DOWNHOLE FLUIDS LABORATORY

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 Downhole Fluids Laboratory

Reservoir fluids rarely occur as simple liquids and gases filling

monolithic structures.
Their generation, migration and accumulation are affected by
various processes
that result in complex fluid compositions and distributions.
In the past, failure to account for the complexities of the reservoir
and its fluids has often resulted in costly production problems and
disappointing results.
Recent developments in formation testing and sampling
technologies provide asset teams with a downhole laboratory to
measure in situ fluid properties and gain insight into reservoir
connectivity.

Oilfield Review Winter2009/2010

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• Organic material in source rocks is converted into the oil and gas that migrate into reservoirs.
• in the composition of the original organic matter and the processes that occur during migration and
accumulation of petroleum fluids often increase their compositional complexity.
• Once in place, reservoir fluids can equilibrate, yet still exhibit large compositional gradients.
• Frequently, however, fluids are in dis- equilibrium, disrupted by processes such as bio- degradation, multiple
reservoir fluid chargings and seal breach.
• Downhole fluid analysis measurements, some of which have recently been introduced, can help resolve the
complexity of these fluids at near-reservoir conditions.
• Armed with these data, asset managers can make informed decisions long before incurring huge expenses
associated with field development and installation of production facilities.
• Although field development plans depend on a thorough understanding of in situ properties, knowledge of the
fluid characteristics alone is insufficient to maximize recovery.
• In particular, undetected barriers to fluid flow can create enormous problems for operators.
• For example, because pressure equilibration across sealing barriers can occur over geologic time, this
equilibration does not prove flow communication in production timescales.
• Failure to account for reservoir architectural complexity has often resulted in costly mistakes.
• New downhole fluid analysis (DFA) technologies are available that enable identification of reservoir
compartmentalization and connectivity, along with fluid heterogeneities.
• To determine the fluid properties required for effective reservoir development, engineers use DFA techniques
extensively.
• Although fluid properties are derived from a number of sensors, optical spectroscopy, based on visible and
near- infrared (Vis-NIR) light, is the foundation of DFA measurements for hydrocarbons.
• The technique utilizes the light-absorption properties of fluids as well as light scattering from different
materials to identify fluid composition (C1, C2, C3-5, C6+ and CO2), gas/oil ratio (GOR), relative asphaltene
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content and water fraction.
• Other DFA measurements and capabilities include determination of pH and resistivity (if the fluid is water), index of
refraction, fluorescence and live-fluid density.
• Prior to the availability of DFA measurements, operators collected a limited number of samples, sent them to a
laboratory and, after an often lengthy period of time, received a report describing the reservoir fluids.
• Without real-time analysis to establish the extent of fluid complexity, analysts often presumed fluid simplicity.
• Although the typical outcome was a simplified evaluation program, which initially appeared to be cost- effective, it
came at the expense of adequate understanding of reservoir complexities.
• Too often the result was increased total project costs.
• With real-time DFA, the complexity and cost of complexity of the fluid column.
• This improvement in sampling and testing efficiency enables opera- tors to detect fluid complexity and resolve ques-
tions arising from the downhole information.
• Fluid complexities occur for many reasons.
• Kerogen, the major global precursor of petroleum, consists of selectively preserved, resistant, cellular organic
materials (algae, pollen, spores and leaf cuticles) and degraded residues of biological organic matter (amorphous
material).
• The conversion from kerogen and the migration of fluids from source rock to reservoir rock impact fluid properties
and composition.
• In addition, reservoir-scale fluid complexity can be caused by differences in temperature, pressure, gravity,
biodegradation, phase transitions and reservoir charging history.
• During early deepwater development, much of the interest in fluid composition measurements focused on flow
assurance into the wellbore, through pipelines and within production facilities.
• However, it became evident that even more-significant problems occur in the reservoir. 4
• Consequently, the emphasis of fluid analysis has shifted to the reservoir, where knowledge of in situ fluid
properties has considerable bearing on well placement, reservoir development, completion strategies and
surface-facilities design.
• Using the downhole laboratory provided by DFA sensors, reservoir engineers quantify fluid properties with an
accuracy that approaches that of surface-laboratory measurements.
• The advantage of DFA is that fluid properties are measured under reservoir conditions.
• Unlike equivalent measurements in a surface laboratory, engineers can repeat, validate or use measurements
to explain reservoir heterogeneities.
• A surface laboratory can repeat measurements, but only on the same sample.
• Moreover, DFA employs the same tool, time, temperature, calibration and technical operator—but with
different fluids—from one DFA station to the next.
• DFA measurements can also enable identification of reservoir compartmentalization, which is defined as lack
of free-fluid flow between different regions of a field over production timescales.
• Flow units within a reservoir can range from massive to minute, and effective drainage during production
requires that the well contact as many compartments as is economically feasible.
• Because compartments are a major cause of reservoir underperformance, some experts suggest that this is the
biggest problem facing deepwater operators in terms of strategic reservoir development.
• This article reviews the creation and migration of reservoir fluids, including reservoir charging, and the
resulting effects on fluid properties.
• Compositional grading—the smooth and continuous variation of fluid properties with depth—is discussed,
along with methods to detect reservoir compartmentalization.
• Also described are recent developments using asphaltene equilibrium distribution as an indicator of reservoir
connectivity.
• Case studies from the deepwater Gulf of Mexico, the North Sea and offshore Africa demonstrate the application
of new sampling methods and technologies.
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 Fluid Complexity
• Outside the oil and gas industry there are significant misconceptions about the habitat of hydro- carbons in
nature.
• Perhaps such works as Jules Verne’s Journey to the Center of the Earth, or similar portrayals, have given the
general public the impression that oil lies in vast lakes below the Earth’s surface, awaiting the adventurous oil
company’s drill bit to pop in and drain the oil, like sucking soda through a straw.
• The petroleum technologist harbors no such illusion, understanding that hydrocarbons trapped within the pore
spaces of reservoir rocks must be coaxed from their hiding places through exacting effort and time-tested
methodologies.
• Even among professionals, however, there is often a simplistic view of the oil or gas in a reservoir.
• Although it is recognized that oil is not found in a subsurface lake, many in the industry consider a reservoir as
something akin to a large porous container filled with homogeneous fluids.
• Reservoir architectural heterogeneity and fluid compositional complexity not only exist in nature but are the
rule rather than the exception.
• This is especially true in deep reservoir structures where time and natural forces create ideal conditions for
such heterogeneity.

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• As a sedimentary basin matures, the processes that affect hydrocarbon generation, migration and accumulation
result in complex fluid compositions.
• Understanding the complexity of hydro- carbon distributions in a reservoir begins at the source rock.
• Of the estimated 6 × 1015 tons of organic matter found in the Earth’s crust, 95% is in the form of kerogen.
• It is from this building block that most hydrocarbons are generated.
• Kerogen consists of plant remains, such as algae, spores, higher plant debris, pollen, resins and waxes.
• Thermal maturation of kerogen expels fluids, such as oil and gas, and leaves behind a solid, mature form of kerogen
(Fig 1).
• Type I kerogens are rather uncommon.
• They are oil prone and are made up of mainly algal and bacterial remains.
• The kerogen in the lacustrine Green River Shale, found in the central USA, is an example of this group.
• Comprising a mixture of terrigenous and marine sources, Type II kerogens may be prone to oil or gas depending on
the temperature and proportions of constituents.
• Gas- prone Type III kerogens are composed of woody terrigenous source material.
• Many North American and European coals contain Type III kerogen.
• The hydrocarbon gas from this kerogen type is dominated by methane but may also contain ethane, propane, butane
and pentane.
• Type IV kerogen, dead carbon, has almost no potential for hydrocarbon generation and commonly consists of recycled
organic matter that has undergone previous burial and maturation.
• As kerogen-rich source rock is buried and compacted, increased temperature and pressure convert the organic
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material into petroleum through catagenesis.
Fig 1 Kerogen conversion to hydrocarbons.
The Van Krevelen diagram classifies kerogen types by
crossplotting ratios of oxygen and hydrogen to carbon.
During the maturation process, kerogen is thermogenically
converted to hydrocarbons.
The evolutionary paths of increasing maturity (green arrows)
indicate the type of hydrocarbons generated from each kerogen
source type.
Additional early-stage by-products of the conversion process are
water and CO2.

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• Migration of the fluids into permeable rocks is controlled by three primary parameters: capillary pressure,
buoyancy and hydrodynamics.
• As fluids charge into the reservoir, they may be significantly out of equilibrium (Fig 2).
• For example, if the fluids enter a reservoir via a high-mobility path such as a fault, then poor fluid mixing
takes place.
• Over geologic time, through molecular diffusion and gravity segregation, fluid equilibrium of the hydrocarbons
can be established.
• Light gases will rise to the highest level in the reservoir, water generally fills the lowest level, and
hydrocarbons of various densities are distributed in between.
• With rare exceptions, kerogen Types I and II are required for generation of liquid hydrocarbons.
• In the initial stages of conversion at low heat, heavy oils are created and can be preserved as asphalt or tar
deposits.
• Increased temperature leads to generation of lighter oils, often cracked from early-stage heavy oils.
• There is, however, a temperature limit to oil generation.
• When the temperature exceeds the upper limit of the oil window—in excess of approximately 150°C [300°F]—
condensate and wet gas result.
• At higher temperatures, through a more extreme thermal process termed metagenesis, less com- plex gases are
generated, and methane gas eventually becomes the primary hydrocarbon produced (Fig 3).
• In contrast to the limited window for oil generation—restricted to certain kerogen types and a specific
temperature range—natural gas originates under a variety of conditions.
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• It is generated from all source rocks and across a broad temperature range.
Fig 2 Stainforth charge history model.
According to the Stainforth model, charge history
determines hydrocarbon distribution.
In the early stage, low-maturity source rock (left) generates
heavier oil, medium-maturity source rock (center) produces
lighter oils along with gas and, finally, high-maturity
source rock (right) generates light oil and gas.
Lighter fluids rise to the top of the reservoir and push down
fluids that migrated earlier.
The extent of dissolved gas (as reflected in the GOR) in the
hydrocarbon column is controlled by pressure and
temperature.
In this model the fluids are not in equilibrium.
Whether the reservoir fluids attain equilibrium is a function
of parameters such as vertical permeability and thermal
gradients.

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Fig 3Hydrocarbon maturation.
Early-stage hydrocarbon creation occurs in immature source rock in a process of diagenesis, whereby organic
materials are buried, compressed and undergo chemical alteration.
Bacterial diagenesis can also occur through anoxic microbial conversion of organic material to methane.
As temperatures rise above 50°C with deeper burial, microbes die off and catagenesis predominates.
This process is similar to the high-temperature cracking and distillation in oil refineries, where heavy oils are
converted to lighter petroleum products, but can occur at much lower temperatures over geologic time.
Metagenesis is a later phase of hydrocarbon generation, occurring above 150°C, in which organic materials and
previously generated petroleum are converted into natural gas, predominantly methane, at higher temperatures.
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• During diagenesis (early burial), anaerobic microorganisms can convert source- rock organic matter into
methane.
• During catagenesis and metagenesis, significant amounts of natural gas are produced.
• The maturation process lends itself to potentially complex fluid columns and compositional gradients.
• The natural forces of gravitational buoyancy and solubility can create asphaltene gradients in the fluid column.
• Gravity drives the less dense hydrocarbons, especially gas, to the top of the reservoir.
• Because asphaltenes are not soluble in gas, the presence of a large GOR gradient results in an asphaltene
gradient with higher concentrations at a lower point in the column.
• Transport processes of both convection and diffusion may also be active.
• Unlike diffusion convection requires a sufficient thermal gradient, or inverted density gradient, to effect change
in the fluid distribution.
• These normal processes commonly result in gravitationally ordered fluid gradients progressing upward from
heavy oils, medium oils, light oils, condensate, wet gas, lighter gas and finally to methane.
• However, nonequilibrium conditions often exist—even given geologic timescales for fluids to equilibrate.
• Fluid mixing processes in the reservoir may be extremely slow.
• The added effects of tectonism, faulting and reservoir het- erogeneity contribute to complicated fluid
distributions.
• The processes acting on reservoir fluids can preserve a nonequilibrium condition.
• Another contributor to nonequilibrium conditions is biodegradation, which occurs at the oil/ water contact
(OWC). 12
• Biodegradation results from the metabolic conversion of saturated hydrocarbons, primarily by methanogenic
and sulfate-reducing bacteria in anoxic conditions.
• Preferential removal of alkanes at the OWC by biodegradation yields an increased asphaltene concentration
causing large, nonequilibrium viscosity gradients.
• The OWC may change with subsequent charging of the reservoir or with seal leaks, but biodegradation
remains active only below about 80°C [175°F]; above this temperature the microbes are no longer viable.
• Among other effects, biodegradation raises oil viscosity, lowers API gravity, increases asphaltene and sulfur
content, and increases concentrations of metals.
• Biodegradation can exert major control over the quality of the oil as well as its producibility.
• Biodegraded oil may be found as a mix of oils.
• For example, primary oil arrives first, is biodegraded, and is followed by oil from subsequent reservoir charges.
• The secondary oils may be unaffected, appearing after biodegradation has ceased, creating spatial variations in
fluid properties.
• In addition, biogenic or thermogenic gas may override existing oil in the reservoir, move updip and disrupt the
existing reservoir fluid gradients.
• The GOR of the primary oil changes with this influx, creating compositional variations.
• Detection of these gradient disruptions from charging and recharging may indicate the presence of
compartments, a topic to be discussed later.
• Ultimately, rather than an open container filled with layers of water, oil and gas, the reservoir is a complex
architectural structure contain- ing mixtures of fluids.
• There is no single tool to identify these complexities, and engineers create completion strategies and reservoir
development plans using data from many sources.
• DFA measurements, however, have proved highly effective as a tool for understanding both reservoir fluids and
architectural complexity.
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 Application-Driven Innovation
• Wireline formation testing tools (WFTs) first appeared in the 1950s as a means to retrieve fluid samples for
surface analysis.
• Laboratory testing of these samples was hampered by contamination, particularly with filtrate from the
drilling fluid, and by alteration of the fluids during the sampling and transfer process.
• Successive tool generations led to the development of more- advanced tools, such as the MDT modular
formation dynamics tester, which incorporated innovations such as multiple chambers, the ability to pump
fluid into the wellbore before capturing a sample, improved accuracy and resolution, a variety of probe styles,
dual-packer assemblies and focused sampling to significantly reduce mud-filtrate contamination (Fig 4).
• The MDT tool is also the primary platform for fluid property measurements.
• Reservoir engineers need accurate assessment of fluid properties for reservoir evaluation, flow assurance,
reservoir simulation and model- ing, facilities design, production strategies, reserves calculations and recovery
estimates. Early sampling methods sometimes yielded sub- optimal results.
• Relatively few samples were used with simplistic fluid models to explain fluid distributions in the reservoir.
• In addition, engineers resorted to analytical methods to correct laboratory measurements for phase changes
and mud- filtrate contamination, which often led to erroneous fluid characterization.
• This limitation has been partially overcome by the ability to pump contaminated fluids from the formation
prior to sample initiation.
• The MDT tool’s pumpout module is used to flow reservoir fluids into and through the tool.
• This enables reduction of filtrate contamination to obtain nearly virgin native fluids, as deter- mined through
the DFA measurements, as well as the acquisition of reservoir fluids in sample bottles carried in the tool.
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Fig 4 The MDT tool. The InSitu Family service is delivered downhole by the
MDT tool.
Along with the InSitu Fluid Analyzer module are the Quicksilver Probe tool
for quick fluid-sample cleanup, dual pumpout modules for flowing sample-
and guard-probe fluids and a sample- bottle module.
Recovered samples are used for surface-laboratory analysis of reservoir
fluids.

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• One such operation in Kuwait pumped 2,100 liters [555 galUS] over a 66.5-hour interval to acquire
uncontaminated samples.
• Although the volume of moved fluid is considerable, this is not an efficient method if multiple samples are
needed or if DFA fluid profiling with multiple test points is the goal.
• A focused-sampling probe, added to the MDT tool in 2006, greatly improved wellsite efficiency, allowing the
timely acquisition of fluid samples free or nearly free of mud-filtrate contamination.
• Using a concentric sampling arrangement and two synchronized pumps, the Quicksilver Probe tool acquires
uncontaminated samples in a much shorter time frame (Fig 5).
• An outer guard ring extracts fluids—primarily filtrate and contaminated formation fluids—that enter the probe
peripherally.
• Fluid flowing through the central probe quickly transitions from filtrate-contaminated fluids to formation fluids
of acceptable quality for in situ fluid property measurements.
• Low-contamination fluids are quickly available for downhole analysis and more samples can be taken in a
reasonable time frame.
• Tool sensors and fluid analysis capabilities have also advanced to the point that fluid properties can be recorded
and evaluated while the tool is still in the well.
• Because of this, sample recovery to the surface is not always necessary.
• In addition, engineers can create a Fluid Profiling log throughout the reservoir interval from laboratory-quality
measurements acquired at downhole conditions.

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Fig 5 Quicksilver Probe focused-sampling tool.
Concentric intake flow areas of the Quicksilver Probe tool are connected to independent pumps in the MDT tool
(right).
The outer, or guard, probe extracts filtrate and continues to pump during sampling to keep contaminated fluids from
migrating to the main probe.
In addition to lower levels of sample contamination (graph, right), this assembly can produce acceptable samples
more quickly than conventional probe assemblies (left).
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 The Downhole Laboratory

• Most major service companies have some form of downhole fluid analysis service.
• Each company has chosen specific methods to analyze the fluids, including optical absorption and magnetic
resonance.
• The InSitu Family sensors in the provide the following measurements:•
• hydrocarbon fluid composition (C1, C2, C3-5andC6+ )

• Gas/ oil ratio

•
CO2 concentration
• Color ( and relative asphaltene content)
• pH(for water samples
• Live fluid density and viscosity
• Oil-base mud 9OBM) correlation.
• Resisitivity
• Pressure and temperature (at sample depth)
• However, the basic method for fluid analysis is optical spectroscopy from the InSitu Fluid Analyzer module (Fig
6 ).

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Fig 6 Downhole fluids laboratory.
As fluid moves through the MDT tool, the InSitu Fluid Analyzer service and acts as a portable fluids laboratory.
Two spectrometers measure light-absorption properties of the as well as its color.
Fluorescence sensors provide retrograde condensation detection and can differentiate oil type when the fluids are in an emulsion.
The pH of water samples is measured by injecting a pH-sensitive dye into the flow stream (not shown) and detecting the color
change.
Pressure, temperature and resistivity sensors acquire data as fluid flows through the tool.
A live-fluid density sensor is located in the flowline, and a second sensor can be placed in the probeassembly as well. 19
• Optical spectrometers measure light absorption at different wave lengths for fluids passing through the sensor
and can distinguish between water, gas, crude oil and OBM filtrate (Fig 7 ).
• Introduced originally to monitor contamination, downhole spectroscopy measurements have undergone a
number of advances.
• The current tool includes two spectrometers—filter array and grating array.
• Both spectrometers share the same optical cell, but they cover different wavelength ranges and provide
complementary functions.
• Wavelengths of the 20 channels in the filter array cover the visible and near-infrared spectrum (Vis-NIR)
range from 400 to 2,100 nm.
• These channels indicate the color and molecular vibration absorptions of the fluid and show the main
absorption peaks of water and CO2. The sensor also detects color change for the pH measurement.
• The grating spectrometer has 16 channels that focus on the NIR spectrum of 1,600 to 1,800 nm where
reservoir fluid has characteristic absorptions that reflect molecular structure.
• For oilfield fluids of interest, much of the information is found in the NIR spectrum.
• Color, ranging from very dark in heavy crudes to clear or very light for gas condensates, is used to distinguish
oil types. The term color should not be confused with hue, such as red, green or blue.
• These more exotic colors are produced when crude oils are observed in background light that induces some
fluorescence, and light absorption creates a variety of colors.
• In fact, a blue crude oil has been produced for many years in the Gulf of Mexico; its blue color is due to strong
fluorescence under illumination (Fig 8).
• Measured properly, crude oils are typically brown, and coloration refers to degree of brown absorption.
• 20
Fig 7 Optical density of fluids from spectroscopy measurements.
The InSitu Fluid Analyzer tool incorporates two optical spectrometers: a filter array spectrometer that covers a frequency range from 400 to
2,100 nm and a grating spectrometer that focuses on a narrow range of 1,600 to 1,800 nm where reservoir fluids have characteristic
absorptions that reflect their molecular structures.
The frequency of visible light is about 500 nm, and NIR light ranges from 750 to 2,500 nm. Oilfield fluids have specific spectral optical density
(OD) characteristics that are functions of the frequency of light passing through them.
Visible (Vis) light is best suited for distinguishing relative asphaltene content.
The NIR spectrum is useful for water detection, distinguishing water from oil and identifying the type of oil.
Optical spectroscopy was originally introduced to determine sample quality, especially the transition from OBM filtrate to reservoir fluids
during sampling.
OBM filtrates do not contain asphaltenes or significant dissolved gas.
Thus, OBM filtrates are differentiated from crude oil using asphaltene concentration determined from OD of visible light measurements.
Dissolved gas content from NIR measurements is an additional sample quality indicator. 21
• One use of coloration is to determine contamination of fluid samples from OBM filtrate, which contains little to no
asphaltene and thus has little color.
• The degree of contamination is determined by monitoring the increase in color over time while the MDT tool pumps
fluid from the tested interval through the DFA module.
• In addition to having little color, OBM filtrate generally has negligible dissolved gas—low GOR—whereas most native
oils have appreciable amounts of dissolved gas.
• During pumpout, sampled fluids transition from low to high GOR, indicating that the level of contamination
decreases while the percentage of native oil increases.
• Useful for contamination determination, the GOR measured downhole, before temperature and pressure effects occur,
is also an important in situ fluid property.
• Sample contamination is only one aspect of the optical spectroscopy measurement.
• Molecules interact with electromagnetic waves, such as those in the visible and NIR spectrum, as a function of their
complexity.
• Oils that are high in asphaltenes and resins are darker and more absorptive than simpler hydrocarbons.
• In the NIR range, light absorption excites molecular vibration in a manner that is analogous to exciting other
mechanical oscillators, such as a guitar string.
• Maximum absorption occurs at characteristic frequencies that are a function of the molecular structure of the hydro-
carbon.
• Methane [CH4]—the simplest hydrocar- bon, with a unique hydrogen/carbon ratio—has a distinct spectral signature.
• Ethane is composed of two –CH3 groups (the methyl group) and has a different signature.
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• Most hydrocarbon gases are dominated by their –CH3 chemical group.
• In contrast, liquid hydrocarbons are dominated by the –CH2– chemical group (the methylene group).
• The spectral signal is used to differentiate methane and ethane from other gases and liquids.
• Carbon dioxide [CO2] has its own characteristic frequency of excitation and can be identified from InSitu Fluid
Analyzer data.
Fig 8 Blue crude.
The blue coloration of this unusual variety of Gulf of Mexico
crude oil is caused by strong fluorescence under ambient light
from a high concentration of perylene, a polychromatic
hydrocarbon.
Typically, oils are brown, and their color, as measured by optical
spectroscopy, is their degree of “brownness.”

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• As the molecular complexity of hydrocarbons increases beyond ethane, the frequency signature is more
complex.
• Thus, the group comprising propane, butane and pentane—the C3-5 group—is combined for analysis. Liquid
hydrocarbons include the hexane and heavier hydrocarbons— the C6+ group.
• Optical absorption of water covers a broad spectrum in the NIR range and overlaps many of the hydrocarbon
peaks.
• The presence of water can mask other fluids, especially CO , from the detector Hydrocarbon fluorescence
results from the aromatic fraction of crude oils, and its color and intensity are characteristics of the oil type
(Fig 9).
• Ultraviolet (UV) light and fluorescence have been used by the oil industry for many years.
• At one time a black light, or UV light, was common on wireline logging units, primarily for core analysis and
detection of trace amounts of hydrocarbon in formation fluid samples when mostly filtrate was recovered.
• Mud loggers still use black lights to detect fluorescence in cuttings.
• The InSitu Fluorescence sensor allows the measurement of fluorescence to be made downhole.
• Although it retains some of the early applications, this sensor offers new utilities, including fluid-phase
detection and typing.
• One application of the fluorescence measurement is the detection of retrograde condensation, also known as
retrograde dew, a condition that can occur upon pressure reduction with each stroke of the pumpout tool.
• A recent innovation using fluorescence is fluid typing in emulsions.
• Emulsion often form in sample acquisition of heavy oils because the asphaltenes in the oil act as a surfactant
for both formation water and water-base mud (WBM) filtrate.
• When these emulsions form, significant light scattering occurs, making optical density measurements difficult
to interpret.
• In the laboratory, centrifuges and chemicals are used to demulsify the liquids and analyze the oil portion.
• This approach is not always successful nor is it an option downhole. 24
Fig 9 Hydrocarbon fluorescence.
Chromophores are molecules that absorb light;
fluorophores, a subset of chromophores, absorb light and
then fluoresce.
For crude oil, virtually all chromophores and fluorophores
have some aromatic carbon.
Graphite is an aromatic carbon in large ring systems and is
correspondingly black.
In the visible light spectrum, light-absorbing heavy oils
appear dark, and lighter oils have less color because they
absorb less light (top).
Under UV radiation (bottom), the heavy oils produce a dull,
reddish brown fluorescence.
Light oils appear blue and produce fluorescence with
greater intensity.
Being clear, the lightest oil absorbs little visible light and
some UV radiation, and thus fluoresces, but at a low level.

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• The fluorescence measurement, however, unlike the optical density measurement, is relatively independent of
the state of the emulsion and gives a qualitative indicator of oil type (Fig 10).
• This is particularly useful in identifying compositionally graded fluids in heavy-oil reservoirs, such as those
affected by biodegradation, without the requirement of pumping to obtain an emulsion-free sample.
• Another important property of reservoir fluids is water pH.
• The pH of water is used for predicting scaling and corrosion potential and for petrophysical evaluation, and it
can also contribute important information about reservoir connectivity.
• The measurement concept is similar to that of classroom experiments, in which the color change in litmus
paper indicates the pH of a liquid.
• For the InSitu pH measurement, a colorimetric dye is injected directly into the flow stream where the optical
spectrometer detects the color change.
• Making the measurement downhole is important because irreversible changes can occur when water samples
are brought to the surface for laboratory testing.
• The measurement not only reflects the condition of the water at formation temperature and pressure, but also
includes the effects of hydrogen sulfide [H2S] and CO2.
• Typically, these gases are flashed and missing when water is analyzed at surface conditions.
• Errors in measurement caused by precipitation of pH-altering solids, which can occur at lower temperatures,
are also overcome.
• The InSitu pH measurement has proved useful in differentiating WBM filtrate from connate water.
• Filtrate from WBM systems is generally basic, with a pH range from 8 to 10, and formation waters are usually
more acidic. 26
Fig 10 Fluorescence measurement and emulsions.
Surface laboratories use centrifuges and chemical agents to break down emulsions and measure properties of the native hydrocarbons.
NIR measurements from six heavy-oil emulsion samples are shown before (top left) and after (bottom left) attempts at demulsification.
Emulsion Samples D, E and F exhibit strong light scattering, which produces a shift in their optical densities.
There is also a noticeable water peak after 2,200 nm.
Samples B (yellow) and D (green) have different spectral signatures as emulsions, yet the oil portions are similar after demulsification based
on their optical characteristics.
Downhole optical spectroscopy measurements have no provision for demulsification.
However, the fluorescence measurement spectrum is unaffected by the emulsion (right), and the responses are identical to those of
demulsified oils (not shown).
Fluorescence spectra of Samples B and D clearly indicate the oils in the emulsion are similar in type, which is not apparent in the optical
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spectroscopy data from emulsified samples.
• In the past, resistivity of the fluid was used to identify formation water, but this method is not effective when
the resistivity the WBM fil1trate is similar to that of the connate waters.
• Engineers use the pH sensor to detect fluid transitions and contacts.
• The conventional method for determining fluid transitions and contacts is plotting MDT pressure data versus
depth.
• Although this method is widely used, its precision depends on the ability to measure true formation pressure.
• Pressure- gradient plots may be affected by the number and spacing of pressure points, measurement
accuracy, depth accuracy and freedom from external perturbations that include supercharging, tool
movement and tool seal failures.
• In addition, it is often difficult to establish pressure gradients in layered reservoirs with varying
permeability, formations containing viscous oils and rocks of low permeability.
• The InSitu Density measurement overcomes many of the limitations inherent in pressure plots.
• Live-fluid density data are acquired from two independent sensors, one placed in the sample probe and the
other located in the flowline.
• Profiling the fluid density quantifies the varia- tions in fluids versus depth.
• Compartmentalization, sealing elements and barriers to flow can be identified from abrupt changes in fluid
properties.
• The accuracy and resolution of the data make it possible to compare fluids from different wells within a field,
establishing connectivity or lack thereof.
• The InSitu Density sensor can be placed in the fluid analyzer section as well as in the Quicksilver Probe tool,
providing independent confirmation of the measurement.
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• Schlumberger engineers have also developed the InSitu Pro software to integrate data from the InSitu Family
sensors, providing both real-time analysis and post acquisition processing (Fig 11).
• These real-time capabilities help identify anomalous readings, fluid contacts and potential reservoir
heterogeneity.
• With this intuitive application, the engineer can develop a deeper understanding of the reservoir fluids as well
as identify connectivity problems related to reservoir architecture.
• Data integration, based on a recognized equa- tion-of-state (EOS) model with fluid property corrections, allows
real-time modification of the testing and sampling program while the MDT tool is still in the well.
• Indications of compartmentalization can be validated before completing the well and performing extensive well
tests.
• Although the measurement capabilities of the InSitu Family system continue to expand, there is still no single
sensor or tool that can supply reservoir engineers with all the information needed to efficiently develop and
produce hydrocarbons from a reservoir.
• These measurements must be integrated with drilling data, reservoir models, production tests and time-
dependent analyses to arrive at the best course of action.

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Fig 11 InSitu Pro software with real-time analysis.
Field engineers can perform quality control checks of field data in a format that offers a clear representation of downhole fluid and
reservoir properties using InSitu Pro software.
Pressure plots provide fluid gradients and transitions, and an excess-pressure plot is also available (Track 1).
Fluid compositional gradients from pressure data can be observed along with fluid analysis (Tracks 3 and 4) at true depth.
Additional InSitu Fluid Analyzer measurements are shown at depth for easy reference.
30
This software can be used to process postacquisition data and generate comprehensive interpretation reports.
 Compartmentalization
• On Alaska’s North Slope, just 35 mi [55 km] east of the prolific Prudhoe Bay field, lies the Badami oil field.
• Discovered in 1990 and brought online in 1997, the field is estimated to contain more than 120 million bbl
[19.1 million m3] of recoverable reserves.
• The excitement of this major discovery was quickly extinguished after production, which briefly peaked at
18,000 bbl/d [2,860 m3/d] in 1998, plummeted to 1,350 bbl/d [214 m3/d].
• The field was eventually mothballed in August 2003, and subsequent attempts to restart operations two years
later were unsuccessful.
• After spend- ing more than US $300 million in development costs, the operating company representatives
cited one major problem: The reservoir is more highly compartmentalized than initially thought, thus
preventing the oil from flowing between the zones targeted for production.
• This is just one example of the high cost of recognizing compartmentalization after field development has
commenced.
• The term compartmentalization covers a variety of conditions that include continuous sealing barriers from
sedimentary features, sealing faults, discontinuous sand lenses, pressure communication in the absence of
flow communication and regions of low permeability that inhibit fluid flow.
• A discontinuous fluid distribution is indica- tive of a disruption of the normal fluid gradients that result from
primary and secondary migration of fluids during the hydrocarbon maturation process.
• This situation is further complicated by nonuniform temperature gradients; by reservoir restructuring during
burial, uplift and erosion; and by other hydrodynamic events.
• If these processes cease, the fluids will return to their steady-state condition over geologic time. 31
• The absence of a continuous fluid gradient implies nonequilibrium fluid distribution and possible
compartmentalization.
• In a normal burial sequence, later-stage hydrocarbon generation produces lighter hydrocarbons that rise until
they encounter a sealing element.
• The anomalous presence of lighter or lower density fluids at a point lower than expected in the oil column
suggests stacked reservoirs or vertical compartmentalization.
• Discontinuous distribution of asphaltenes is also an indicator of compartments.
• In particular, increased concentrations of asphaltenes higher in the oil column indicate the presence of a
sealing barrier (Fig 12).
• These dense asphaltene particles tend to sink, not float, in a single hydrocarbon column.
• The consequences of undetected compart- mentalization are reduced drainage efficiency and flow.
• With early identification of the degree and complexity of compartmentalization, engineers can design
appropriate development schemes to mitigate its impact.
• They can also make better-informed decisions related to pro- duction facilities and reservoir economics.
• In some cases, developing heavily compartmentalized reservoirs may be uneconomical, at least with current
technology and pricing.
• In the past, compartments were usually identified by well testing—drillstem tests (DSTs) and extended well
tests.
• In deep water DSTs can become impractical, with costs approaching those of drilling a new well.
Environmental issues from potential spills are also a concern.
• The most conclusive detection method is long- term production surveillance, but this may come too late for
mitigation. 32
Fig 12 Identifying compartments.
Pressure data show several disconnected sand intervals
(Track 2).
Large pressure differentials between Points C and D
indicate lack of connectivity.
DFA stations and fluid samples were taken at six depths:
Points A through F.
DFA color analysis (Track 3) shows distinct differences
between zones, as do the fluorescence data (Track 4).
Components with more color have a higher optical
density and should be at the bottom of the interval.
Their presence higher in the column suggests
compartmentalization.
Varying intensity levels of fluorescence indicate different
oil types.
The lack of continuity and gradient disruption strongly
imply many small disconnected compartments, which
ultimately led to abandonment of the well by the
operator.

33
• These hurdles to identifying compartmentalization are being addressed today through DFA Fluid Profiling
techniques.
• Before the availability of DFA, reservoir engineers looked at pressure communication to assess
compartmentalization and connectivity.
• This approach is better suited to detecting isolated or unconnected pockets in producing fields.
• In virgin reservoirs there may be no pressure differential between unconnected elements.
• Relying on pressure differentials can also be misleading because compartments may have pressure
communication in geologic time without flow communication in production time.
• A recent development in fluid analysis uses asphaltene concentration to indicate connectivity and flow
communication.

34
 Unlocking Reservoir Connectivity—Colloidal Nanoaggregates
• Asphaltene in oil is an example of a colloid—a mixture of one substance dispersed within another.
• Commonly consisting of an aromatic carbon core with peripheral alkane substituents, asphaltenes make heavy
oils “heavy” and give oil color.
• Asphaltene molecules readily combine—or aggregate—into small particles called nanoaggregates, which are
often their dominant form in crude oils. At high concentrations, nanoaggregates can further combine to form
clusters (Fig 13).
• Both the nanoaggregates and clusters are found as colloidal dispersions in crude oil.
• Fluids specialists use color from DFA measurements to estimate the concentration of asphaltenes in reservoir
fluids.
• Similarities in color can then be used to identify compositionally similar fluids from different locations within
a reservoir.
• This information is being used to infer flow connectivity and understand reservoir architecture.
• Asphaltene gradients are used to understand fluid distribution in a reservoir, and they can occur as a result of
GOR gradients.
• A characteristic of low-GOR fluids is that they can dissolve (or disperse) large amounts of asphaltenes.
• High- GOR fluids can dissolve very little asphaltene; methane, the simplest alkane, dissolves no asphaltenes.
• In addition, gravity segregation tends to concentrate asphaltenes at the base of a fluid column; the magnitude
of this effect is strongly influenced by the size of the asphaltene particles.
• Both GOR and gravity work to concentrate asphaltenes at the lowest point in the reservoir, while thermally
35
driven entropy tends to disperse the asphaltenes.
Fig 13 Asphaltene molecular structures.
Asphaltenes (left) can take many forms but are characterized as aromatic rings (green) with alkane chains.
The rings may be fused, meaning they share at least one side.
The rings may also contain heteroatoms such as sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, vanadium and nickel.
The molecule on the left contains a nitrogen [N] heteroatom.
Asphaltene molecules form nanoaggregates (center) in oils. High concentrations of nanoaggregates form clusters
(right) in heavy oils.
36
• Sealing barriers or flow restrictions disrupt the movement and migration of fluids and, as a consequence,
segregate fluids with different asphaltene concentrations.
• The presence of a discontinuous asphaltene concentration laterally or vertically within the reservoir explicitly
indicates a boundary to fluid flow.
• If the asphaltene gradient is the same across a reservoir, and especially if it is in equilibrium, connectivity is
implied because it takes geologic time and fluid movement to establish an equilibrated asphaltene gradient.
• Sealing barriers all but preclude equilibrium distributions of asphaltenes.
• It is now possible to model the distribution of asphaltenes within a reservoir once the asphaltene colloidal
particle size has been determined.
• This requires not only accurate measurement of the relative asphaltene concentration, but also an accurate
measurement of GOR vertically and laterally in the reservoir.
• The InSitu Fluid Analyzer service provides measurements with sufficient resolution and accuracy to compare
fluids across a reservoir.
• These data may then be incorporated into an equation of state (EOS) to model the asphaltene distribution.
• If the measured gradient fits the EOS model, connectivity is indicated.
• The ability of DFA to link asphaltene concentrations to connectivity was demonstrated by a multiwell,
multiyear study in the deepwater Gulf of Mexico Tahiti field.

37
 Asphaltenes, Colloids and Equilibrium
• Located approximately 190 mi [300 km] south of New Orleans, and in a water depth of 4,200 ft [1,280 m], the
Tahiti field discovery well was drilled in 2002. With a total depth of 28,411 ft [8,660 m], the well epitomizes the
potential risks and rewards of deepwater exploration, encountering more than 400 ft [122 m] of net pay.
• Subsequent appraisal wells found net-pay intervals in excess of 1,000 ft [300 m].
• Data from what was at that time the world’s deepest successful well test indicated a single-well production rate
greater than 30,000 bbl/d [4,800 m3/d].
• The reservoir consists of several stacked Miocene turbidite sand intervals buried beneath an 11,000-ft [3,353-
m] thick salt canopy.
• After the initial discovery two appraisal wells with sidetracks were drilled, and extensive pressure data, DFA
data and fluid samples were acquired for the producing intervals (Fig14).
• The two primary sand layers—the M21A and M21B—are in different pressure regimes, and pressure testing
• indicated these two main sand layers are compartmentalized (Fig 15).
• Lack of connectivity resulting from compart- mentalization is a significant risk in deepwater development
because its existence requires additional wells to contact untapped reserves.
• Extremely high well costs can make a project uneconomical.
• Because of the thick salt canopy overlying the Tahiti field, delineating reservoir architecture and potential
compartments from seismic data is challenging.
• Moreover, many sealing barriers are too thin to be visible in seis- mic data.
• To understand the reservoir connectivity, reservoir engineers have focused on the properties of sampled fluids.
• Data from 14 DFA sample stations in the M21 sands were analyzed in the study.
• Downhole and laboratory measurements show undersaturated black oil with GORs ranging from 550 to 650
ft3/bbl [99 to 117 m3/m3].
38
Fig 14 A geologic model showing the upper and lower horizons of the Tahiti field.
The steeply dipping beds of the deepwater Tahiti field, whose sands are shown here in this 3D facies model, lie beneath an 11,000-ft-
thick salt canopy.
Allochthonous salt buoyancy caused the field to tilt.
Since the reservoir is not a rigid body, tilting the field results in faulting.
The biggest risk factor in field development is whether these faults are transmissive and thus contribute to reservoir connectivity.
Seismic models cannot provide this information, but DFA data have proved beneficial in identifying connectivity within the39
field.
Fig 15 Tahiti field, two separate sands.
The petrophysical cross section (bottom) of the
Tahiti field, developed from several wells and
sidetracks (STs), exhibits considerable
heterogeneity.
The M21A and M21B sands are the primary
targets and, although similarly pressured, are in
two different pressure regimes (top left).
The two primary sands are thus disconnected.
The gas chromatography (GC) starplot diagram
(top right) indicates geochemical fingerprints
that distinguish M21A crude oils (blue) from
those from the M21B sand (red).
Oil from the M21A sand in a subsequent well,
drilled in the north area of the field, had its own
GC fingerprint (green), indicating possible
separation from the rest of the reservoir.

40
• Geochemical fingerprinting from gas chromatography confirmed pressure-data results: The M21A samples are
similar to but distinct from those recovered from the M21B sand.
• The DFA data indicated an asphaltene compositional gradient, as revealed by an increase in fluid color with
depth, in both sand bodies.
• This gradient was corroborated by laboratory fluids measurements.
• For development-well planning, engineers integrated information from this study to predict the DFA
measurements at proposed well locations.
• Synthetic Fluid Profiling logs, based on asphaltene analysis, were generated for a subsequent well and
matched the DFA data.
• This validated the model and verified connectivity within the sand layers found in the new well.
• Had there been no match, DFA stations could have been required for validation or the geologic model adjusted to
account for differences.
• In the Tahiti field, crud oil has a low GOR and is fairly incompressible, consequently gravity determines the asphaltene
distribution.
• In an EOS the gravity component consists of Archimedes buoyancy for the asphaltene nanoaggregate in a
Boltzmann distribution.
• Fluids experts developed an EOS model based on a fixed asphaltene particle size, correlating optical density to
depth.
• As an indication of connectivity, a simple equation was developed from field data that accounted for the
asphaltene distribution in almost the entire field.
41
• The first production well encountered black oil that correlated with the asphaltene concentration predicted
from the discovery- and appraisal-well data (Fig16).
• This analysis con- firms that the asphaltenes are in an equilibrium distribution in both the M21A and M21B
sands. Consequently, each sand is predicted to have large-scale connectivity.
• This prediction was later confirmed during production.
• Distinct asphaltene trends are visible in the data from the M21A and M21B sands (Fig17).
• A subsequent well drilled in the north section of the field revealed a lower concentration of asphaltenes in the
M21A sand than is found in wells drilled elsewhere.
• There was no pressure differential within the sand because the reservoir was at virgin pressure.
• With almost all other hydrocarbon properties being equal, the asphaltene distribution was the primary means
of determining a lack of connectivity between the northern well and the rest of the reservoir.
• Interpretation following reprocessing of the seismic data confirmed the possibility of fault separation between
the regions (Fig18).

42
Fig 16 Predicting DFA response.
The DFA spectrometer measures the optical density from
discrete channels focused on specific frequencies.
The OD is computed from these data and used to quantify
oil color.
Asphaltenes are the primary source of this color.
Using a modified Boltzmann distribution equation from
nanoaggregate particle-size estimations of the
asphaltenes, engineers developed a predictive color
model.
This model used DFA data from the original Tahiti
discovery well to predict the response of spectrometer
channels (shown as color bands in Track 3) for oil in a
subsequent development well.
The DFA data from the M21A and M21B sands (Track 2)
matched the model, suggesting reservoir connectivity.
Recent production data confirmed this connectivity,
validating the original model.

43
Fig 17 Optical density trends and asphaltene modeling.
The Boltzmann distribution model predicted color (OD) using a fixed particle size but with different asphaltene
concentrations.
Data from samples and the predictive model again demonstrate that the M21A (blue) and M21B (red) are two
separate sands.
Data from a subsequent well drilled in the northern area of the field (green) yields a different trend because oil from
the M21A sand in the northern section has a lower asphaltene concentration than that in the south and central 44
regions.
Fig 19 Vertical compositional gradient in a discovery well.
Pressure data and fluid analysis (left) show a transition from water (blue) to oil (green) to gas (red), indicated by
changes in the slope of the line.
Fluid analysis (center) from DFA data shows a gradient with increasing GOR (higher concentration of C1 and C2-5 gas
versus C6+ liquids) from the bottom to the top of the reservoir section.
This was confirmed by laboratory GOR measurements (right).
DFA measurements indicate a compositional gradient in the oil that was not apparent in the pressure data.
45
An equation of state (EOS) was developed from these data to predict the response in subsequent development wells.
 Integration Is the Key
• The downhole laboratory provides a wealth of real-time information. But if DFA data are to be maximally
utilized, it is important to treat them as pieces of a larger puzzle.
• Reservoir engineers integrate measured fluid properties with existing geologic models.
• Fluid predictions based on EOS models are either corroborated by the downhole measurements or the models
can be adapted to fit the data.
• For example, in 2002 a North Sea operator identified a large compositional gradient in a discovery well
containing oil and gas.
• DFA technology was fairly new, and the original sampling program was modified in real time to profile the
complex and depth-variant fluid properties.
• From analysis of the data, reservoir engineers picked the depth of the gas/oil contact (GOC) higher in the
reservoir and moved the oil/water contact (OWC) lower than originally modeled (Fig 19).
• The result was an increased reserves estimate.
• An EOS fluid model was later developed from the DFA data.
• In 2008 the operator drilled an injector well in the field.
• Reservoir engineers used the EOS model from the discovery well to predict pressures, fluid gradients, fluid
contacts and DFA log response for the new well.
• Engineers developed a predictive modeling workflow that integrated reservoir, EOS and fluid models (Fig 20).

46
Fig 18 Field-wide asphaltene concentrations.
This 3D model of the M21A reservoir shows asphaltene concentration versus depth that is consistent with an
equilibrium distribution of asphaltenes and indicates reservoir connectivity in the central and southern clusters
of wells.
The two well penetrations in the north show a similar but different distribution, which could indicate that this
area is separated by a fault.
A recent seismic reinterpretation also indicates a possible fault in this orientation. 47
Fig 20 DFA predictive modeling.
Data acquired in the discovery well (bottom right) are combined with reservoir and EOS models to predict DFA measurements in an
injector well drilled at a later date (top).
Because Station 2 did not match the prediction, a fifth station was taken, which matched the predicted response and confirmed the
original model.
The off-trend station was judged to be erroneous and discarded.
This is an example of real-time observations suggesting retesting.
48
Without the predictive model, the erroneous data could have resulted in an incorrect conclusion, such as compartmentalization.
• Both fluid equilibrium and flow connectivity were assumed.
• When the measured data from the new well were compared with those from the model, an outlier near the
GOC did not match.
• An extra station was selected, validating the original fluid model and allowing the erroneous data point to be
discarded.
• However, even with this correction, the second well encountered the GOC at a depth that was 18 m [59 ft]
higher than predicted, which required further refinement of the reservoir model.
• There were also significant differences between the predicted composition and the DFA measurements (Fig
21).
• Analysis of DFA data from a point just above the GOC indicated that slugging during pump out was affecting
the measurement.
• A spike in the fluorescence measurement caused by this two—phase flow was not being accounted for in the
model.

49
Fig21 Equation of state model.
Engineers developed an EOS model from the
discovery well data (top).
The calculated values (blue, red and black
curves) were compared with the DFA tool’s C1,
C2-5 and C6+ response (blue, red and black
symbols).
The model was then used to predict fluid
composition for the injector well (bottom).
Although the C1 and C2-5 data agree with the
model, the DFA C6+ data (green circles) are
considerably different from model predictions
above the GOC.
Slugging was determined to be the cause of
the discrepancy, and the data were later
reprocessed and corrected for this effect.

50
• Correcting the model for this condition improved the correlation with measured data but a discrepancy
remained by production data.
• Geologists believed that the two wells had their own separate gas caps but assumed they shared a common oil
reservoir with flow and pressure communication.
• The unexpected 18-m difference can be explained by two scenarios: lateral disequilibrium or
compartmentalization.
• To distinguish between these two possibilities, a color analysis of the heavy ends, or heavy components, of the
fluids was performed.
• The heavy ends would be mostly unaffected by two different GOCs; there is no heavy-end component in the
gas.
• If the sand is in a single compartment, then the heavy ends should grade continuously across the reservoir; if
the sand is compartmentalized, the heavy ends should show a discontinuous change. Data show that the color
is generally continuous (Fig 22).
• In addition, the EOS data suggest equilibrated heavy ends, indicating connectivity.
• This has since been confirmed by production data.

51
Fig 22 Color analysis between wells.
Well A color data from DFA measurements (blue dots) follow a consistent trend, although the deeper points have
more color than modeled data predictions (red curve).
The model assumes a fixed asphaltene particle size and outputs color based on asphaltene concentration.
Data from DFA measurements taken from Well B (green) plot on the model trend line at the top of the reservoir but
the deeper data points are above the line.
The observation from Well A data, that fluids in the lower part of the reservoir have more color than expected, is
reflected in Well B data.
Although this could be an indication of compartmentalization, it could also be explained by disequilibrium of the
fluids in the reservoir.
From production data engineers concluded that the two wells were not in separate compartments. 52
• Integration of data allows predictive testing of the reservoir to establish connectivity and fluid equilibrium.
• Fluids experts developed a sampling program beforehand from EOS fluid models and were able to validate
results when data initially deviated from the model.
• The ability to adjust the program in real time provides the reservoir engineer with a diagnostic tool for data
quality control.
• In this case, revisiting an anomalous data point confirmed the original model.
• Similarly, analysis of color and asphaltene gradients con- firmed reservoir connectivity when initial test
results were inconclusive.

53
 Resolving Deepwater Uncertainties
• Deepwater plays are becoming more common and fields are being discovered in areas whose water depths
made them unreachable not long ago.
• The risk-reward scenario in deepwater E&P goes beyond the potential for finding large accumulations of
untapped hydrocarbons; it encompasses development decisions that must be made with limited datasets.
• Reservoir connectivity is often the largest uncertainty, and no single measurement can provide a complete
solution.
• Pressure gradients have traditionally been used to confirm connectivity, as well as to compute fluid density and
detect fluid contacts.
• The success of this technique depends on the number of data points as well as their locations within the
reservoir column.
• Discontinuous reservoir sec- tions, thinly laminated sands and supercharging can distort or confound the
interpretation.
• Abrupt changes in fluid density within a fluid column are expected at the OWC and GOC, but when detected
within the oil column, they indicate the potential for compartmentalization.
• A new sensor that measures live-fluid density was employed in an offshore West Africa stacked- sand reservoir.
The deepwater vertical appraisal well was drilled in a water depth of 1,000 m [3,280 ft].
• The objectives of the well were to assess hydrocarbon potential, evaluate fluid properties, determine fluid
contacts and identify the presence of compositional grading.
• Data were acquired from an MDT tool equipped with two InSitu Family sensors.
54
• One sensor was located in the focused-probe assembly and a second was in the InSitu Fluid Analyzer module.
• The pressure-sampling program included 56 pressure pretests along with fluid profiling and sampling at
seven depths across the reservoir interval.
• A technique using an excess-pressure plot indicated pressure communication within the reservoir and a single
producing unit with compositional grading.
• Three gradients were identified, corresponding to water, oil and gas— all in pressure communication (Fig 23).
• A measurement station that included the InSitu Density sensor was performed at 1,754.5 m [5,756 ft] MD,
which is near the top of the oil zone.
• Laboratory PVT analysis of the recovered fluid from that station yielded an oil density of 0.70 g/cm3.
• The InSitu Density sensor measured a density of 30.71 g/cm .
• These values compare favorably with each other—within 0.01 g/cm3, the accuracy typical of fluid density
measurements made in the con- trolled environment of a laboratory.
• With DFA data that included fluid density, the operator was able to quickly analyze the fluid composition,
determine fluid contacts and assess reservoir connectivity.
• Because the Fluid Profiling technique revealed no sealing features or potential compartmentalization, the
operator was able to proceed with the original development plan.

55
Fig 23 Fluid contacts from pressure and InSitu
Density data.
Fifty-six pressure points were sampled to
construct a pressure profile curve (Track 1).
Data indicate fluid changes at 1,798 m and
1,748 m.
The fluid composition data from the InSitu
Fluid Analyzer module show oil and gas (Track
2).
Stations A, B and C confirm that the oil density
(red triangles) is consistent throughout the oil
interval.
From this analysis the operator confirmed the
fluid density, quickly identified fluid contacts
and developed a subsequent DST program
that validated the DFA analysis.

56
 Downhole Laboratory of the Future
• What began as a means of quantifying sample qual- ity has evolved into laboratory-grade measurements that
quantify in situ fluid properties.
• As the nature of DFA measurements such as the InSitu Family service expands, so too have applications.
• The future of DFA may take two directions: LWD-based services and new measurements.
• Today, service companies have tools that can pro- vide pressure profiles while drilling.
• Eventually, elements of the downhole fluids laboratory will be incorporated into these services, enabling the
measurement of real-time fluid properties before deep invasion of drilling fluids occurs.
• New techniques are also in development, such as an accurate measurement of in situ fluid viscos- ity and
concentrations of other components.
• Viscosity, for example, has significant impact on fluid recovery and therefore field economics.
• However, surface measurements of viscosities often include a host of effects that may render them inaccurate
or invalid.
• To better understand the reservoir and maximize production, reservoir engineers will be able to use viscosity
measurements to analyze fluids flowing from the reservoir before they undergo phase changes due to pressure
and temperature variations.
• Reservoir development will never be as simple as inserting a long straw into a lake of crude oil and sucking it
out.
• For now, however, the reservoir engineer has an extensive portable laboratory to send downhole and help 57
unravel the complexity of in situ fluids, while also helping clarify understanding of reservoir architecture.
THANK YOU

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