Chapter 8

DNA: the molecule of heredity

Overview

▪ What Is the Structure of DNA?

▪ How Does DNA Encode Genetic
Information?
▪ How Does DNA Replication Ensure
Genetic Constancy During Cell Division?
▪ What Are Mutations, and How Do They
Occur?

▪ How Does Gene Expression and

Regulation Occur?

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STRUCTURE OF DNA
(DeoxyriboNucleic Acid)

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 ▪ The structure of the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecule
was first inferred by James Watson and Francis Crick
based primarily on x-ray crystallography data collected by
Macurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin, and chemical
analysis of base composition of DNA conducted by Irwin
Chargaff.

DNA is polymer composed of four nucleotides

▪ Each nucleotide has three components:

1. A phosphate group
2. A deoxyribose sugar
3. One of four nitrogen-containing bases:
− Thymine (T)
− Cytosine (C)
− Adenine (A)
− Guanine (G)

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 DNA is composed of four nucleotides

phosphate phosphate

base = thymine

sugar
base = adenine sugar

phosphate phosphate

base = cytosine

sugar sugar
base = guanine

DNA is a double helix of two nucleotide

strands
1. A molecule of DNA is long and thin,
with a uniform diameter of 2 nanometers

2. DNA is a righthanded-double helix

3.DNA has repeating subunits named

nucleotides

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 In one strand of DNA

▪ The phosphate group of

one nucleotide bonds to
the sugar of the next
nucleotide in the same
strand
▪ The deoxyribose and
phosphate portions
make up the sugar-
phosphate backbone
▪ The nitrogen bases
project toward the
interior of each strand

In one strand of DNA

▪ Hydrogen bonds hold

the base pairs together

▪ Guanine-Cytosine
base pairs form 3
hydrogen bonds
▪ Adenine-Thymine
base pairs form 2
hydrogen bonds
▪ A=T
▪ G=C
Chargaff’s rule
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DNA is a double helix of 2 nucleotide strands

▪ Adenine and guanine

are large molecules;
thymine and cytosine
are relatively smaller
▪ Because base pairing
always places a large
molecule with a small
one, the diameter of the
double helix remains
constant of 2 nanometers

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DNA is a double helix of 2 nucleotide strands

▪ The two strands in a

DNA are antiparallel;
they are oriented in
opposite directions
▪ One strand: starts with
the free sugar and
ends with the free
phosphate
▪ The other strand:
starts with the free
phosphate and ends
with the free sugar

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 Summary of DNA structure
▪ DNA consists of nucleotides that are linked into long strands.

▪ Each nucleotide consists of a phosphate group, the five-carbon sugar

deoxyribose, and a nitrogen-containing base. Four types of bases occur
in DNA: adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine.

▪ The sugar of one nucleotide is linked to the phosphate of the next

nucleotide, forming a sugar-phosphate backbone for each strand. The
bases stick out from this backbone.

▪ Two nucleotide strands wind together to form a DNA double helix.

▪ Only complementary base pairs can bond together in the helix: Adenine
bonds with thymine, and guanine bonds with cytosine. A=T. G=C

▪ The two strands in a DNA are antiparallel; they are oriented in opposite
directions

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Practice

▪ An DNA molecule has in total 1500 nucleotides.

Knowing that there are 400 Adenine nucleotides. How
many nucleotides of Cytosine, Thymine, Guanine in this
DNA molecule?

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 Practice

▪ An DNA molecule has in total 1500 nucleotides.

Knowing that there are 400 Adenine nucleotides. How
many nucleotides of Cytosine, Thymine, Guanine in this
DNA molecule?
▪ A=T=400
▪ G + C= total nucleotide – (A+T)= 1500- (400+400)=700
▪ G=C= 700/2= 350

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Practice

▪ If one strand of DNA has nucleotide sequence:

ATTCGAGGCCTTAT
Write the nucleotide sequence of the remaining (second)
strand of DNA.

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 Practice

▪ If one strand of DNA has nucleotide sequence:

ATTCGAGGCCTTAT
Write the nucleotide sequence of the remaining (second)
strand of DNA.
➢ 1st strand: ATTCGAGGCCTTAT
➢ 2nd strand:TAAGCTCCGGAATA

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How Does DNA Encode Genetic

Information?

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 How Does DNA Encode Information?

▪ How can a DNA molecule with only 4 simple

subunits (A, T, G, C) be the carrier of genetic
information?
▪ The key lies in the sequence, not number, of
subunits
▪ Within a DNA strand, the four types of bases can
be arranged in any linear order, and each unique
sequence of nucleotide represents a unique set of
genetic instruction.
▪ For example: if a DNA is 4- nucleotide length, how
many sequences of DNA can be created?

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How Does DNA Encode Information?

▪ For example: if a DNA is 4- nucleotide length, how
many sequences of DNA can be created?
▪ The possible DNA sequences:
▪ AAAA
▪ TTTT
▪ GGGG
▪ CCCC
▪ ATTT
▪ GTTT
▪ CTTT
▪ AATT
▪ GGTT………….
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DNA provides instructions for protein synthesis

DNA can not

directly synthesize
proteins. It directs
protein synthesis
through
intermediary
molecules of
ribonucleic acid -
RNA

Trait
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 Gene expression: Transcription, translation
▪ Information in DNA is used to
synthesize protein in two
steps:

- Transcription, the transfer of

genetic information from
DNA into an RNA molecule

- Translation, the transfer of

information from RNA into a
protein
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Transcription: From DNA to RNA

▪ RNA is single strand

▪ RNA is composed of ribonucleotide.

▪ One ribonucleotide comprises of: phosphate group,

ribose sugar, nitrogen-containing base ( Adenine,
Uracil, Guanine, Cytosine)

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 Transcription:
From DNA to
RNA

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Transcription: From DNA to RNA

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 Transcription

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Translation: from mRNA to protein

Translation is the process by

which the sequence of
nucleotides in a mRNA directs
the assembly of the correct
sequence of amino acids in the
corresponding polypeptide

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 Three types of RNA required for protein synthessis

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Translation: from
mRNA to protein

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 Translation uses complementary base pairing between
mRNA codons and tRNA anti-codons

tRNAs
Ribosome

mRNA

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Gene 1

DNA molecule
Gene 2
Gene 3

DNA strand

TRANSCRIPTION

RNA

TRANSLATION Codon

Polypeptide
Amino acid

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 Genes express differently in different cells, at different
environments

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How is gene expression regulated?

▪ Control can happen at

several points in the
process

▪ Control to turn on/turn

off protein production

▪ Control amount of
protein production

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 DNA Replication

▪ All cells come from pre-existing cells

▪ Cells reproduce by dividing in half

▪ Each of two daughter cells gets an exact copy

of parent cell’s genetic information

▪ Duplication of the parent cell DNA is called

replication

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DNA Replication
▪ DNA replication begins
when DNA helicases
separate the two strands

– Hydrogen bonds between

bases are broken

▪ A second strand of new

DNA is synthesized by
DNA polymerases, which
position free nucleotides
across from complementary
nucleotides

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DNA Replication

▪ Base pairing is the foundation of DNA replication

– An adenine on one strand pairs with a thymine on
the other strand; a cytosine pairs with guanine
– If one strand reads ATG, the other reads TAC

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DNA Replication

The two resulting

DNA molecules
have one old
parental strand and
one new strand
(semiconservative
replication)

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 Practice

▪ If a parental DNA strand has the base sequence A-T-T-G-

C-A-C-T, in DNA replication DNA polymerase would
synthesize a new strand with the sequence:
A.A-T-T-G-C-A-C-T.
B.T-A-A-C-G-T-G-A.
C.C-G-G-T-A-C-A-G.
D.The sequence of the new strand cannot be determined
from the information given.

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Mutations

What are mutations?

– Mutations: infrequent changes in the nucleotide
sequence

– often harmful- can cause organism to die quickly

– Some have no functional effect

– Some may be beneficial and provide an advantage

to an organism in certain environments (basis for
evolution)

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 DNA mutation
DNA is damaged in a number of
ways
▪ Certain toxic chemicals (some
components of cigarette
smoke)
▪ Some type of radiations: UV
light from the sun causes DNA
damage
▪ DNA damage leads to
synthesize wrong protein or
gene not functions…, causing
disease and cancer
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Types of Mutations

▪ Point mutation - individual nucleotide in the

DNA sequence is changed
▪ Insertion mutation - one or more nucleotide
pairs are inserted into the DNA double helix
▪ Deletion mutation - one or more nucleotide
pairs are removed from the double helix
▪ Substitution mutation – one or more
nucleotide are replaced by one or other
nucleotides

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Types of Mutations

▪ Inversion - piece of DNA is cut out of a

chromosome, turned around, and re-inserted
into the gap
▪ Translocation - chunk of DNA (often very
large) is removed from one chromosome and
attached to another

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 Effects of mutations

▪ Inversion and translocations: if a gene is split in two,

it will no longer code for a functional protein.

▪ Deletion and insertion: cause incorrect protein with

non-functional

▪ Substitutions: cause changed or unchanged amino

acid, or incomplete protein by premature stop codon

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Types of Mutations

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 Types of Mutations

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Effects of mutations

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 Summary

▪ DNA structure determines its functions as store, transmit, and help

express genetic information.

▪ DNA replication to ensure genetic constancy during cell division.

▪ Genetic flow from Gene (DNA) to RNA to Protein via

transcription and translation -> Gene expression

▪ Gene regulation to control the amount and time of protein

products

▪ Mutations can occur in DNA sequence and can cause disease

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