Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

• The deoxyribonucleic acid (or DNA) is a very long chain of connected

nucleotides.

• Each nucleotide contains a phosphate group, a sugar group, and a

nitrogen base.

• A DNA strand interacts with another DNA strand to form a double-helix structure.
Fig. 1 shows how the sugar, phosphate, and nucleotide bases are arranged to
form DNA.

DNA is considered the blueprint of life because it works the same way as the blueprint
of houses made by engineers. Infrastructures would not be created successfully without
a blueprint. Similarly, without the blueprint of life, humans and other living organisms
will not exist.

The four types of nitrogen bases present in the DNA are

• Adenine (A)

• Thymine (T)
 • Guanine (G)

• Cytosine (C)

For DNA, the adenine (A) always pairs with the thymine (T), while the guanine (G)
pairs up with the cytosine (C).

The DNA wrapped in histones is termed as the chromosomes.

● The chromatid is one version of the duplicated chromosome.

● The chromatin is just the uncondensed counterpart of chromosomes.

Levels of Organization Genes

and theirFunction

A gene is a segment of the

DNA that serves as a unit of heredity.

A gene contains all the needed information in controlling

the expression of different traits in
 an organism.
Major Unit of Gene

• Exons - coding regions.

• Introns - non-coding regions.

• Promoter region - regulatory sequence that regulates the activation of

genes.

• Enhancer region - activates promoter region become activated.

Genes and their Function

•
• The expression of biological traits is influenced and controlled by a set of
genes that we refer to as the genotype.

• A phenotype is the observable traits expressed in an individual.

Location of the Genes

For prokaryotes, the genetic material is suspended in the cytoplasm.

• In eukaryotes, the genetic material is all stored within the nucleus.

Organizational Structure in the Genetic Materials within

Organisms

• Chromosome - made up of coiled DNA and histone

 • DNA - double strand nucleotide molecule.

• Genes - basic unit of genetic inheritance.

Why are genes important to heredity?

Genes carry the information that determines your traits (say: trates), which
are features or characteristics that are passed on to you — or inherited —
from your parents.

In criminal investigations, what are the sources of DNA that investigators acquire
to identify the victim or the criminal? Why is DNA used in these investigations?

DNA is generally used to solve crimes in one of two ways. In cases where a
suspect is identified, a sample of that person's DNA can be compared to evidence
from the crime scene. The results of this comparison may help establish whether
the suspect committed the crime.
1. It is also known as the non-coding region of the gene.
2. It is the physical feature of an individual.
3. It regulates the physical manifestations of a trait.
4. It is known as the genetic material.
5. It is a part of a gene that codes for important proteins.

Answers:
1. INTRONS
2. GENE/ PHENOTYPE
3. GENOTYPE
 4. DNA / Deoxyribonucleic acid
5. Genetic Code

Laws of Heredity and the Punnett Square

Proponent of Genetics

• In his pea plant breeding experiment, Gregor Mendel was able to conclude
that genes controlling a specific trait come in pairs called alleles

Works of Gregor Mendel

● Gregor Mendel conducted a series of hybridization experiments on pea

plants to observe patterns of inheritance in organisms.

● He observed seven traits to formulate his hypothesis on genetic inheritance

of traits.
Law of Dominance

• A dominant trait exists when a dominant allele masks the expression of the
recessive allele.

• A recessive trait exists if the dominant allele is not present and has a pair of
recessive alleles.
•
• Individuals with homozygous (TT or tt) genotypes may exhibit dominant or
recessive traits.

•
• Individuals with heterozygous (Tt) pairs of alleles will only exhibit the
dominant trait

•
• A genotype represented by two dominant alleles or two recessive alleles is
called homozygous.

•
• A genotype consists of one dominant, one recessive allele is called
heterozygous.

•
• An allele controls similar traits but exhibits different phenotypes.

Law of Segregation

• In his pea experiments, Mendel knows that crossed parent plants have one
tall allele (T) that dominates the short allele (t) causing it to grow tall (Tt).

• To get the short plants (tt) from these parents, the alleles from the short and
tall plants should separate, otherwise the generation of short plants is not
possible.

• From this, Mendel constructs the idea that alleles must segregate
somewhere between the production of sex cells and fertilization.

Law of Independent Assortment

With Mendel’s work on several cross breeds of pea plants, he observed that
the height of the plant (T), color (Y), and shape (R) of the seeds had no
 effect in the inheritance of one another.

• Mendel derived a conclusion that the different traits are inherited

independently.

Independent inheritance of pod shape (round = R; wrinkled = r)

and Color (yellow = Y; green = y) in pea plants.

Punnett Square
 • A Punnett square is a graphical representation for predicting all possible
resulting
genotype

combinations of a specific cross or breeding experiment.

Making a Punnett Square

To predict the resulting genotype combination, follow the steps below.

1. Draw a Punnett square by setting up a grid of perpendicular lines.

2. The genotype of one parent is then placed on the top.

 3. The genotype of the other parent is placed down the left side.

4. The spaces at the center are filled by copying the letters on the row
and column heading across or down into the empty squares.

One dog is heterozygous for black haired traits (Bb), and its partner is
homozygous white-haired traits (bb). Using the Punnett square, determine
the ratio for the phenotype of their offspring.

Step 1: Identify the genotype both parents.

heterozygous black - haired traits x homozygous white - haired traits

Bb x bb

Step 2: Construct the Punnett square for the cross.

Step 3: Interpret the result.

There is a 1:1 ratio for the black and white-haired offspring

1. It states that the recessive trait is being masked.

2. Two alleles that code for a certain trait separate from one another during sex
cell formation.

3. The cell with the combined alleles from both parents forms the offspring.

Answers:
A. Law Of Dominance
B. The Law Of Segregation
C. The Law Of Segregation

Why did Mendel choose pea plants for his experiment on inheritance?

He chose peas because they had been used for similar studies, are easy to grow
and can be sown each year.
Non-Mendelian Inheritance

Non-Mendelian Genetics

• A non-Mendelian inheritance is a complex pattern of inheritance that does

not follow the laws of heredity by Gregor Mendel.

Incomplete Dominance

• Incomplete dominance is a pattern of inheritance describing the formation

of a trait that is in between the phenotypes of the parents.

Example of incomplete dominance in crossing flowers of different colors.

Codominance

• Codominance is a non-Mendelian type of dominance where the alleles of a

gene pair in a heterozygote are fully expressed.
 • It will result in an offspring with a phenotype that is neither dominant nor

recessive.
Sex-Linked Traits

• In humans, sex determination is dependent on the presence or absence of

the Y chromosome.

• The X and Y not only carry the genes that determine sex but also those for
some other characteristics as well.

• These genes that go along with either sex chromosome is said to be sex-
linked.

Sex-Linked Traits

When the trait is linked to the X chromosome, it is called x-linked trait

while if the trait is linked to the Y chromosome, it is called y-linked
trait.
Sex-Related Traits
● Sex-influenced trait is an autosomal trait. It is not located on the sex
chromosomes.
● Sex-limited trait is also an autosomal trait. Similar to sex-influenced trait,
the sex of a person has something to do with the expression of the trait.

Multiple Alleles

• In some traits, a certain gene can have more than a pair alleles that
controls the expression of traits.

• This is evident in the patterns of inheritance in human blood type.

Direction: Determine what non-Mendelian concept governs the inheritance of
each given trait.

● A non-Mendelian inheritance is a complex pattern of inheritance that does

not follow the laws of heredity by Gregor Mendel.

● Incomplete dominance is a pattern of inheritance characterized by the

formation of a trait that is in between the phenotypes of the parents.

● Codominance is a non-Mendelian type of dominance where the alleles of a

gene pair in a heterozygote are fully expressed.

● Genes that go along with either sex chromosome is said to be sex-linked.

● In some traits, a certain gene can have more than a pair alleles that controls
 the expression of traits. It is called multiple alleles.

Biodiversity in the Philippines

○ The Philippines is a biodiversity hotspot.

A biodiversity hotspot is an area with high biodiversity that is at risk of being

destroyed and the organisms being affected.

The Philippines is a megadiverse country, but many habitats in the country

are unfortunately at risk of destruction.

Estimated Number of Philippine Species

Endemic Species

• Endemic species are species that are exclusively found in a geographical

area.

• An example of an endemic species to the Philippines is the Philippine eagle,

Pithecophaga jefferyi.

Species Richness

● Coral reefs are rich in biodiversity.

Abundance

Abundance refers to the number of individuals in an area.

Species Density
 • Deserts typically have low species density compared to other ecosystems.

How do these affect biodiversity?

• The use of resources can change based on the number of species or
individuals present.

Endangered species are ones that have low populations, or are being
threatened to have dwindling populations.

Extinct species are ones that have disappeared from the Earth.

1. Endemic
2. Endangered
3. Extinction
4. Abundance
5. Density

Extinction

Extinction occurs when all of the members of a species disappear on Earth.

Extinction happens naturally. However, humans are speeding the
process up because of our impact on the environment.

Environmental Phenomena
● 1. Air Pollution
● 2. Water Pollution
● 3: Soil and Land Pollution
● 4. Climate Change
● 5. Global Warming
● 6. Deforestation & Logging
● 7. Increased Carbon Footprint
● 8. Genetic Modification
● 9. Effect on Marine Life
● 10. Public Health Issues
● 11. Overpopulation
● 12: Loss of Biodiversity
● 13. Household and Industrial Waste
● 14. Ozone Layer Depletion
● 15. Mining
● 16: Natural Resource Depletion
● 17: Natural Disasters
● 18: Nuclear Issues
● 19. Loss of Endangered Species
● 20. Acid Rain
● 21: Agricultural Pollution
 ● 22: Light and Noise Pollution
● 23. Urban Sprawl
● 24: Disposal of Medical Waste
● 25: Littering and Landfills

Diseases
Ex. chytridiomycosis

Competition
● They compete for resources, territory and mates.

Predation
● Think of wolves hunting moose, owls hunting mice, or shrews hunting worms
and insects.

Habitat Degradation
● Pollution, invasive species, and disruption of ecosystem processes

Invasive Species
● Invasive Carp.
● Zebra Mussels
● Green Crab
● Killer Algae
● Yellow Crazy Ant
● The Cane Toad

Climate Change
• Drastic alterations in an area’s normal climate and weather conditions and
1.Due to extreme logging and mining activities. Deforestation can directly lead to
biodiversity loss when animal species that live in the trees no longer have their
habitat, cannot relocate, and therefore become extinct.

2. The stings cause a burning sensation and itching blisters that can become infected.
Therefore affecting the native communities.

3, Melting glaciers add to rising sea levels, which in turn increases coastal erosion
and elevates storm surge as warming air and ocean temperatures create more
frequent and intense coastal storms like hurricanes and typhoons.
 1. Due to logging and mining in the forests that they live in, along with the
persistence of an illegal pet trade industry and being hunted for food by local
people.

All species should be protected from illegal hunting and capture. Tarsiers should not be
shown to the public as a pet like it is illegally practiced in the island of Bohol in the
Philippines. Existing wildlife laws must be enforced and local groups must encourage
the government to fulfill its mission to apply laws.

2. The world's smallest edible fish, locally called “sinarapan,” is slowly disappearing
due to overfishing in Lake Buhi in Camarines Sur province, and the absence of a
systematic and scientific way of protecting and propagating the species.

The main strategy for protecting and conserving biodiversity in the Philippines is the
establishment of an integrated protected area system (IPAS). The IPAS was set up to
protect and preserve a representative sample of all ecosystems and habitat types in the
country, as well as their plant and animal species.

3. Due to overlogging and the high usage of the wood.

The main strategy for protecting and conserving biodiversity in the Philippines is the
establishment of an integrated protected area system (IPAS). The IPAS was set up to
protect and preserve a representative sample of all ecosystems and habitat types in the
country, as well as their plant and animal species.