant frequency. There are small losses in the tank circuit, but the amplifier compensates for those losses and supplies the power for the output signal. LC oscillators are typically used when a tunable frequency source is necessary, such as in signal generators, tunable radio transmitters and the local oscillators in radio receivers. Typical LC oscillator circuits are the Hartley, Colpitts and Clapp circuits. On-chip inductors usually don't have a high enough Q-factor to use in the tuned circuit. A piezoelectric crystal (commonly quartz) may take the place of the filter to stabilise the frequency of oscillation, this is called a crystal oscillator. These kinds of oscillators contain quartz crystals that mechanically vibrate asresonators, and their vibration determines the oscillation frequency. Crystals have very high Q-factor and also better temperature stability than tuned circuits, so crystal oscillators have much

better frequency stability than LC or RC oscillators. They are used to stabilize the frequency of most radio transmitters, and to generate the clock signal in computers. The Pierce oscillator circuit is often used for crystal oscillators. Because the crystal is an off-chip component, it adds some cost and complexity to the system design, but the crystal itself is generally quite inexpensive. Surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices are a kind of crystal oscillator, but achieve much higher frequencies by establishing standing waves on the surface of the quartz crystal.[citation needed] These are more expensive than crystal oscillators, and are used in specialized applications which require a direct and very accurate high frequency reference, for example, in cellular telephones. There are many ways to implement harmonic oscillators, because there are different ways to amplify and filter. Some of the different circuits are:
Armstrong oscillator Hartley oscillator Colpitts oscillator Clapp oscillator Delay line oscillator Pierce oscillator (crystal) Phase-shift oscillator RC oscillator (Wien Bridge and "Twin-T") Cross-coupled LC oscillator Vack oscillator Opto-Electronic Oscillator. [edit]Relaxation

oscillator

Main article: relaxation oscillator A relaxation oscillator produces a non-sinusoidal output, such as a square, sawtooth or triangle wave. It contains an energy-storing element (a capacitor or, more rarely, an inductor) and a nonlinear trigger circuit (a latch, Schmitt trigger, or negative resistance element) that periodically charges and discharges the energy stored in the storage element thus causing abrupt changes in the output waveform.

Square-wave relaxation oscillators are used to provide the clock signal for sequential logic circuits such as timers and counters, although crystal oscillators are often preferred for their greater stability. Triangle wave or sawtooth oscillators are used in the timebase circuits that generate the horizontal deflection signals for cathode ray tubes in analogue oscilloscopes and television sets. In function generators, this triangle wave may then be further shaped into a close approximation of a sine wave. Ring oscillators are built of a ring of active delay stages. Generally the ring has an odd number of inverting stages, so that there is no single stable state for the internal ring voltages. Instead, a single transition propagates endlessly around the ring. Types of relaxation oscillator circuits include:
multivibrator ring oscillator delay line oscillator rotary traveling wave oscillator. [edit]